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The Mediterranean Diet between traditional foods and human health: The culinary example of Puglia (Southern Italy)

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The Mediterranean Diet, through a healthy profile of fat intake, carbohydrate atlow glycaemic index, high content of dietary fibre, antioxidants and anti- inflammatory compounds, reduces the risk of certain pathologies such as cardiovascular disease. However, it represents anything much more than a dietary regimen and it is also characterised by its links to the various food cultures ofthedifferentcountriesoftheMediterraneanarea.Ontheotherhand,the traditional cuisineofthePugliaregion(Southern Italy) isbasedonanutritionalmodelmainlyvegetarian becauseonlyasmallshareofcaloriesisof animal origin;cerealsarethebasicingredient,pulsesand oliveoilthemainproteinandfatsource,respectively. Inthispaperwereportedtheculture,history, identity andheritageofthisculinarymodeloftheSouthern Italytraditiontounderstandpossible linkages withtheMediterraneanDiet.Moreover, some traditional recipesofthePugliac
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Review Article
The Mediterranean Diet between traditional foods and human health:
The culinary example of Puglia (Southern Italy)
Massimiliano Renna
a,
n
, Vito Antonio Rinaldi
b
, Maria Gonnella
a
a
Institute of Sciences of Food Production, CNRNational Research Council of Italy, Via G. Amendola, 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
b
Vocational School for Hotel Hospitality and Gastronomy A. Consoli, Contrada Rosatella, 70013 Castella Grotte (BA), Italy
Received 2 June 2014; accepted 1 December 2014
Abstract
The Mediterranean Diet, through a healthy prole of fat intake, carbohydrate at low glycaemic index, high content of dietary bre, antioxidants and anti-
inammatory compounds, reduces the risk of certain pathologies such as cardiovascular disease. However, it represents anything much more than a dietary
regimen and it is also characterised by its links to the various food cultures of the different countries of the Mediterranean area. On the other hand, the
traditional cuisine of the Puglia region (Southern Italy) is based on a nutritional model mainly vegetarian because only a small share of calories is ofanimal
origin; cereals are the basic ingredient, pulses and olive oil the main protein and fat source, respectively. In this paper we reported the culture, history,
identity and heritage of this culinary model of the Southern Italy tradition to understand possible linkages with the Mediterranean Diet. Moreover, some
traditional recipes of the Puglia cuisine are examined as regards gastronomic and nutritional aspects, also for better explaining its relationship with the food
style best famous in the world.
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Keywords: Lifestyle; History; Nutritional characteristics; Traditional cuisine; Puglia's dishes
Contents
Much more than a dietary regimen ......................................................................1
A combination of history, cultures and environment . ..........................................................2
Nutritional and healthy characteristics of the Mediterranean lifestyle ................................................3
Background of the traditional cuisine in Puglia ..............................................................4
Puglia's dishes: beyond a simple experience of tasting .........................................................6
Fave bianche e cicorie . . ......................................................................... 6
Orecchiette e cime di rapa ........................................................................ 6
Soup of pulses and whole wheat .................................................................... 7
Little savoury pie of anchovies ..................................................................... 7
Salad of crenate broomrape........................................................................ 8
Flowersof lampascioni ......................................................................... 8
Conclusions . . . ...................................................................................8
Acknowledgements .................................................................................8
References .......................................................................................9
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n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ39 080 5929306; fax: þ39 080 5929374.
E-mail address: massimiliano.renna@ispa.cnr.it (M. Renna).
Peer review under responsibility of AZTI-Tecnalia.
Please cite this article as: Renna, M., et al., The Mediterranean Diet between traditional foods and human health: The culinary example of Puglia (Southern
Italy). International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2014.12.001
Much more than a dietary regimen
As explained by most dictionaries and shown by the media,
the use of the term dietis frequently associated to specic
food regimes, normally of a restrictive nature and with
therapeutic or aesthetic purposes. Nevertheless, etymologically
the word dieta comes from the Latin diaeta which in turn
comes from the Greek díaita,way of living,life regime
(Corominas, 2000). Anatole Bally (a renowed Hellenist) in his
dictionary (Bally, 2000) translates the term díaita as type of
life and species as a rst meaning in general, a whole set of
habits of the body and the spirit, tastes, customs, etc
Classical authors already used this term with the same sense
as that used by Bally: Hippocrates in his works; Plato in
Republic and Laws; Herodotus in The Histories; Pindar in
Pythian; etc. This way of livingis what we also know today
as lifestyle. Style or way of life that characterise individuals,
groups, communities or villages and which make them similar
or different from each other. Therefore, the Mediterranean Diet
is this evidently dynamic and ever changing lifestyle with all
its diversity, which it is possible to consider in its holistic sense
made from tangible and intangible aspects and values. Other
plural designations such as Mediterranean Diets and Mediter-
ranean cuisines are the result of an argument used by those
who believe that we cannot talk about onesingle diet, but
that there are manydiets in the Mediterranean just as there
are many cuisines. It is a persistent argument which is also
applied to the Mediterranean by those who think it is not
relevant to consider it as a whole.
