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An Illustrated Handbook of Vernacular Architecture
... The church is built on the site of an earlier one, burned by the Tatars during the invasion of 1717. This is a subsidiary of the basic definition employed by Brunskill (2000), as the usual way of building in a place, based on climatic constraints and cultural norms. ...
... 1978; Warland 1929). A rudimentary taxonomy of masonry styles (see Figure 1) reflects the major variations that confront the evaluator (Brunskill 1978). Random rubble requires the least dressing of the individual stones, through to highly worked ashlar that is associated with tightly jointed beds and perpends. ...
Masonry construction is ubiquitous and is most typically employed for the construction of fundamental structural architectural elements. It is thus extremely important in architectural conservation , and visual survey, recording and documentation often start with such primary elements. Recording has, however, traditionally been a laborious manual process yielding variable and subjective outcomes. This situation is exacerbated by the need to involve experts to interpret the recorded data, which further increases costs. Recent and ongoing advances in digital reality capture and computer vision afford notable advantages in extracting value from point cloud data with benefits to conservative repair, maintenance, and wider architectural intervention. In this paper, we build on our previous research by the authors and present bespoke algorithms brought together as a 'digital toolkit' to automatically segment point clouds into individual masonry units and further characterisation of each unit to support architectural interpretation. The use of this digital toolkit is illustrated using a wall section of Linlithgow Palace (Scotland, UK) as a case study, but it must be emphasised that this form of construction typifies innumerable buildings globally. The toolkit has shown to facilitate rapid and systematic identification of change in masonry construction styles, sizes and geometry, and, when used in conjunction with traditional survey evaluation, it meaningfully assists interpretative capabilities. This combined approach is termed 'digitally assisted analytical recording' and it offers the promise of yielding more cost-effective, accurate survey for interpretation. ARTICLE HISTORY
... Historic villages, as a type of cultural heritage, have important historical, artistic and scientific values, and their protection is a universal concern around the world [1][2][3]. China maintains a large number of historic villages. ...
This paper aims to propose an approach to automatically identify historic villages from remote sensing images based on deep learning algorithm and accurately calculate the villages’ geographical coordinates. Experimental datasets of Conghua, a typical region in fast development that retains many historic villages, are designated for training and testing. Comparison experiments of two recognition models, image classification and object detection, are designed to obtain the most suitable identification algorithm. GIS platform is adopted to visualize the distribution of the historic villages. The results show that first, the recognition accuracy of the image classification algorithm is 90.79%. However, visualization of test results shows the identified area is not a village but a surrounding. Second, the recognition accuracy of an object detection algorithm can reach 95.61%, which indicates that the algorithm is accurate and efficient. Third, by using the Historical-Modern tag as a filter, a village with a certain proportion of historic features according to specific requirements may be discriminated. Finally, 1531 historic villages in Conghua area were identified by the preferred algorithm, and their spatial locations were marked. This research will extend the detection of remote sensing image targets of deep learning algorithms from single buildings to group patterns and complex ground objects, so as to promote the integration of heritage conservation and artificial intelligence research. This time-efficiency approach can provide strong support for the discovery and field investigation of historic villages facing fast development and provide a scientific basis for the formulation of conservation policies.
Article Highlights
Deep learning is applied to the protection of the cultural heritage of historic villages.
Comparative experiments of different algorithms are designed to analyse their applicability in historic village recognition. A recognition rate of up to 95.61% is achieved.
The visualization of recognition results is important for understanding the relationship between historic villages and nature, and historic village conservation.
... Brunskill suggested a classification system for vernacular structures based on their intended use. Domestic arrangements, such as private residences, rest houses, and leisure houses, are designed for living purposes [21]. Traditional design concepts focus on the function, energy efficiency, human comfort, aesthetics, and economic feasibility of a space, all while considering and adapting to the local environment and culture [22]. ...
The idea of sustainability is based on three pillars—environmental, economic, and social—per the Brundtland report. Housing is a type of architecture with which any occupant can connect. It is a place that supports an occupant’s physical, emotional, cultural, and social needs, which support their consciousness. The methodology used here includes an extensive literature review, followed by data collection and analysis in order to understand, achieve, and balance sustainability and its metrics. We could see an evident gap in current green building rating systems regarding the inclusion of social and cultural indicators. There is an inclination for quantitative approaches, such as energy, the environment, and resources. We found that it is viable to identify, recognize, and determine social and cultural indicators that are both tangible and intangible. In most research regarding the sustainable built environment, the participation and feedback are limited to industry experts and professionals, and residents are excluded. This study attempted to fill this gap by collecting data from Indian residents, thus validating social and cultural indicators according to occupants’ needs. With the help of indicators discovered in the literature review and by strengthening them further with data collection, a holistic framework was developed to achieve sustainability for housing.
... Vernacular architectures have been a subject of academic interest since the nineteenth-century (AlSayyad 2006;Oliver 1997).Official interest in vernacular buildings developed through the building conservation movement (Brunskill 2000). The increase of courses and research programs in the last two decades reveal its significance. ...
The emergence of the new types of vernacular houses shows the evidence of change leaping fromthe popular image of the traditional Thai houses. The change is impacted from many factors includingcontemporary cultural needs. New vernaculars, which are found in the central Thailand, are the transformingThai houses and the reproduction Thai houses. These two occurrences began since the 1960s (forthe first type) and the 1990s (for the second type). The vernacular houses were surveyed in Pak Kranvillage and Bang Pahun area in Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya province during the 2000s. These new vernacularhouses have developed from the traditional Thai house among other modern housing developments.However, there is lacking of awareness and understanding of the change. Most of the policies from Thaigovernment, study courses and research topics have focused only on the image in the past. Accordingly,contemporary vernaculars tend to be disregarded. For recalibrating the new vernaculars in this paper, thereare three main subjects: 1. the viewpoints on vernacular architectures both from local and internationalscholars; 2. the definitions and previous studies relating to vernaculars; and 3. the establishment of the newvernacular architectures, which closely relate to the traditional Thai house. This paper involves developingan understanding of vernaculars as well as providing ways to expand the scope of vernacular studies.
