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The Influence of Urban Design and Planning on Physical Activity
Abstract
As explored in previous chapters, rethinking the way cities are built to promote healthy and sustainable living is now a multi-sector pursuit. For public health, this has been fuelled by global concerns about rising levels of physical inactivity, sedentary behaviour, and obesity and their impact on major chronic diseases. However, the interventions required to address these major public health challenges (i.e., the creation of compact, pedestrian friendly accessible, attractive, safe and convivial neighbourhoods served by high quality public transport) will also help address other pressing global issues including managing population growth, climate change, and future proofing against declining oil supplies (Giles-Corti, Foster et al. 2010).
Low-density, car-dependent communities are increasingly being shown to be detrimental to both human health and the environment. Communities such as this discourage physical activity while increasing sedentary behaviour, vehicle miles travelled and air pollution. As a result, built environment features that create urban sprawl are risk factors for preventable and now highly prevalent chronic diseases, the prevention of which represents the major public health challenge of the 21st century globally. Nevertheless, creating communities that support active living will produce ‘co-benefits’ across multiple sectors.
The idea that city design impacts the health and wellbeing of residents is not new. The mass movement of people to cities in the 19th century spurred the first Public Health Act in the United Kingdom (UK), which successfully reduced infectious and respiratory diseases associated with crowding, poor sanitation and water quality, and exposure to pollution. Today, access to sanitation, clean water and safe affordable housing remain the building blocks of healthy urban development. In the 21st century, urban planning is not simply a vehicle for preventing infectious and respiratory diseases, but also a viable means of tackling major chronic diseases, with a particular emphasis on facilitating residents to be physically active: indeed physical activity is a ‘magic bullet’ for reducing the risk of major chronic diseases plaguing health systems. Hence, urban planning’s efforts in this area cannot be underestimated.
This chapter explores the relationship between ‘place’ and physical activity. It begins by providing a rationale for why planners should prioritise neighbourhood designs that encourage residents to be physically active. It then reviews the evidence on community design features associated with various types of physical activity, before considering the implications for the planning of neighbourhoods. The question we hear you asking is ‘could this really work’? To answer this question, we present a case study on the implementation and evaluation of a state government’s planning policy in Western Australia. Finally, we offer some final thoughts to highlight the importance of your work as planners and creators of healthy urban developments.
... Food experts have paid particular attention to the performance of liveable cities wherein, for many reasons, the food domain most requires an overhaul due to the urbanisation problems caused by local prosperity (Coleman 2017, 71;Cretella and Buenger 2016;Morgan 2015;Cannuscio and Glanz 2011;Steel 2009;Davis and Carpenter 2009;Pothukuchi andKaufman 2000 1999;Fyfe 1998). The challenges in this domain include several topics like food advertising, the food desert, 1 accessibility to healthy foods (Moughtin and Shirley, 2005), food waste management, insufficient markets, low food supply (Giles-Corti et al. 2015;Donovan, Larsen, and McWhinnie 2011;Cannuscio and Glanz 2011), and conviviality in food practices (Parham 1990;2005;Parham and Abelman 2018). ...
... A closer examination of literature in this domain unveils a gap between disciplines. Several scholars in urban design address the significance of design qualities in the public realm but not in-depth with the food domain (Carmona 2018;Giles-Corti et al. 2015;Ellin 2013;Gehl 1996). Other disciplines like urban planning pay particular attention to the urban policies of the food system in an attempt to create liveable communities (AbouZiyan, Khalifa, and Hassan 2018;Pothukuchi 2004;McClafferty 2000;Valentine 1998). ...
This paper focuses on the social aspects of food consumption in the public realm and how built environment design should include places for conviviality. Current urban planning may fulfil human needs, but in some cases, individuals have unpleasant experiences while meeting these needs. A review of existing literature indicates that studies of conviviality during food consumption has focused on design qualities. To investigate the Egyptian experiences in food consumption, the current study employed qualitative and quantitative approaches through four streams of data collection: observations, interviews, opinionnaire and perme-ability analysis of catchment areas. The results provide design implications for conviviality of food practices to discover the multilateral dimensions of design that can make social interactions part of a satisfying experience. This research concludes that for con-viviality attached to food consumption, it is essential to focus on replicable aspects like supporting activities, social settings, and the design based on intent.