The Mediterranean Diet as an unequalled legacy of land-
scapes, places, knowledge, know-how, technologies, products,
myths and beliefs, accents, creativity and hospitalities. It is in
short, a (or perhaps the) common language of the Mediter-
ranean people. Furthermore, another important milestone in the
dissemination of its signicance was been the inscription of the
Mediterranean Diet in the List of Intangible Cultural Heritage
of Humanity by UNESCO, in November 2010. In no case this
recognition represents an ultimate milestone, but rather an
undertaking to work to safeguard this legacy.
A combination of history, cultures and environment
The traditional Mediterranean Diet is the heritage of
millennia of exchanges amongst the peoples and cultures of
the Mediterranean Basin. It formed the basis of eating habits
throughout the region until the mid twentieth century, but it is
now gradually being lost due to the spread of the western-type
economy and urban and technological society as well as the
globalisation of production and consumption.
The Mediterranean culture integrates the past and the
present, because many of its modern aspects can be traced to
the ancient past. Effectively, the Mediterranean basin has been,
for millennia, a crossroads of civilisations as a point of
convergence for people, merchandise and religions. In Tunisia,
for example, you can nd Portuguese and Spanish survivals in
the consumption of bacalaoor salt cod. It was probably the
Portuguese who introduced the cod into Tunisia, as shown by
the adoption of the Arab name baqalaw. It is now mainly
consumed in a porridge, chiey in Sfax, on the feast of Aïd el
Kebir, to accompany a sweet and sour dish, the ritual
charmoula. Inhabitants of the inland areas tended rather to
eat a mollusc dried in the sun and salted, called ouzef.
Even the scenery represents, in some ways, a composite
picture: some plants such as olive trees, wheat, and vineyards
exist in this area from time immemorial. Oranges and lemons,
however, originate from the Far East and were brought to the
Mediterranean by Arabs. Thorny plants such as prickly pear
were brought from America. Also tomatoes, eggplants, corn
and potato have been imported, but these and several other
plants have gradually become integral parts of the Mediterra-
nean diet. Indeed, the benevolent climate in the region and the
human activities have moulded disparate components into a
balanced ecosystem (Braudel et al., 1985).
As regards the religion, during polytheistic and monotheistic
times the inuence of the sacred and the liturgical on diets,
production and habits has been substantial. Amongst the
celebrations and deity festivities, the yumuaa, the shabbat,
the dominica, saints' feasts and other holy days of obligation,
the Mediterranean has spent half its life offering up or
prayingor disputing the monopoly of the divine truth.
Foods here have been raised to the category of the sacred.
Bread, wine and oil (the Mediterranean triad) occupy a
prominent place: oils anoint the newborn, the king and the
moribund; Athena's olive tree founds the state-city and
represents the most useful offering for humankind; the dove
with the olive branch announces the end of the Flood; the olive
of the Koran is the the blessed tree which is neither from the
East nor the West and whose oil seems to take light without
coming into contact with re; the wine and bread at the Last
Supper, are the body and blood of Jesus Christ. The list is
endless, in all peoples and times of the Mediterranean. Today
we have almost forgotten that when we refer to a companion
we are referring to a cum panis, someone with whom we are
sharing bread.
Conceived as a constantly evolving lifestyle, the Mediterra-
nean Diet is a complex system of shared knowledge relating to
health, food, cultures and people; it is the product of a
particular environment, a geographical region of multiple
facets and rich history, which conserves traditional knowledge
and a diversity of foods and diets.
The shortage of resources has prompted communication
amongst Mediterraneans and the construction of a food style
that has adapted and transformed plants coming from remote
places. Their food habits are excellent examples of the fertile
combination of production and commercial activities that has
shaped the history of mankind. Thus, few Mediterranean
dishes can be imagined without such exchange. If we think
about some of the most famous examples, it is evident that
they have only existed thanks to the Mediterraneans' eagerness
to broaden the horizons of their diet. This is the case of the
Greek moussaka (aubergines and meat), the Maghrebi harira
(tomato and vegetable soup), the hummus, a dish shared by
Arabs and Jews (chickpea and sesame spread), the Egyptian
falafel (bean fritters), the Turkish dolmathakia (rice-stuffed
M. Renna et al. / International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science ](]]]])]]]]]]2
Please cite this article as: Renna, M., et al., The Mediterranean Diet between traditional foods and human health: The culinary example of Puglia (Southern
Italy). International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2014.12.001
grape leaves), the Italian pesto (basil sauce), the French
bouillabaisse (sh and tomato stew) or the Spanish pisto
(vegetable ratatouille) and rice dishes. Their names recall the
taste of Mediterranean cuisines; but this taste is the result of
combining ingredients and spices that did not exist until they
reached, at a given moment in history, the big larder of the
Mediterranean and became part of its long history of adapta-
tion (Abdelkader, 1998;Chomski, 2010).