... L'architecture vernaculaire ou endogène: essai de clarification La réflexion menée dans le cadre de cette recherche nous a conduit à nous intéresser à l'architecture endogène au Cameroun (Dzou-Tsanga 2016), architecture également appelée vernaculaire. Pour mieux assoir notre réflexion théorique, nous allons nous appuyer sur les travaux antérieurs qui concernent l'architecture vernaculaire (Brunskill 1978;Guindant et Doepper 1990;Varin 1993;Frey 2010;Essessé 2021) ainsi que l'urbanisme vernaculaire (Lassure 1983;Viaro et Ziegler 1983;Oliver 1997). En s'inspirant de ces multiples travaux, on peut définir les pratiques traditionnelles comme un type spécifique d'architecture rencontré à une époque donnée, dans un pays, un territoire, une aire géographique ou culturelle bien précise. ...
frCet article aborde la question de l'architecture vernaculaire ou endogène dans les villes camerounaises à partir d'une étude de cas de la concession familiale Bamiléké en tant que forme bien spécifique d'organisation de l'habitat au sein de la communauté traditionnelle de Pète-Bandjoun. Tel que décrit dans le texte, la concession comprend les unités spatiales suivantes: les espaces verts, la délimitation de la concession, la cour intérieure, la décharge familiale, l'environnement magico-religieux, le cimetière familial, l'habitation autochtone et ses principales unités fonctionnelles (la cuisine, les toilettes, le grenier, etc.). Les auteurs proposent de considérer la concession familiale Bamiléké comme un important savoir endogène, un patrimoine culturel matériel et immatériel, qui doit être préservé et intégré aux processus actuels d'urbanisme.
The Bamiléké family estate as an instance of endogenous architecture in Cameroon
en This paper addresses the issue of vernacular or endogenous architecture and design in Cameroonian cities. More precisely, we study the traditional Bamiléké family estate as a specific type of housing and property structure within the community of Pète-Bandjoun. According to our research, these estates usually involve the following spatial units: green spaces, a delineating structure, a courtyard, the family landfill, the magico-religious place, the family cemetery, the dwelling itself, and the dwelling's main functional units (kitchen, toilets, attic, etc.). We suggest the idea that the Bamiléké family estate is in itself an important source of endogenous knowledge related to architecture and planning. Moreover, it is a tangible and intangible cultural heritage which should be preserved in Cameroon despite widespread urbanization.
... Sometimes it is also called as traditional architecture, although some references distinguish these two terms. According to Brunskill (2000), although there are links between them, traditional architecture would not be included as part of vernacular architecture. ...
The use of bamboo as building material has been ascending recently due to the rise in public environmental awareness. Bamboo is one of the most sustainable building materials. It is a renewable resource that grows quickly. As a low-energy building material in its natural form, bamboo is traditionally associated with the cultures of Asia and South America. Its strength, enormous availability, and easy workability have made it a dominant building material throughout much of the world, where it has grown natively for centuries. Its use in modern, mainstream construction, however, is rare. A few pioneering architects and engineers in South America and South East Asia have demonstrated bamboo’s potential for high-end buildings, but they remain the exceptions.
Despite this progress, using bamboo as a structural material remains difficult, especially as a tension element. Although bamboo has extremely high tensile strength, the lack of a joining system to accommodate its strength makes the application uneasy. The characteristics of the bamboo itself generate the difficulties in bamboo joinery. The round shape and cavities inside the bamboo are two of those characteristics. Therefore, it is a special task to develop tension loadable joints to expand the range of structural applications of anisotropic bamboo pole.
The main objective of this phenomenological and experimental research was to propose new tension loadable bamboo joints. The secondary objective was to classify bamboo constructions and bamboo joints to put the proposed bamboo joints in a context. The development of new bamboo joints classification was based on the classification by Janssen (2000).
Three types of tensile loadable bamboo joints were proposed: utilizing the hollowness of bamboo; using the outer part of bamboo by enlacing a steel wire; and employing the shear and the bearing strength of bamboo by attaching perpendicular elements. After a comparison study, the chosen lashing-based bamboo joints were developed in an experimental research. A loop of steel wire using a kind of lasso knot was twined around the bamboo in such way that it will tighten by pulling the wire. Tension force induced in the steel wire by an element inserted inside the cavity of the bamboo was converted to radial compression perpendicular to the fibers to the center of the pole causing a circumferential stress in bamboo.
Preliminary tests were conducted to determine the radial compression strength of the bamboo. There were two types of winding: one and three hemispherical-windings. The result of these tests was used to calculate the load capacity of the joint under radial compression.
After calculating the strength of the joint in each component against its corresponding load, three samples of lashing joints with eye-bolts were tested. Two types of failures happened: the wire sliced the bamboo after the rings slipped into the holes; and the wire broke off. The average strength of the joints of 34.09 kN almost passed the ultimate strength of the used steel wire.
Based on the results above, the joint was improved by replacing the eye-bolt with a rod and some cross-dowels in such a way that similar lashing technique can be multiplied in every joint. As a result, it spread the force over a wider surface area of bamboo, and it was called bamboo joint with multi knots.
The tension tests on the bamboo joints with multi knots showed an expected result, as the failures of three samples happened in the rods when they broke off. The average tensile strength was 77.91 kN, beyond the ultimate strength of the used M16 rod. This type of failure is very important, because the user can predict the strength of this joint more precisely. After using a bamboo with approximately similar diameter and wall thickness, the strength of bamboo joint with multi knots can be customized. After the rod with certain tensile strength is chosen, the number of knots in accordance with the strength of each wire can be determined.
Developed from traditional lashing techniques, this bamboo joint with multi knots provides a relatively cheap and easy joint, which can be made even by an unskilled worker. Therefore, this joint can bolster the utilization of bamboo pole as a tension element in vernacular bamboo construction. Furthermore, the capability to transfer both tensile and compression force without eccentricity makes this joint also suitable for space structures.
... He believed that these villages were built by untrained amateurs, following local customs. Most of the materials selected came from local and only a few used foreign materials e material of the building and the function of the building has a crucial influence on the shape, and the aesthetics is often only ranked second [2]. ese concepts embody the common denominator of communities around the world that have much less in common than the differences between them in terms of construction methods and construction ideas, and the current state of conservation is precarious and will continue. ...
With the globalization of the world economy and the integration and heterogeneity of cultures, the collision between traditional settlements and local traditional culture, traditional culture and modern culture is gradually reduced. Traditional cultures, traditional settlements, and traditional architectural forms have gradually declined. Therefore, in the context of globalization, people are more concerned about how to recognize, understand, and inherit these traditions and traditional ways of life in the context of today’s society and how to combine with the needs of contemporary communities to create an outdoor space suitable for human survival. However, due to the lack of research on traditional wind-heat conditions, there is no feasible evaluation method. Taking a typical village in Lianjiang County, Fuzhou as an example, various factors affecting wind-heat conditions in traditional villages are discussed in this paper. The CFD simulation technology is used to simulate and compare various types of settlements, and the wind and thermal environment around are compared and evaluated in detail and carried out in-depth research on it. By summarizing the general rules of natural ventilation of traditional residential buildings in Beigan Township, Lianjiang County, and Fuzhou, it is expected to be helpful to today’s ecological construction. In order to construct a new type of energy-saving and land-saving community, some feasible methods and ideas are put forward to make it more realistic.