... Furthermore, studies have recognised attractive and accessible public infrastructure as important urban features to activate the population (e.g. Book 2017; Edwards and Tsouros 2008;Giles-Corti et al. 2015;Mahdjoubi and Spencer 2015). However, building a public infrastructure does not ensure physical activity among the wider population (see, e.g. ...
Following the outbreak of COVID-19 in 2020, the majority of European countries imposed lockdowns, whereas Sweden introduced comparatively moderate constraints. The Public Health Agency of Sweden stated that sports and physical activity could continue if conducted ‘safely’ and recommended outdoor activities. This article aims to identify new spatial practices and strategies developed by organised recreational sport providers (i.e. sport clubs, commercial providers) following the outbreak of the pandemic. Further, it identifies obstacles and opportunities for new spatial solutions, as well as possible long-term (lasting) effects of the strategies imposed. Also, it discusses these obstacles and opportunities in relation to contemporary sport facility challenge. The data draws upon 24 semi-structured interviews with sport coaches and leaders. All interviews were transcribed verbatim and analysed using a thematic analysis. The results suggest that most respondents show adaptability by moving their activities outdoors. Generally, for-profit organisations have been more innovative and adaptive. Obstacles for new spatial solutions include localisation, weather, (perceived) need of equipment, leadership, competing interests in public space, and notably the perception of what sport is. Positive examples of spatial adaptability show that there is a potential for sport providers to open up for different spatial solutions and more flexibility in relation to their activities, in order to ease the pressure on formal indoor (and, to some extent, outdoor) sport facilities while amending the perception of sport activities.
... The supply and proximity of sporting and recreational opportunities in the neighborhood are highly relevant to those with a lower territorial range and those unable to drive, like low-income households, children, adolescents, and elderly people (Giles-Corti et al., 2015). Moreover, the sense and knowledge of space developed by activating in public spaces could increase the comfort zone and territorial range of residents. ...
The natural environment is a central issue in both academic and wider societal discourse. The global sport industry is not immune from this discussion and has to confront its responsibility to reduce its impact on the natural environment. This book goes further than any other in surveying both the challenges and the opportunities presented to the sports industry as it engages with the sustainability agenda, exploring the various ways in which sport scholars can integrate sustainability into their research. With a multi-disciplinary sweep, including management, sociology, law, events, and ethics, this is a ground-breaking book in the study of sport.
Drawing on cutting edge research, it includes over thirty chapters covering all the most important themes in contemporary sport studies such as:
- climate change, sustainability, and corporate social responsibility
- ethics, governance, and the law
- event management, tourism, and pollution
- marketing, branding, and consumer behavior
- the Olympics, urban development, and mega-event legacies.
With contributions from world-leading researchers and practitioners from around the globe, this is the most comprehensive book ever published on sport and the environment.
This chapter offers a thorough examination of how recreational development can play a significant part in addressing water security concerns in the ever-changing environments of developing regions around the world. It explores the interrelated challenges of water shortage, with a specific focus on the increasing demands of population expansion, urbanisation, and climate change. By analysing various case studies, it highlights the numerous advantages that well-planned leisure projects may provide. The approach surpasses traditional water management practices, emphasising the interdependent connection between water security and recreational development. The chapter also highlights the economic, social, and environmental aspects of this relationship, underscoring the importance of a comprehensive approach. It provides forward-looking suggestions, highlighting crucial areas for future investigation, suggesting practical approaches for effective recreational development, and promoting ongoing cooperation and innovation.