In conclusion, the Mediterranean has been a permanent
laboratory for mankind to show the ability to adapt and
disseminate foods. Anyway, the inhabitants of the Mediterra-
nean have built their food style through interaction or by
dening their own habits as opposed to those coming from the
other side of the basin. Thus, interaction and opposition are the
two complementary sides of Mediterranean cultures and also
of their diets.
Nutritional and healthy characteristics of the
Mediterranean lifestyle
In 1975 the American physiologist Ancel Keys published,
together with his wife Margaret, the book How to Eat well
and Stay well. The Mediterranean Way, which talks about the
diet of common people in Greece, Italy and along the
Mediterranean coasts of France and Spain (Keys and Keys,
1975). Known as the Seven Countries Study, it was the result
of more than 25 years of cross-national studies on the subject
of dietcholesterolcoronary diseases and became a bestseller.
Ancel Keys can be considered the discoverer from the
scientic evidence, of the Mediterranean Diet and its benets.
Through his works and publications, but also thanks to his
sensitivity, his observation skills and his curiosity, the
researcher Ancel Keys not only showed a transcendental
relationship between diet and cardiovascular diseases but also
discovered and disseminated with passion a lifestyle that
fascinated him and which he understood as indivisible and
substantial to everything he was studying in the Mediterranean.
His interdisciplinary approach, which has been adopted lately
through sociology, anthropology, economics, agronomy and
biology, among others, has helped to extend its perception
considerably. On the other hand, as previously reported, the
Mediterranean is characterised by various food models inu-
enced by different cultures, histories and religions. Never-
theless, although different regions in the Mediterranean basin
have their food model, it is appropriate to consider these as
variants of a single entity, the Mediterranean Diet. Indeed, the
dietary patterns that prevail in the Mediterranean have many
common characteristics, most of which stem from the fact that
olive oil occupies a central position in all of them. Olive oil is
important not only for its own health benets, but it is also
associated with the consumption of large quantities of vege-
tables in the form of salads and equally large quantities as
cooked foods. Other essential components of the Mediterra-
nean diet are cereals (especially the wheat) and their derivative
products, the sh and shellsh, legumes and nuts. Total fat
may be high, around or in excess of 40% of total energy intake
(as in Greece), or moderate, around 30% of total energy intake
(as in Italy). In all instances, however, the ratio of mono-
unsaturated/saturated fats is much higher than in other regions
of the world, including northern Europe and North America.
Thus, it might be convenient to dene the Mediterranean Diet
as a plant-based pattern, where vegetables, fruits, cereals
(preferably as whole grain), legumes and nuts should be
consumed in high amount and frequency. This pattern also
includes moderate consumption of sh (especially the blue-
sh), white meat, eggs, milk and dairy products, principally
yogurt and cheese (Willet et al., 1995). On the contrary,
consumption of red meat, processed meats, and foods rich in
sugars and saturated fats should be small in both quantity and
frequency. An adequate daily intake of water should be
guaranteed, as well as moderate consumption of wine (pre-
ferably the red type) is recommended. In this context, it is
important to specify as the consumption of wine, especially
during family meals, is due to social and religious aspects
(Willet et al., 1995). On the other hand, the high consumption
of vegetables, fresh fruits and whole cereals as well as the
habitual use of extra virgin olive oil guarantee a high intake of
monounsaturated fatty acids, carotenoids, ascorbic acid, toco-
pherols, various vitamins, mineral and several healthy sub-
stances, such as polyphenols and anthocyanines. The vegetable
products are very important also for their intake of dietary
bre, which improves intestinal peristalsis and reduces the
glycaemic index of the meal. Instead, the low consumption of
red meat and its derivates, together with the moderate
consumption of milk and dairy products allows to reduce the
intake of the exogenous cholesterol and saturated fatty acids.
On the other hand, the combined use of pulses and cereals
allows to ingest vegetable proteins with high nutritional value,
while the blue-sh guarantees an adequate intake of poly-
unsaturated fat acids. High consumption of dietary bre, low
glycaemic index and glycaemic load, anti-inammatory
effects, and antioxidant compounds may act together to
produce favourable effects on health status (Visioli and
Galli, 2001;Pitsavos et al., 2005;Estruch et al., 2009,
2006). Moreover, the Mediterranean Diet is associated with a
lower incidence of mortality and is also related to lower
incidence of cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, certain
types of cancer and neurodegenerative diseases (Estruch et al.,
2013;Mitrou et al., 2007;Salas-Salvadó et al., 2013;So
et al., 2010,2013). However, people from Mediterranean
countries are changing the traditional Mediterranean Diet and
include low nutrient dense foods (such as sugared soft drinks,
sweets, bakery products, salted snacks) or vary their food
processing methods (such as renement of our) towards a less
healthy diet. These changes may have contributed to an
increased risk of decient intakes for some vitamins, especially
folates, vitamins A and D, as well as inadequate intakes for the
rest of the vitamins, in particular among certain population
groups or collectives (Serra-Majem et al., 2002).