... The artifacts belonging to vernacular architecture can be broadly classified into various categories: domestic, agricultural, industrial, religious, etc. Each of these categories can be further divided into subcategories: for instance, domestic architectures can be further divided according to the place (city, countryside, etc.) and to the dimension, but other differences can be taken into consideration (Brunskill, 1988). The technical-constructive solutions and the materials used in vernacular architectures strongly depend on the geographic features of the place where they are located: materials can be found on site and in surrounding areas, but climatic conditions, together with social and cultural aspects also play an important role. ...
... Mimari antropoloji, yalnızca mimari mekân ve insan davranışların antropolojik çözümlenmesi problemine odaklanmaz (Low 2017). Mimariyi oluşturan mekânın fiziksel özellikleri yanında, kültürel bağlam çerçevesinde yüklenmiş, anlamsal yönler ve döngüler üzerine de tartışmalar sunar (Brunskill 1971). ...
As an interdisciplinary approach, architectural anthropology emerged after post-colonial studies to deal with the relationship of cultural forms with ethnicity. Anthropological approaches have been blended with architectural methods and perspectives, and the main discussion has been the impact of ethnic origin and culture on architectural formation. However, it is not clear where the boundaries of architectural anthropology begin or end. This study demonstrates that architectural anthropology organizes the field of knowledge by using the approaches and methods of anthropology and architecture together. The primary method of the paper is based on qualitative research and theoretical reading. The paper was written to fill the gap in literature, including 'architectural anthropology' centred theoretical approaches written in Turkish.
Keywords: Architectural Space, Anthropology, Architectural Anthropology, Human, Space, Culture
... Burnskill (1988) suggests a classification system for vernacular structures based on their intended use. Domestic arrangements, such as private residences, rest houses, and leisure houses, are designed for living purposes (BRUNSKILL, 1988). Traditional design concepts focus on space's function, energy efficiency, human comfort, aesthetics, and economic feasibility, all while considering and adapting to the local environment and culture (FORUZANMEHR, 2008). ...
... (Noble, 2007) However, according to Ronald Bronsikil, vernacular architecture is formed by untrained amateurs whose source of guidance is conventions made in their locality. (Brunskill, 1978) In Rapaport's opinion, the term only refers to specific buildings in a particular geographical context in response to physical and cultural environments. It uses local techniques and local manufacturing processes and produces specific typological models. ...
Vernacular architecture is highly compatible with local conditions and is often referred to as environmentally friendly and sustainable architecture. Today, due to issues that threaten the environment, re-paying attention to these compatibility methods and their application in contemporary architecture can be one of the priorities of architectural planning. This research seeks to answer the question of how vernacular architecture in mountainous regions is formed in order to adapt to local characteristics and particularly the role of semi-open spaces in this coordination. The article is a case study of the residential units in Kang village, Torqabeh city, Khorasan Razavi province, Iran. For this purpose, the physical variables of the village, including how the village texture and its thoroughfares were established and formed, mass and space structure, the configuration of residential units and the formation of closed, open, and semi-open spaces, material types, building techniques, and construction details, and issues related to the openings of residential units are studied in 35 house samples of the village. The result shows that the physical planning of the village, in accordance with the principles proposed in the Mahoney table for cold semi-arid climates, causes the most passive heating. Examination of the physical characteristics of the semi-open spaces in relation to the residential unit shows that these spaces play a major role in coordinating the building with the coldness of the region.
... The studies of Amos Rapoport, Brunskill (1971) and Paul Oliver, and the book "Atlas of Vernacular Architecture of the World" by Velinga, Oliver, and Bridge (Velinga et al., 2008) are among the most important sources for research being conducted on vernacular architecture. Another influential study is "Vernacular Architecture in the Twenty-First Century: Theory, Education and Practice," which was prepared under the editorship of Lindsay Asquith and Marcel Vellinga (2006). ...
This study focuses on the potential for effectively using knowledge about vernacular architecture in programs of architectural education and it proposes a course as a mean of doing so. The first section emphasizes the importance of vernacular architecture in education through an extensive literature review. In the second section, the details of a course developed by the researchers called Learning from Vernacular Architecture (LF-VA), which consists of the components 'learning,' 'internalization' and 'interpretation,' are examined along with the outcomes of a questionnaire-based survey that was administered to students who enrolled in the class. The primary aim of the questionnaire was to observe whether or to what extent the course and its methods attained their objectives. The questionnaire results demonstrated that LF-VA not only led to a significant increase in awareness among students about vernacular architecture but also showed that the course proved to be a useful and unique mean of transferring knowledge about how it can be applied.
... Stone tiles were graded, with the biggest laid at the eaves with courses of diminishing size to the ridge. Stone tiles were laid at quite a steep pitch, 50 degrees or more, being pegged or nailed to laths that were attached to the rafters (Brunskill 1978). ...
Kingswell Street and Woolmonger Street are integral to
our understanding of the layout and development of the
medieval town of Northampton. The site is close to the
heart of early Northampton and excavation has revealed
a sequence of development that relates to the broader
pattern of town growth.
In the mid-10th to early 11th centuries there was a large
late Saxon cellared structure, similar to others found
within the early town, although this area was marginal to
the main focus of late Saxon occupation in Northampton.
The cellar was succeeded by a Saxo-Norman timber
building on the same alignment, although the larger part
of the site was open ground, and the roads appear to have
been less formally defined.
Intensive occupation of the site did not occur until the
13th-14th centuries when property boundaries were defined
by areas of quarrying. Four medieval buildings were constructed
within these plots, including a malthouse and a
bakehouse. The arrangement of the buildings emphasised
the formalisation of both adjacent streets for the first time,
although a continuous frontage was not in evidence.
Pottery of the 15th century was sparse, seemingly due
to documented civil improvements on Kingswell Street in
1641, but the frontage was developed during this century.
Occupation of a medieval building on the Kingswell Street
frontage continued in the 16th-17th centuries, with cess
pits to the rear. There was no evidence for the Great Fire
of Northampton in 1675.
The 17th-18th-century frontage contained at least
one surviving medieval building, but this was lost with
the erection of new buildings in the 19th century. Clay
tobacco-pipemaking debris helped to identify the tenement
of Master tobacco-pipemaker, George Henshaw (1767-
1774) at 15 Kingswell Street. His tenure formed part of
a substantial documented history of the site for the later
post-medieval period.
... Malay architecture that relied on oral tradition showed the existence of vernacular architecture criteria when the building was built without certain systems, involving the construction plan, the architect of the special and specific knowledge regarding architecture and design. This is in line with Brunskill (2000) view of vernacular architecture, a building designed by amateurs without any training or knowledge in architecture. ...
Vernacular is said to be derived from the Latin term vernaculus which means domestic or local which means 'place'. However, in this context, the vernacular traditions clearly emphasize the conditions, local materials, environment and behavior as well as local customs that focus on traditional Malay society. This is reflected in the architecture that can be studied with the senses dependent on the thoughts and views of the community. Among them is the architecture of old Malay building. Research vernacular aspect of old Malay architecture displays a close link exists or affinity with nature and the community trust, which is the main source of living of the people. In fact, the nature and confidence in ensuring the community's ability to meet the objectives of old Malay income, as a protective domain, not only of the current situation, even include descriptions of culture. In this case, the old Malay architecture have been identified in the text of the Malay historiography, historical documentation as the material of the Malays. Hence, to highlight the description of the vernacular architecture of the old Malay, research will be conducted on the texts, intended to show the relationship of the Malay community with nature and belief, thus explaining its ability to meet the objectives of the production building old Malay, include their role as protectors of the current situation and highlights the value of Malay culture.
... s made clear by its inclusion on the Council's Heritage at Risk Register, the Thompson report, and the subsequent Weald and Downland Museum/South Downs National Park restoration. This report, it is hoped, will add to the corpus of knowledge on this cart shed, in particular, and, more generally, the study of vernacular agricultural buildings. R. W. Brunskill's. (1987) Illustrated Handbook of Vernacular Architecture is an important inspiration for this project, as is the ongoing work of local and national vernacular studies groups. ...
A survey of a vernacular agricultural shed, circa 1800. The structure features the late use of medieval framing techniques and re-used frame components of unknown date. Up Marden West Sussex. The report is for inclusion on the Chichester District HER
... Vernacular architecture from Maramures (Romania) is a well-defined concept, comprising the traditional way of building in wood developed by local masters upon traditional knowledge (Dancus, 2010). This is a subsidiary of the basic definition employed by Brunskill (2000), as the usual way of building in a place, based on climatic constraints and cultural norms. Climatic limitations refer to conditions such as natural setting, type of wood, land use, as well as harvesting season. ...
Maramures Land is a Romanian historical and ethnographic region
known as “the land of the wooden civilisation” due to high concentration of vernacular architecture in wood and remarkable virgin forests. Preservation of the architectural heritage has a long standing history as debate subject: authorities and stakeholders recognise its endangered status and complicated evolving paths. Therefore, this paper looks at the specifics of the discourse regarding vernacular architecture in Maramures - heritage sites and common structures - in order to outline the preservation strategies developed along the last twenty years, focusing on policies, programmes, local initiatives and impact. The main result is a multi-scale analysis on a geo-database with the traditional buildings in the rural area of the region. In addition, the timeline revealed the milestones of the debate on wooden architecture, in respect with two case-studies: UNESCO and a Local Action Group.
... The following are some of those definitions with who defined and brief comments: Vernacular architecture is defined as a building designed by an amateur without any training in design; the individual will have been guided by a series of conventions built up in his locality, paying little attention to what may be fashionable. The function of the building would be the dominant factor, aesthetic considerations, though present to some small degree, being quite minimal (Brunskill, 2000). Local materials would be used as a matter of course, other materials being chosen and imported quite exceptionally. ...
The key purpose of this paper concerns the definition of vernacular architecture in third millennium; a topic which gives the impression of confusion from the beginning when it was a word in the book of Rudofsky. In redefining this term, supplementary conceptual issue will need to be focused briefly and the role of classification will need to be more generally because of an inextricably linked between these two matters. It may seem strange to raise such a basic question again about "What is vernacular architecture?"; because, up till now, it needs to be addressed. There has been a major revitalization of interest in vernacular architecture, indicated by an ever increasing number of conferences, meetings, exhibitions and publications dealing with this subject. So far, strangely, the nature of what is being deliberated has been taken as self-evident and not tackled. There has been no reconsideration of what vernacular is, no definition either of the domain broadly or the subject matter specifically. During the discussion, this paper includes some design approaches and processes to clarify the technique which can be used to achieve an architectural building design addressed by vernacularism.
... Vernacular architecture is defined differently by different scholars (see Brunskill, 2000;Oliver, 1997). This study though conceptualizes vernacular architecture in line with Oliver (1997: xxxiii) as 'all dwellings and all other buildings' constructed in relation to 'their environmental contexts and available resources' and are 'customarily owner-or community-built, utilizing traditional technologies'. ...
The influence of imported material, technology and methods has put pressure on most traditional architectural systems to modernize. This influence to modernize is transmitted through various mechanisms. This paper argues that there are a number of aspects to vernacular architecture which would be lost through this conversion process to modern materials, technology and methods. Through the examination of vernacular architecture among the Lamba people of Senior Chief Mushili’s chiefdom, the study found that there are cultural, environmental and aesthetical aspects in vernacular architecture which are poorly understood in the process of modernization. Data for this research were collected through an ethnographical approach with occasional in-depth interviews with senior members of the Royal establishment and the community. Thus, the data were mainly qualitative.
... In the United Kingdom, several authors referred to a "quick process" by opposition to a "slow process" [14,22,117,276]. The "slow process" is the technique described above, i.e. stacking of clods of earth in a lift, left to dry for several days or weeks before another lift could be implemented on it. ...
The use of local, natural and unprocessed materials offers promising low impact building solutions. The wide spatial variability of these materials is, however, an obstacle to a large-scale use. The construction strategies developed by past builders were dictated by the local climate and the quality and the amount of locally available construction materials. These construction strategies can be regarded as an optimized management of local, natural and variable resources and are a source of inspiration for modern sustainable building. Unfortunately, this knowledge was lost in Western countries during the 20th century. Vernacular earth construction know-how rediscovering requires the development of rational built heritage investigation means. Another issue regarding the use of natural and variable building material is their compliance with modern building regulation. The development of performance based testing procedures is proposed as a solution to facilitate the use of earth as a building material. A multidisciplinary approach is proposed, combining micromorphology, pedology, geotechnics and heritage disciplines to study vernacular earth heritage. It provides complementary tools to assess pedological sources of construction material and geotechnical characteristics of earth employed in vernacular earth heritage. It also provides a detailed description of the construction process of vernacular earth heritage. Using these results, it was possible to draw resource maps and provide a scale of magnitude of resource availability at regional scale. Two performance based testing procedures were proposed in order to take into account the natural variability of earth in a modern building context. Earth construction will play an important role in the modern sustainable building of the 21st century if the actors of the sector adopt earth construction processes able to meet social demand, with low environmental impact and at an affordable cost. The study of earth heritage demonstrated the ability of historical earth builders to innovate in order to comply with social demand variations and technical developments. Earth construction benefits of an old and rich past and it would be a non-sense to leave this past behind. The analysis of earth heritage and the rediscovering of vernacular construction techniques is a valuable source of inspiration for modern earth construction. The valorisation of vernacular knowledge will save time, energy and avoid repeating past mistakes. The future of earth construction should be a continuation of past vernacular earth construction.