Finally, seasonality, biodiversity, the use of traditional and
local food products are the key elements of the Mediterranean
Diet for better understanding how all these differences may be
translated in several Mediterranean Diets. These are also
characterised by qualitative, cultural and lifestyle elements,
M. Renna et al. / International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science ](]]]])]]]]]] 3
Please cite this article as: Renna, M., et al., The Mediterranean Diet between traditional foods and human health: The culinary example of Puglia (Southern
Italy). International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2014.12.001
such as conviviality, culinary tradition and physical activity.
For these reasons, in agreement with some Authors (Bally,
2000;Corominas, 2000), could seem reductive to consider this
pattern only as dietary models, while could be more appro-
priate to speak about the Mediterranean lifestyles.
Background of the traditional cuisine in Puglia
Puglia region has been, for centuries, a territory dominated
by several dynasties that has given an inheritance of different
customs and knowledge included culinary ones. The union of
its historical experiences and variegated environmental char-
acteristics of the territory has originated the traditional cuisine
of Puglia, which is clearly linked to healthy principles of the
ancient Mediterranean Diet. In fact, in this cuisine great space
is reserved to extra virgin olive oil, vegetables, sea products
and cereals. The use of these products as ingredients to prepare
traditional dishes has been due to their availability in a
variegated territory. Therefore, it is important to underline that
the Puglia region is relatively long (350 km) and narrow
(60 km) with an area of about 19,358 km
2
. This area, open
to Adriatic and Ionian Seas with a coastal zone of nearly
800 km, is prevalently level to slightly sloping, with more than
60% of territory below 200 m above sea level (Elia and
Santamaria, 2013). Puglia is located in the southern part of
Italy and it is possible to place this region in the centre of the
Mediterranean basin. Moreover, the geographical length and
the variety of orographic and pedoclimatic conditions give rise
to the numerical and quantitative richness of vegetables grown
in the region (Elia and Santamaria, 2013).
Puglia, which has a long tradition in vegetable growing, is
particularly rich in local vegetable varieties, obtained by
farmers themselves after repeated simple selection procedures
generation after generation (Elia and Santamaria, 2013). Only
in this Italian region a relevant number of traditional dishes can
be found based on pasta and vegetables as main ingredients,
which cannot be found in such number in other Italian regions.
Therefore, several local varieties of vegetables for which there
is a strong link with the regional traditions are used as
ingredients to prepare traditional dishes of the Puglia's cuisine.
On the other hand, these local vegetables are very appreciated
both as rened food and for the intake of several healthy
nutrients. For example, the fruits of carosello and barattiere
(herbaceous plants belonging to Cucumis melo L. species)
(Fig. 1) are consumed at the immature stage, fresh and raw,
instead of cucumbers, due to their better quality prole. They
are characterised by being refreshing and digestible as well as
having high potassium and low reducing sugar and sodium
contents (Serio et al., 2005). The carota di Polignano a Mare
(a multicoloured landrace of Daucus carota L.) (Fig. 2)is
greatly appreciated by local people for its special taste,
tenderness, crispness, avour, fragrance and great variety of
colours, that range from yellow to dark purple in the outer core
and from pale yellow to light green in the inner core (Cefola
et al., 2012). It is used as a raw vegetable or as an ingredient in
a wide range of dishes; from appetisers to desserts, the carota
di Polignano a Mare shows great potential for culinary
applications. Moreover, for its high content in antioxidant
activity, total phenols, carotenoids and β-carotene it can be
regarded also as a functional food. The interesting traits of
other local vegetables used in some traditional recipes are
better reported in the following paragraphs, however it is
important to underline that a particular segment of typical
Puglia's vegetables is represented by wild edible plants (WEP),
which includes some progenitors of cultivated vegetables. The
food use of WEP is deeply rooted in the tradition of the region
and they are part of many regional recipes. For example in the
Foggia cuisine, WEP alone or in combination with pasta, bread
(pancotto) or pulses, are always present on local tables. The
historical gure of terrazzani, who are collectors and sellers of
wild herbs, mushrooms, frogs, snails and lampascioni,is
typical in Capitanata (Foggia province). Still today examples
of this singular gure of ante litteram ecologist can be found at
the local markets in Foggia and its province with their rich
load of spontaneous biodiversity collected in the woods and
the neighbouring rural areas. The following are signicant
examples for Puglia: wild cardoon, wild asparagus, rocket,
Fig. 1. Different Puglia's local varieties of carosello and barattiere (Cucumis
melo L.).
Fig. 2. Assortment of Polignano carrots: it is interesting to note the great
variety of the root colours which is highly appreciated by consumers.