... Pengumpulan data dimulai dari kajian studi terdahulu, dikomparasikan dengan survey awal, kemudian divalidasi dengan data sekunder dari BPS Kabupaten Sumenep (BPS-Sumenep, 2016). Strategi pengumpulan data berupa pendokumentasian arsitektur vernakuler (Burnskill, 1998), yaitu: ...
Corn is the cultural identity of the Madurese, they being called as maize eaters and included an agrarian society with a kind of shifting agriculture landscape called “ekologi tegalâ€. Cornfield was once the most important hierarchy in tanèyan lanjhèng. The pattern of rural settlement in Madura is a combination of several clusters tanèyan lanjhèng formed by main moor space hierarchy, then occupancy. Indigenous land use occupancy states should not diminish arable land. But the shift in consumption from maize to rice and Islamic land inheritance system that is uksorilokal and matrilocal changing land use as residential space hierarchy utama.Tujuan this paper is to seek the embodiment and the relationship between the agricultural landscape (dost) with occupancy (tanèyan lanjhèng) so as to form a pattern of settlement , to do with a shift in consumption and a system of inheritance. Discussion method uses anthropologicalarchitectural approach. So characteristic of farming communities in eastern Madura is a problem: the hierarchy of space, the position of women, kinship, social system, as well as the limits of hierarchy, related to settlement patterns. The physical manifestation of settlements tend to the meaning and philosophy of Islam.Keywords: tegal ecology, settlement patterns, tanèyan lanjhèng, meaning and philosophy of Islam
Local genius in the process of a building physical system of traditional houses in each region is unique by its building construction. One of them is a traditional Malay house of Potong Limas in Pontianak, West Kalimantan. The traditional Malay house of Potong Limas is characterized by the use of Belian wood construction materials for the house foundation, floor, frame and roof. All parts of the house become a unitary system, which is interrelated and related. The purpose of this research is to identify the physical system of the building which includes the structural aspects of the upper element (head), middle element (body), and lower element (leg) in the construction process, and to produce building drawing (blue print) of the traditional Malay house of Potong Limas. This study uses a rationalistic-qualitative approach by taking several research samples from the population of traditional Malay houses, Potong Limas, in Pontianak, which still exist today. This research uses several stages of the implementation process: 1) data collection stage, 2) data analysis stage, 3) discussion of research results. The results of this study are documented science and technology-social and cultural products in the form of building drawing (blue print) of the physical system development process which was formed in a traditional Malay House type Potong Limas in Pontianak.
Over two thousand years ago, Oaxaca, Mexico, was the site of one of the New World's earliest episodes of primary state formation and urbanism, and today it is one of the world's archaeologically best-studied regions. This volume, which thoroughly revises and updates the first edition, provides a highly readable yet comprehensive path to acquaint readers with one of the earliest and best-known examples of Native American state formation and its consequences as seen from the perspectives of urbanism, technology, demography, commerce, households, and religion and ritual. Written by prominent archaeological researchers who have devoted decades to Oaxacan research and to the development of suitable social theory, the book places ancient Oaxaca within the context of the history of ideas that have addressed the causes and consequences of social evolutionary change. It also critically evaluates the potential applicability of more recent thinking about state building grounded in collective action and related theories.
Anatolian vernacular architecture is composed of traditional and historical buildings in Turkey, mainly by the use of local building materials representing informal and unclassified designs rather than designed in a strict manner. This analysis study comprehended 95 publications written by 155 authors from 10 countries, on indexes in Web of Science (WoS) Core Collection between 1983 and August 2021. The study showed that Turkey produced 87.37 % of the world’s publications on ‘Anatolian vernacular arc-hitecture’. The most used keywords in the literature were detected as ‘traditional house’, ‘cultural heritage’ and ‘restoration. English is the most used language of the Anatolian vernacular architecture literature with 72 articles followed by Turkish and Croatian. VOSviewer was used as the freeware tool for creating bibliometric networks in this article. Moreover, The United Nations (UN) system for country classification was applied in the outputs of the countries. This study is the first bibliometric study that investigates the documents including approximately 40 years of the Anatolian vernacular architecture literature in WoS database. It is expected that it may encourage scholars to carry out further studies on Anatolian vernacular architecture published in this reliable and popular database (WoS), and promote the topic outside of Turkey, which is the most productive country in this field.
برز مفهوم عمارة الأرض ضمن الدراسات المعاصرة كتوجه يضم طرز متنوعة عبر المكان والزمان، وتعبيرها عن كل مبنى مشيد كلياً أو جزئياً بمواد خام مستمدة من الأرض كالطين والخشب والحجر وغيرها. من جهة أخرى أظهرت الدراسات تعالق المفهوم مع بعض توجهات العمارة من جوانب متعددة كتوجه العمارة العامية والعمارة المستدامة والعمارة التي تركز على الجوانب التقنية كمواد بناء وتقنيات تنفيذ، بنفس الوقت أظهرت تحولاً شكلياً يمكن أن يقترن تفسيره بنواح عدة، منها تفسير عمارة الأرض كنظام طبيعي مستدام، أو كنظام سياقي إما مرتبط بالسياق المكاني (الطبيعي والثقافي) أو بالسياق الزماني (روح العصر والأحداث الطارئة). تبين أن هذه التحولات الشكلية لنظم عمارة الأرض تسير بصيغتين أما تكون بطريقة ممنهجة أو غير ممنهجة ومؤثراً في تشكيل طرازها، فإستدعى ذلك الحاجة الى التركيز على هذا الجانب، وماهية المحفزات المؤثرة في حدوث التحولات الشكلية بين هذه الطرز ونظمها. من هنا تحددت مشكلة البحث في (الحاجة المعرفية لإستكشاف الأنظمة - الممنهجة وغير الممنهجة - المنضوية ضمن طرز عمارة الأرض وماهية المحفزات المؤثرة في التحول الشكلي بين هذه الأنظمة)، وتحددت أهدافه بـ(تحديد أنواع نظم طرز عمارة الأرض وخصائصها، تشخيص التحولات الشكلية التي طرأت على نظم طرز عمارة الأرض وماهية المحفزات المؤثرة في هذا التحول وطبيعة إرتباطها بنظم طرز عمارة الأرض). فرضية البحث الأساسية (يتحقق التحول الشكلي في نظم طرز عمارة الأرض بفعل محفزات التحول المكانية والزمانية مع بعضها).