M. Renna et al. / International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science ](]]]])]]]]]]4
Please cite this article as: Renna, M., et al., The Mediterranean Diet between traditional foods and human health: The culinary example of Puglia (Southern
Italy). International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2014.12.001
wild chicory, purslane, some leaf beets and many other species
(Bianco et al., 2009;Gonnella et al., 2010;Elia and
Santamaria, 2013). Bianco et al. (2009) reports a list of 532
spontaneous species present in the Puglia region which have
been used in the past and until recently as food, indicating the
botanical family and name, common name, frequency in the
territory, the edible part and how it is prepared. Some of these
species have been subjected to more or less successful attempts
of cultivation. The cases of lampascione, wild asparagus, wild
cardoon, borage, wild fennel, sage and rosemary are indicative
in this respect. Among these examples of domestication, one of
the most successful is that of wild rocket (Diplotaxis tenuifolia
(L.) DC.) (Fig. 3), which, since the rst attempts in Italy in
early 1990s, is currently grown over a 1000 ha area, mainly in
greenhouses. Since 1990 there has been an increase in its
consumption also due to the initiatives of some great chefs
who proposed rocket in various recipes. Thus, for example, rocket
is used as an ingredient in risotto,gnocchi,tortellini, different types
of pasta, pizzas, piadine, with canapés and bruschetta and to
prepare carpaccio. In addition, it is used by small scale artisan
processors to prepare creams, sauces and pesto.
Another important trait of the traditional cuisine of Puglia is
the predominant role that have cereal-based products, espe-
cially wheat. This custom is undoubtedly linked to the local
habit which involves the constant presence of the bread on the
table in all its many regional varieties, or the pasta of durum
wheat as well as the soups that include several type of whole
cereals. Cavatelli,orecchiette, lagane, maccaruni are the name
of some type of traditional pasta in Puglia. Interesting is the
case of the pasta di grano arsowhich is made from wheat
that is toasted and then crushed. Pasta made from this type of
our tends to be purple brown. Originally, this type of wheat
was obtained from gleaning the wheat elds after the stubble
was burnt, when the left-over spikes from the harvest, burned
in the re, were collected. Many types of traditional pasta,
bread and bakery products represent the principal ingredients
of several Puglia's recipes and are produced by the use of local
varieties of wheat and the application of traditional processing.
Some of these product have obtained also the Denomination of
Protected Origin (DPO). It is the quality mark that is assigned
by the European Union to those food products that have
unique and unmistakable features that depend exclusively, or
mainly, on the area where they are produced. The geographic
location includes both the natural (climate, environment) and
human (traditional production techniques, craftsmanship) fac-
tors which are combined to produce something that cannot be
imitated outside the specic production zone. For a product
with the DPO, the production, transformation and processing
phases must all take place within a specic geographic area.
The conditions to achieve EU recognition must be listed in a
specic protocol, with the production method, the product
name and description, the geographic connes and all the
limitations and prescriptions relative to the product production
and labelling method. For example, pane di Altamura DPO
(bread of Altamura city) is a bakery product made from durum
wheat our, according to the ancient method of production
which requires the use of starter dough, sea salt and water. The
starter dough has always been a very important aspect for
making traditional bakery products in Puglia as well as in other
Mediterranean countries. In fact, in the past it was the only
type of yeast, while nowadays it is used to obtain products
with best sensorial traits. The processed our used to prepare
pane di Altamura DPOis obtained from the grinding of
various types of durum wheat: appulo,arcangelo,duilio
and simetowhich are produced in the area where the bread is
to be made. Bread is always been a staple diet of the
population of Puglia. Large loaves used to be prepared at
home and taken to public wood-burning furnaces for baking.
Another type of traditional bread is pane di Laterza also
prepared by the use of durum wheat our made from local
varieties of wheat. The rst reports relating to the production
of bread in this district of Puglia dates back to the 5th century
B.C. The bread, at the time known as focaccia, was made from
spelt and barley, with or without yeast. It was cooked under
ashes or on embers. It is important to emphasise that in the past
the our was produced with millstones (Fig. 4), allowing to
Fig. 4. Old millstone used in the past to produce our.Fig. 3. Rocket on pizza after cooking.
M. Renna et al. / International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science ](]]]])]]]]]] 5
Please cite this article as: Renna, M., et al., The Mediterranean Diet between traditional foods and human health: The culinary example of Puglia (Southern
Italy). International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2014.12.001
obtain a whole wheat our rich in bre with a lower glycaemic
index than present rened ours.
Finally, the virgin olive oil represents a very important
ingredient of Puglia's cuisine not only for its health properties.
In fact, it contains a great number of volatile and non-volatile
compounds that enrich the taste of many dishes by its fragrant
and peculiar avours. In this context the complex avour of
virgin olive oil by fruits of cultivar from Puglia is appreciated
internationally by gourmets and cherished by native consu-
mers. There are different virgin olive oils with DPO in Puglia,
and each has different characteristics and traditions. For
example Terra di Bari DPOoil is yellow to green in colour,
and has a fruity avour with a slight piquant and bitter taste.
The smell is redolent of the fragrance of grass and fresh
almonds. The olive growing tradition is very strong in the
province of Bari. It was already a thriving trade in Roman
times. It subsequently gained momentum in medieval times
and spread as far Venice from where it reached other countries
of Continental Europe. On the other hand, Terra d'Otranto
DPOoil gets its name from the word formerly used by
Basilian monks to indicate the area within the arc of Murge as
well as within the Ionian and Adriatic coasts. In this case the
cultivation of the fruit was introduced by the Phoenicians and
Greeks, but it was the Basilian monks who made it a thriving
activity. This type of virgin olive oil presents a yellow or green
colour with greenish tint. Fruity taste that is slightly piquant
and bitter and fruity fragrance with hints of leaves are also
typical in Terra d'Otranto DPOvirgin olive oil. Other
typical olive oil in Puglia are Dauno DPO,Collina di
Brindisi DPOand Terre Tarentine DPOto be tasted with
vegetables and pulses as well as with cruditè and sh. Puglia
region with about 40 millions olive trees must only have so
many wonderful virgin olive oils (Puglia Region, 2010).