تم إعتماد المنهج الوصفي التحليلي لحل مشكلة البحث مؤلفاً من ثلاثة مراحل: تضمنت الأولى بناء إطار نظري حول تحديد النظم الممنهجة وغير الممنهجة لطرز عمارة الأرض من ناحية (جوانب المنهج التصميمي وطبيعة الخصائص المرتبطة بالجانبين الشكلي والنظام البنائي)، ومحفزات التحول الشكلي ومحركاتها المرتبطة بالسياق المكاني (سياق البيئة الطبيعية والثقافية) والسياق الزماني (روح العصر والأحداث الطارئة). أما الثانية، فقد تضمنت الإجراءات التطبيقية والقياس والعينات المنتخبة، إذ تم إنتخاب المسكن كنمط وظيفي أساسي ضمن مجموعة من العينات المحلية والعربية صنفت على أساس إنتمائيتها الزمنية الى مجموعتين، تمثلت الأولى بالعينات قبل القرن العشرين، والثانية بالعينات ضمن القرن العشرين. جاء إسلوب القياس بمرحلتين، الأولى إستخلاص النماذج التي إتسمت بخصائص النظم الممنهجة من التي إتسمت بخصائص النظم غير الممنهجة على مستوى (النظام البنائي، المنهج التصميمي، إنتظامية الفضاءات)، حيث إعتمد تطبيق الإسلوب الرياضي لتحديد طبيعة إنتظامية الفضاءات بين الفئات كجانب شكلي، والإسلوب الوصفي التحليلي لرصد خصوصية المنهج التصميمي والنظام البنائي. المرحلة الثانية تمثلت بتحديد محفزات التحول الشكلي بين النظامين ضمن تلك النماذج، المحفز المكاني (محركات مكانية طبيعية، محركات مكانية ثقافية كالعادات والأعراف والتقاليد ضمن السياق الثقافي للمجتمع)، والمحفز الزماني (المحرك التكنولوجي على مستوى مواد البناء والتقينات الإنشائية) بإعتماد أسلوب القياس المباشر. المرحلة الثالثة تحليل النتائج وتحديد الإستنتاجات، إذ توصل البحث الى تباين خصائص النظام الممنهج عن غير الممنهج، حيث يفتقد النظام غير الممنهج نسبياً للتخطيط المسبق، معتمداً على إسلوب التعلم بالتجربة والخطأ في إختيار مواد البناء والتصميم والتنفيذ والإستخدام، وبتنفيذ تعاوني من قبل المستخدم والحلقة الإجتماعية المحيطة به من الأقارب والجيران. بينما يمتاز النظام الممنهج بالتخطيط المسبق ضمن عملية التصميم والتنفيذ من قبل المهندس أو البناء الخبير، وبالإعتماد على العمالة وضمن خطوات أساسية وتفصيلية ذات تسلسل هرمي وفقاً لقواعد ومعايير محددة. ظهر أن المحفز الزماني ضمن محركه التكنولوجي هو الأكثر تأثيراً في التحول من النظام غير الممنهج الى النظام الممنهج على مستوى مواد البناء وزيادة الكفاءة الإنشائية والبيئية والكفاءة الإقتصادية، بينما ظهر تحقق الكفاءة الإقتصادية على مستوى إنخفاض كلف المواد والعمالة والآلات والنقل، والكفاءة الإجتماعية على مستوى تعزيز العلاقات الإجتماعية من خلال البناء التعاوني ضمن النظام غير الممنهج بصورة عفوية كنتيجة لإسلوب الحياة السائد الذي يتسم بالتنظيم الذاتي في العديد من الفعاليات الحياتية ومن ضمنها البناء.
الكلمات المفتاحية: طرز عمارة الأرض ، النظام الممنهج ، النظام غير الممنهج ، محفزات التحول الشكلي ، محركات التحول المكانية والزمانية.
Urban design is about the making of place which is legible and has identity. Therefore, urban design is closely concerned with definition, historical evolution and building praxis of space It is figural space, in context with the residual-historically processed ground-space. This concern is shortly, concern for context. To a great extent, on the other hand, Modern architecture and planning resulted in undesigned residual space. In the 1970s, as Modern buildings mostly failed to complement their surroundings, Contextualism" emerged as part of a reaction by many people, either be planners and designers of the built environment or other built environment concerned people, including historic preservationists, against this discrepancy. The concept of contextualism means that new structures and elements of the built landscape should complement the existing environment: built and natural environments. Against the loss of urban identity and devastation of local values in Turkish cities, livability at small scale will be queried in this study. Therefore, a specially protected settlement, Ayaş, close to the metropolitan city, Ankara which has geographic and climatic advantages, will be examined as a case study area. Since promoting ecological lifestyles in our towns depends firstly on the urban design, this study will explore the components of better design principles for livable environments through the traditional elements of Turkish settlements as well as focusing on the ecological problems of the settlement and its environs. The first part of the paper focuses the importance of ecological ingredients of the Ayaş built and natural environment; hence it's the very 'contextual' spatial ingredients, with relation to the town's development alternatives. Ecological design and development alternative for Ayas is explained in the second part of the paper. The last part of the paper includes both conclusion and some reccomendations for the towns with similar size, traditional tissue and ecological potential.
Chinese settlements in Hong Kong (HK), once a British colony, incidentally preserve the customs and vernacular architectures of three main Chinese Lingnan Minxi (Branches of Communities), namely the Guangfu (Cantonese), Kejia (Hakka), and Chaozhou-Hailufeng (Teochew/Hoklo) peoples. The hereditary values, community spirit, and traditional craftsmanship of these groups can be revealed through the characteristics of their respective architectures, most visibly in their respective Chinese roofs. The Guangfu clans would build grand halls with well-evolved double layer tiles to resist local torrential rain; Hakka compound houses maintain their unique roofing composition and inherited tiling methods; Chaozhou temples use their unique elaborate ridge decorations. By tracing the origins, appreciating the cultural associations, and understanding how these roofs managed to evolve in the unique context of Hong Kong from the 19th century to modernity, in this article we will study the designs, compositions, and craftsmanship of these roofs. In consideration of modern technical and performance challenges, this article explores best-practice conservation methods in the ongoing restorations, repairs or upgrades to these very unique and culturally-rich roofs.
The historic county of Yorkshire has a wealth of vernacular buildings, studied for over a century. The focus of study and the means by which it has been carried out have changed over this period and the opportunity exists to review this history and indicate how the subject might develop in the next years, particularly in relation to the fuller exploitation of existing records and the way in which future research might be structured. The use of architectural evidence for the examination of changing types of house is well established, but less well recognised is its potential to not only illustrate wider historical trends but also to modify, refine or counter conclusions drawn from other sources.
As an important material carrier of rural landscape, English vernacular architecture has experienced five periods of germination, sample textual research, discipline establishment, academic formation and multi-dimensional vision since the 16th century, which has affected the residential architecture morphology in the same period accordingly. The research shows that the study of vernacular architecture follows the process from the narrow sense of physical architecture morphology to the broad sense of conceptual housing morphology, and the academic accumulation stage before World War II laid the foundation for the diversification of follow-up research. From the perspective of research methodology and academic problem domain, this paper re-summarizes the connotation of British vernacular architecture and sorts out the theme of the times, the main thread of logic and the academic influence of each stage before the middle of the 20 h century. The academic direction and research methods of Chinese vernacular architecture are also discussed in this paper.
This chapter focuses upon the role and contribution of women in the architectural process, specifically in earthen architecture, discussing numerous case studies from Africa. The main aim is to foster interdisciplinary research, combining building archaeology, ethnoarchaeology and postcolonial theories to shed lights on understudied aspects of earthen architecture. This contribution also presents the case for a more participative form of archaeology based on community engagement as a key aspect in the analysis of the architecture from archaeological contexts. The chapter addresses two major questions: What is the impact of postcolonial theories on the analysis of earthen architecture in building archaeology? How have gender and subaltern studies improved our understanding of the construction process and overcome pre-existing discipline bias?
A seventeenth-century water-powered mill and a nineteenth-century (formerly) steam-powered mill operated by the South Yorkshire County Council as a working industrial site museum
Illustrated glossary on earthen building techniques in English, German, French and Spanish. Please download here: https://archlsa.de/fileadmin/landesmuseum/alle/pdf/pdf_veroeffentlichungen/lehmglossar_klein.pdf
This book stems from a longstanding personal concern that many design professionals and social scientists have retreated from interdisciplinary research and collaborative planning that occurred when I was an undergraduate and a graduate student.Too many architects, interior designers, land- scape and urban planners have chosen to work only with their expert aesthetic/artistic criteria (a heritage of post-modern design) in order to construct designs only for design’s sake. Notably, complicity of architects, urban designers and planners with the agendas of investors and institutions in the real estate sector has become increasingly problematic in many cities. Concurrently, the ethical and human dimensions implicated in planning, constructing and using built environments have rarely been addressed by consortia of social scientists, planners, policy makers and designers in recent years, as they were by several authors three and more decades ago. This book presents a radically different approach with many illustratuve cases from all regions of the world.
Vernacular is a product of a people native to a place. In architecture, the traditions and customs that produce them and the forms and meanings associated with them are intrinsic to the people. Vernacular buildings are located in place and give definition and meaning to place. They thrive in the contexts of isolation and self-containment nurturing the insiders as opposed to outsiders. This way, they inherit the characteristics that define both the people and place in the world. In Bahrain, fishing huts dotted the shore and they were a part of the vernacular. With globalization, its urban real estate had expanded exponentially extending the shore by land reclamation. Many fishing huts had been shifted, and sometimes simply abandoned. In 2009, they drew the attention of the State & others. Fascinated by the ‘vernacularity’ of the structures, fishing huts were reproduced at the Venice Biennale, representing Bahrain, winning the Golden Lion Award. Fishing huts gained stardom, and was awarded a place in the ‘grand tradition’ although it belonged to the little tradition. This paper traverses the process and examines the outcomes of the representation of the fishing huts at the Venice Biennale. It is aimed at gaining insights into the phenomena of vernacularity and its place in the contemporary world. The paper employs observations and examination of documentations to unravel the process. Although vernacularity is often attributed to those produced through customs and traditions with meanings of appropriation of space and place, the research shows that vernacularity could be an outcome also of a production that is driven by ad-hochism buttressed by unpretentious innocence.
UnDoing Buildings: Adaptive Reuse and Cultural Memory discusses one of the greatest challenges for twenty-first century society: what is to be done with the huge stock of existing buildings that have outlived the function for which they were built. Their worth is well recognised and the importance of retaining them has been long debated, but if they are to be saved, what is to be done with these redundant buildings?
This book argues that the remodelling of these is a healthy, and environmentally friendly approach. Issues of heritage, conservation, sustainability and smartness are at the forefront of many discussions about architecture today and adaptive reuse offers the opportunity to reinforce the particular character of an area using up-to-date digital and construction techniques for a contemporary population. Issues of collective memory and identity combined with ideas of tradition, history and culture mean that it is possible to retain a sense of continuity with the past as a way of creating the future.
UnDoing Buildings: Adaptive Reuse and Cultural Memory has an international perspective and will be of interest to upper level students and professionals working on the fields of Interior Design, Interior Architecture, Architecture, Conservation, Urban Design, and Development.
New Place is the name of the house that William Shakespeare purchased in 1597 and the place in which he died in 1616. The house was constructed in Stratford-upon-Avon over a century previously but had disappeared by 1759, leaving only an empty gap in the street frontage. How much time Shakespeare spent there has long been debated, but recent excavation and analysis of the surviving evidence has led to the notion that New Place was carefully chosen by Shakespeare to be his primary residence and the place to live with his family and compose much of his later writing. The importance of Hugh Clopton, the former owner and builder of New Place, and the welcome associations that his name brought to the property, is also debated here. Shakespeare’s motives, his pursuit of status, desire for investment and obligation to his family are all explored through the use of archaeological data and the historical evidence for the house.
Early-modern timber framing and associated finish vary significantly among the countless places settled by Europeans and Africans in the age of exploration. Most of these dots on maps of the western hemisphere remain essentially unstudied, as evidence for their vernacular architecture slips away. This is of more than local interest because the material offers opportunities to investigate how related populations share and alter cultural traits, and how the traits evolve in response to degrees of immigration, value of labour, environmental conditions and trade. This paper focuses on one of the dots, presenting new evidence for frame construction on the small British island of Bermuda, and addresses its role in the population’s economic evolution.
This paper analyses the archaeological and documentary evidence from three West Yorkshire houses—Calverley Old Hall, Shibden Hall and Oakwell Hall—to re-evaluate narratives of gentry emulation in 16th- and 17th-century English housebuilding. Gentry houses have long been absorbed into the literature of elite country houses, with homes of the lesser gentry serving primarily as emulative examples of national architectural and social trends. This paper suggests a more nuanced interpretation of these homes as sites of multi-faceted household relationships, where the inhabitants consciously incorporated and resisted elite trends and used space to establish and maintain control.
The three compartment rural house was introduced in Eastern Central Europe as early as the Later Middle Ages and it remained the most common type of traditional village house until the 20th century. Archaeological, ethnological, historical and linguistic research of this type of vernacular house has achieved extensive results over the last hundred years in terms of gaining detailed knowledge of regional variants, internal functional structure, and developmental transformations; nevertheless, the formation of the three compartment house remains unclear. This paper examines the earliest material evidence of this house type, compares its attributes, discusses the possibilities of its formation process, and seeks to assess its social and cultural significance within the frame of the long-term development of the rural built environment in Central Europe.