Finally, it is important to underline as the food products
described in this paper represent only a piece of all the variety
and richness of the typical food production made in Puglia.
Other several examples could be reported, nevertheless making
a complete list of food products from all Puglia areas was not
the aim of this work.
Puglia's dishes: beyond a simple experience of tasting
Puglia is a land with a traditional cuisine in which sea
products, vegetables and animal foods are well mixed in
several recipes. Therefore, the taste and avours of sea and
countryside can combine itself in a dish to create complex
sensorial perceptions but always intriguing. On the other hand,
the sensorial experience of these dishes is only one of the
positive reasons to consume them. In fact, many of ingredients
used to prepare Puglia's dishes have nutritional and healthy
characteristics. In this context it is important to underline that
some essential ingredients of the Mediterranean diet (such as
cereals and their derivates, sh, legumes and olive oil) have
been the criteria used for selecting the recipes. Thus, some of
the recipes that characterise the traditional cuisine of Puglia as
well as healthy benets of its ingredients are showed in the
following dishes. Anyway, two important aspects could be
considered: (1) not always a recipe can be considered diffused
in all areas of the region; (2) Puglia has a very articulated
variation of typical dishes throughout all the territory.
Fave bianche e cicorie
In this dish a purée of husked broad beans (Vicia faba L.)
cooked in earthenware is presented with boiled vegetables and
raw Cipolla di Acquaviva delle Fonti (a local variety of Allium
cepa L.) (Fig. 5). The extra virgin olive oil, poured at the end
of preparation, represents not only the seasoning but also a fat
source which is rich in monounsaturated fatty acids. The origin
of this dish is very old, and probably it is the result of the
inuence of different cultures, since a similar recipe (i.e. Greek
Fava) represents a traditional dish of the Greek cuisine.
Anyway, fave bianche e cicorie is a very nutritious dish since
broad beans are high in protein and carbohydrates with low
glycaemic index. Moreover, the local habit to consume also bread
together this dish improves the nutritional quality of the proteins as
regards the essential amino acids content. In the traditional recipe,
dried broad beans without the husk (the leathery outer cuticle) are
soaked for about 10 h and then, cooked with water and some spice
until a purée is obtained. The term cicorie is traditionally used to
indicate WEP (i.e. Chicorium intybus var. silvestre Bischoff.,
Sonchus oleraceus L., Helminthoteca echioides L., etc.), however
it is possible to use different types of cultivated chicory (C. intybus
var. foliosum) as single vegetable or mixed with WEP. Finally, the
use of Cipolla di Acquaviva delle Fonti allows to improve the
chromatic aspect of this dish as well as its taste. In fact, this local
variety of onion is renowned for its sweetness and is recognised by
its colour between carmine red and purple, that becomes lighter
toward the inside, until it becomes completely white.
Orecchiette e cime di rapa
For this traditional recipe (Fig. 6) the most famous fresh
pasta of Puglia (orecchiette) is mixed with broccoli raab (so-
called cima di rapa). Orecchiette are produced by mixing
Fig. 5. Fave bianche e cicorie: purée of husked broad beans presented with
boiled vegetables and raw Cipolla di Acquaviva delle Fonti.
M. Renna et al. / International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science ](]]]])]]]]]]6
Please cite this article as: Renna, M., et al., The Mediterranean Diet between traditional foods and human health: The culinary example of Puglia (Southern
Italy). International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2014.12.001
durum wheat our and water and are made in the typical round
shape. According to Sada (1991) orecchiette were found in
Puglia in the second half of the XVI century. It would seem
that their origin is in Sannicandro di Bari (a little town of
central Puglia), while the name is derived from a Jewish sweet:
orecchie di Aman(Aman's ears). Cima di rapa (Brassica
rapa L. subsp. rapa sylvestris var. esculenta) is an ancient
species of Mediterranean origin, linked to the culinary tradi-
tions of a large part of Central-Southern Italy. This vegetable is
mainly cultivated in Puglia, where, since July 2006, it has been
included in the list of regional traditional products. In the last
decades, moreover, this vegetable has attracted the attention of
an increasing number of consumers in Europe, United States,
Canada, Argentina and Australia. In North America cime di
rapa are also known by the names of broccoli rabe, broccoli
de rabe, raab, rapa, rappini, rapini, spring broccoli, Italian
turnip and taitcat (Di Gioia and Santamaria, 2009). The
popularity of this typical Puglia's vegetable is probably due
both to its aromatic taste and content of glucosinolates, well-
known as important healthy compounds. After tasting of this
dish is possible to perceive a little bitter sensation from cime di
rapa. However, the overall taste is well balanced by organo-
leptic characteristics of both orecchiette, extra virgin olive oil
and eventually hot chilly pepper and a few anchovy llets.