The idea is developed that environmental control systems - lighting, heating, ventilation and acoustics - are elements of architectural meaning with strong links to the shape of buildings. The resulting architecture of the well-tempered environment is aesthetic and semantic as well as functional and technologicaL Lyrical and technical elements of well-tempered architecture are examined and the origin of environmental tempering in Western culture is traced. The study begins with classical Greek and Roman examples, continuing with folk traditions and the development of the science of architecture. In each instance, building types are described which illustrate the impact of environmental tempering techniques and functions on the shape of architecture. Classical examples include the Roman villa, bath and theatre. Later building types are prisons, hospitals, factories, theatres and galleries. Thus, a repertoire of climatically responsive forms is examined. The idiom is illustrated during the Modern era by the designs of four architects -- Frank Lloyd Wright, Le Corbusier, Alvar Aalto and Louis I. Kahn. Their works mark a zenith in the integration of architectural form with environmental tempering. The final chapter surveys the architecture of environmental tempering since the Modern Movement, including Regionalist, LateModernist, High-Tech and Post-Modernist examples. The conclusion proposes a definition of an architecture based on the art and science of environmental tempering.
Biçim grameri, 1970'li yıllarda Stiny ve Gips tarafından tanıtılan, algoritmik yapıya sahip tasarım dillerini çözümlemeye ve aynı dilde yeni tasarımların üretilmesine olanak sağlayan bir yöntemdir. Bu bağlamda, 1996 yılında Prof. Dr. Gülen Çağdaş, Sedat Hakkı Eldem'in plan tipi sınıflandırmasını temel alarak, Geleneksel Türk Evleri'nin ana yaşam katlarının planlarını oluşturabilen iki boyutlu parametrik bir biçim grameri geliştirmiştir. Bu tez çalışmasında, Çağdaş tarafından Geleneksel Türk Evleri'nin biçim grameri üzerine yapılan çalışma temel alınarak, Geleneksel Türk Evleri'yle benzer özellik gösteren Amasya Yalıboyu Evleri'nin planları analiz edilmekte, bu analizler sonucunda evlerde görülen özel durumlar için yeni kural ve kural setleri ortaya konulmaktadır. 1. bölümde çalışmanın amaç, kapsam ve yöntemi açıklanmaktadır. 2. bölümde, yöresel mimari kavramı, yöresel yerleşmeler ve yöresel sivil mimariler başlıkları altında incelenmiştir. Yöresel sivil mimari örneği olan Türk Evleri'nin genel özellikleri anlatıldıktan sonra Türk Evleri'nde katlar, plan elemanları ve plan tipleriyle ilgili detaylı bilgi verilmektedir. 3. bölümde alan çalışmasının gerçekleştiği, Amasya kentinin genel ve mekansal analizi yapıldıktan sonra, kenti dokusunu oluşturan mimari bileşenlerden örnekler verilmektedir. Kent dokusunun önemli bir parçası olan yöresel sivil mimari örneklerinden olan ayrıca alan çalışmasının gerçekleştiği Amasya Yalıboyu Evleri detaylı biçimde anlatılmaktadır. Bir sonraki bölümde, mimari dil kavramı açıklandıktan sonra yöresel mimarinin sahip olduğu dil üzerinde durulmaktadır. Amasya Yalıboyu Evleri'nin mimari dilini analiz etmekte kullanılan ve çalışmanın yöntemini oluşturan biçim grameri kavramı tanımlandıktan sonra, standart ve parametrik biçim gramerleri anlatılmaktadır. Literatürde yer alan biçim grameri çalışmaları üç ana başlık altında toplanıp örneklendikten sonra konut mimarisi üzerine biçim grameri kapsamında yapılmış çalışmalara yer verilmektedir. 5.bölümde, Amasya Yalıboyu Evleri için geliştirilen biçim gramerinin strüktürü anlatılmakta, biçim gramerini oluşturan tüm kural ve kural setleri açıklanmaktadır. Bu bölümün sonunda, biçim grameri yöntemiyle evlerin planlarını oluşturan 11 aşamalı bir üretim süreci tanımlanmakta ve Amasya Yalıboyu Evleri'yle aynı mimari dile sahip yeni evler üretilmektedir. Son bölümde, çalışmanın genel değerlendirilmesi yapılıp, sonuçlar tartışılmakta ve çalışmanın ileriye yönelik nasıl geliştirileceğine yönelik fikirler sunulmaktadır.
Reed and grass are widely used in many traditional building cultures all over the world. They are easy availability and good material properties have made them a popular component in roof, wall and other constructional parts of houses. In some areas whole buildings are built out of reed, and in other areas again it is used in combination with a variety of other, mostly natural, building materials. After presenting different examples of the use of this special material from Oce-ania, Asia, Africa and America, we will focus on the harvest, processing and use of reed in the middle-European region. The use of reed in traditional architecture is mostly connected with the lowland regions of Europe, as in mountainous areas wood as construction material and especially wooden shingles as thatching were always given advantage over the slightly more ephemeral reed. Also the fact that in mountain areas less reed is available and in the lowlands wood is scarce led to the evolution of a very typical appearance of lowland villages with reed thatched houses. It is important to note, that according to availability of reed and peculiarities of agricultural production, in some areas rye straw could even be more important than reed. Usually in more hilly and mountainous areas rye straw was more easily available. However, with the introduction of mechanised harvest processing the resulting rye straw was not of good quality anymore, and therefore from the beginning of the 19 th century reed was the only organic thatch alternative. Especially in the Carpathian basin and around Lake Neusiedl the use of reed has a long tradition. This tradition continues until present day, albeit on smaller dimensions and somewhat transformed compared to the ” ethnographical ” past, when only natural materials were used in rural architecture. Today it is at least as expensive to cover a building with reed as with ceramic tiles. While of course ceramic is fireproof, there is a discussion going on concerning overall fire resistance qualities of reed thatch. However many people feel still attracted to the peculiar appearance of the more traditional material, and commission the use on newly built houses. In some special areas, which are under cultural heritage protection, only the use of this traditional material is allowed. Even so, the total number of buildings with reed roofs has decreased to a small amount, which means, that there are only a few craftsmen left, who are still adept in reed thatching techniques. One aim of our research was to get an insight into the working procedure of these craftsmen. Interestingly the modern building industry also uses a number of products manufactured out of reed – usually they are used as composites in combination with other building materials – reed mats as reinforcement under plaster layers or to enhance insulation properties. As Lake Neusiedl is not only a local, but also a major source of reed for the middle-European region (a substantial part of the harvest is exported to the Netherlands and Germany) the traditional and present use of reed as building material in its surrounding is worth to be studied more thoroughly. 83 In: Csaplovics, E., Schmidt, J. (eds.) (2011): International Symposium on advanced methods of monitoring reed habitats , Rhombos Verlag Berlin. pp. 83-108.
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