Soup of pulses and whole wheat
This is an important traditional dish (Fig. 7) which was the
basic food of many families in the past. Effectively, legumes
and grain self-produced made it possible to satisfy both the
energy needs and protein intake, so the pulses were also
considered as the poor man's meat. To prepare this dish
several traditional pulses of Puglia are used. For example
cicerchia (Lathyrus sativus L.) which is an ancient pulse
similar to the chickpea, with grains that are wedge-shaped,
sharp, whitish, grayish-brown, or yellowish in colour. Bean
(Phaseulus vulgaris L.) of Monti Dauni Meridionalihas
pleasant taste, with good digestibility and is easy to cook
because of its thin skin. Also lentil (Lens culinaris L.) of
Altamura,pea(Pisum sativum L.) nano di Zollino, fava
bean (Vicia faba L.) of Carpinoand black garbanzo bean are
traditional pulses used together with whole wheat to prepare
this main dish.
Little savoury pie of anchovies
To prepare this dish (Fig. 8) the head of fresh anchovies is
rst removed, so they are opened in half, gutted and cleaned
carefully. Then, the anchovies are placed in layers in a
container for adding virgin olive oil, parsley, salt, pepper
and bread crumbs. The lling used to stuff the pie is made up
of eggs, cheese and fresh tomato. This is a typical example of a
dish in which sea ingredients are combined with products from
countryside to create a dish with very special avours. The
used blue sh also allows a good intake of essential poly-
unsaturated fatty acids. Also in this case it is possible to
underline how the origin of the recipe has been inuenced by
other food cultures such as the Spanish cuisine.
Fig. 7. Zuppa di legumi: several type of beans (fava bean, lentils, cicerchia,
black garbanzo bean) and cereals.
Fig. 8. Little savoury pie of anchovies.
Fig. 6. Orecchiette e cime di rapa: fresh Puglia's pasta with broccoli raab.
M. Renna et al. / International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science ](]]]])]]]]]] 7
Please cite this article as: Renna, M., et al., The Mediterranean Diet between traditional foods and human health: The culinary example of Puglia (Southern
Italy). International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2014.12.001
Salad of crenate broomrape
Crenate broomrape (Orobanche crenata Forsk.) also known
as bean broomrape is a root parasite plant that produces
devastating effects on many crop legumes and has become a
limiting factor for faba bean production in the Mediterranean
region. However, in Puglia it is considered a wild edible plant
used to prepare several traditional dishes. On the other hand,
crenate broomrape is interesting for its content of phenols that
are both avour components and healthy compounds as
antioxidants. Traditionally, the stems are clean, washed and
boiled in water and salt. After boiling, the stems are soaked in
water to reduce the bitter taste and used as an ingredient in
several recipes. In the present recipe crenate broomrape are
used to prepare a salad with extra virgin olive oil, vinegar,
mint and fresh garlic (Fig. 9). The sensory traits of this dish are
complex but very intriguing. Indeed, sour and bitter taste are
well combined with the pungency of the garlic and the
freshness from the mint. Moreover, the lingering aftertaste
and aromas make this a very tasty dish.
Flowersof lampascioni
Lampascioni is the common name used to indicate the bulbs
of Leopoldia comosa L., that is a spontaneous plant growing in
all Mediterranean area. In Puglia the bulbs of this wild edible
plant were used in traditional gastronomy for different
preparations. Main tasks are: cleaning of bulbs by eliminating
the roots and outer tunics, cross cutting the basal plant,
washing, boiling and then soaking them in water to reduce
their typical bitter taste. The product is typical of the tradition
of the rural farms. Bruni (1857) indicated lampascioni
sott'olioamong the different ways to use the bulb. In this
recipe lampascioni have been oured and fried in extra virgin
olive oil for obtaining crispy snack that reminds a ower
(Fig. 10). It is important to underline that the use of the extra
virgin olive oil for frying means no harm for your health since
it has a high smoke point. The taste of this dish is really intense
and intriguing with a lingering aftertaste that results aromatic
and slightly bitter. Therefore, the fried lampascioni are topped
with vincotto that is a brown syrup obtained from grape must.
The traditional method of producing vincotto requires 1215 h
of boiling freshly crushed grape must in a large copper or steel
boiler; the grape are picked late to ensure a high sugar content.
Vincotto is brown with more or less intense red reection; it is
very thick and sweet because of the sugar present in the must.
In the past vincotto was so precious that it became the only
condiment that the people used during the winter festivities
and sometimes for therapeutic purpose.
Conclusions
In this paper is reported the culture, history, identity and
heritage of the traditional cuisine of the Puglia region to
understand possible linkages with the Mediterranean Diet.
Effectively, the culinary model of this region of Southern Italy
is mainly vegetarian because only a small share of calories is
of animal origin; cereals are the basic ingredient, pulses and
olive oil the main protein and fat source, respectively.
However, in Puglia's cuisine sea products, vegetables and
animal foods are well mixed in several recipes. Therefore, the
taste and avours of sea and countryside can combine itself in
a dish to create complex sensorial perceptions but always
intriguing. Nevertheless, the sensorial experience is only one
of the positive reasons to consume these dishes, because many
of the used ingredients have nutritional and healthy character-
istics. Finally, knowledge of ancient recipes and culinary
traditions may be an opportunity for innovation in gastronomy
if new culinary techniques are applied in popular and typical
dishes in order to enhance their sensory and nutritional
properties.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Dr. Pietro Santamaria and Dr. Angelo
Signore for pictures number 1 and 2.
Fig. 9. Salad of crenate broomrape (Orobanche crenata Forsk.).
Fig. 10. Flowerof lampascioni (Leopoldia comosa L.).
M. Renna et al. / International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science ](]]]])]]]]]]8
Please cite this article as: Renna, M., et al., The Mediterranean Diet between traditional foods and human health: The culinary example of Puglia (Southern
Italy). International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2014.12.001
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Please cite this article as: Renna, M., et al., The Mediterranean Diet between traditional foods and human health: The culinary example of Puglia (Southern
Italy). International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2014.12.001
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Av etleri reçeteleri le yapılmış, Baharatların mutfakta kullanımı üzeri geniş bir çalışmadır.
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Background Observational cohort studies and a secondary prevention trial have shown an inverse association between adherence to the Mediterranean diet and cardiovascular risk. We conducted a randomized trial of this diet pattern for the primary prevention of cardiovascular events. Methods In a multicenter trial in Spain, we randomly assigned participants who were at high cardiovascular risk, but with no cardiovascular disease at enrollment, to one of three diets: a Mediterranean diet supplemented with extra-virgin olive oil, a Mediterranean diet supplemented with mixed nuts, or a control diet (advice to reduce dietary fat). Participants received quarterly individual and group educational sessions and, depending on group assignment, free provision of extra-virgin olive oil, mixed nuts, or small nonfood gifts. The primary end point was the rate of major cardiovascular events (myocardial infarction, stroke, or death from cardiovascular causes). On the basis of the results of an interim analysis, the trial was stopped after a median follow-up of 4.8 years. Results A total of 7447 persons were enrolled (age range, 55 to 80 years); 57% were women. The two Mediterranean-diet groups had good adherence to the intervention, according to self-reported intake and biomarker analyses. A primary end-point event occurred in 288 participants. The multivariable-adjusted hazard ratios were 0.70 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.54 to 0.92) and 0.72 (95% CI, 0.54 to 0.96) for the group assigned to a Mediterranean diet with extra-virgin olive oil (96 events) and the group assigned to a Mediterranean diet with nuts (83 events), respectively, versus the control group (109 events). No diet-related adverse effects were reported. Conclusions Among persons at high cardiovascular risk, a Mediterranean diet supplemented with extra-virgin olive oil or nuts reduced the incidence of major cardiovascular events. (Funded by the Spanish government's Instituto de Salud Carlos III and others; Controlled-Trials.com number, ISRCTN35739639 .).
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BACKGROUND: Observational cohort studies and a secondary prevention trial have shown an inverse association between adherence to the Mediterranean diet and cardiovascular risk. We conducted a randomized trial of this diet pattern for the primary prevention of cardiovascular events. METHODS: In a multicenter trial in Spain, we randomly assigned participants who were at high cardiovascular risk, but with no cardiovascular disease at enrollment, to one of three diets: a Mediterranean diet supplemented with extra-virgin olive oil, a Mediterranean diet supplemented with mixed nuts, or a control diet (advice to reduce dietary fat). Participants received quarterly individual and group educational sessions and, depending on group assignment, free provision of extra-virgin olive oil, mixed nuts, or small nonfood gifts. The primary end point was the rate of major cardiovascular events (myocardial infarction, stroke, or death from cardiovascular causes). On the basis of the results of an interim analysis, the trial was stopped after a median follow-up of 4.8 years. RESULTS: A total of 7447 persons were enrolled (age range, 55 to 80 years); 57% were women. The two Mediterranean-diet groups had good adherence to the intervention, according to self-reported intake and biomarker analyses. A primary end-point event occurred in 288 participants. The multivariable-adjusted hazard ratios were 0.70 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.54 to 0.92) and 0.72 (95% CI, 0.54 to 0.96) for the group assigned to a Mediterranean diet with extra-virgin olive oil (96 events) and the group assigned to a Mediterranean diet with nuts (83 events), respectively, versus the control group (109 events). No diet-related adverse effects were reported. CONCLUSIONS: Among persons at high cardiovascular risk, a Mediterranean diet supplemented with extra-virgin olive oil or nuts reduced the incidence of major cardiovascular events. (Funded by the Spanish government's Instituto de Salud Carlos III and others; Controlled-Trials.com number, ISRCTN35739639.).
Book
In this book are described numerous species of Apulia wild edible flora.