This paper presents the main contours of debates about well-being and the connections between infrastructure, well-being, and sustainability. Broadly distributed well-being is the goal of national governments, and individual well-being represents a desirable positive state beyond physical health. Contemporary definitions of well-being originated in the field of psychology in the 1980s. Psychologists have highlighted three aspects of well-being: cognitive, affective and eudaimonic well-being. The cognitive evaluation of well-being, through the assessment of life satisfaction, is commonly used in large national and international surveys. There is a growing interest in comprehensive approaches to measuring well-being, and its eudaimonic aspect. The second half of the paper examines the relationship between well-being and three key infrastructure topics—mobility, public space and nature contact—by referring to classic and new examples from urban design, the social sciences, and urban restoration ecology. These examples suggest that dimensions of well-being—among them trust, optimism, belonging, delight and empathy—have consequences beyond the individual and are necessary for community commitments to sustainability and environmental justice.
Bei der Bestimmung des Einflusses von Beleuchtung auf Kriminalität bedarf es der Unterscheidung von Kriminalitätsaufkommen und Kriminalitätsangst. Während sich ein indirekter Einfluss von Beleuchtung auf das Zustandekommen von Straftaten annehmen lässt, konnte ein direkter Einfluss empirisch bisher nicht einwandfrei belegt werden. Denn neben der Beleuchtung können verschiedene weitere Faktoren wie beispielsweise die An- oder Abwesenheit
von Zeugen das Kriminalitätsaufkommen beeinflussen. Im Gegensatz dazu haben verschiedene Studien den positiven Einfluss von Beleuchtung auf die Senkung von Kriminalitätsangst nicht nur generell belegen, sondern auch quantifizieren können. In der Nacht erzeugen Straßenbeleuchtungs- installationen mit einer mittleren horizontalen Beleuchtungsstärke von etwa 7,0 bis 9,0 lx
bei einer minimalen Beleuchtungsstärke von circa 2,0 lx ein »gutes« und Installationen
mit einer mittleren Beleuchtungsstärke von 3,0 bis 5,0 lx und einer minimalen Beleuchtungsstärke von 0,6 bis 0,9 lx ein »ausreichendes« Sicherheitsgefühl (im Vergleich zu dem Sicherheitsgefühl am Tage).
Studien haben darüber hinaus mit Blick auf adaptive Beleuchtungsinstallationen den Einfluss verschiedener Dimmcharakteristika und deren örtliche Verteilung auf das Sicherheitsgefühl untersucht; dabei konnte belegt werden, dass eine hohe Helligkeit
in der direkten Umgebung das größte Sicherheitsgefühl auslöst. Trotz dieser Fortschritte in der Erforschung des Einflusses von Beleuchtung auf das Sicherheitsempfinden bleiben verschiedenen Fragen offen. So gibt
es bei adaptiven Beleuchtungsanlagen weiteren Klärungsbedarf in Bezug auf Dimmwerte,
TWA-Fachgebiet
Physiologie und Wahrnehmung
Hochdimm- und Nachlaufzeiten. Vor allem
bedarf es weiterer Untersuchungen, um den Einfluss von vertikalen Beleuchtungsstärken
auf die Gesichtserkennung und Raumwahrneh- mung zu analysieren. Davon abgesehen gilt es, bei der kriminalitätsangstsenkenden Lichtplanung potentielle Zielkonflikte – beispielsweise in
Bezug auf die Reduzierung von Lichtverschmut- zung oder bezüglich der ästhetischen Wirkung eines Beleuchtungskonzepts – zu berücksichtigen.
Ausserdem müssen neben den verschiedenen quantitativen Empfehlungen für das Reduzieren von Kriminalitätsangst auch qualitative
Aspekte bei der Lichtplanung berücksichtigt und dabei vor allem die Dreidimensionalität des öffentlichen Raums in den Blick genommen werden. Dabei empfiehlt es sich, die drei Ortscharakteristika »Prospect«, »Refuge« und »Escape« (Fisher und Nasar) in der Nacht mittels der Beleuchtung lesbar zu machen.
Planning for Greying Cities: Age-Friendly City Planning and Design Research and Practice highlights how modern town planning and design act as a positive force for population ageing, taking on these challenges from a user-oriented perspective. Although often related to 'healthy city' concepts, the contexts of age-friendly cities and communities (AFCC) were not emphasized until the early 2000s. Planning for Greying Cities is the first book to bring together fundamental and cutting-edge research exploring dimensions of age-friendly cities in different spatial scales. Chapters examine the ageing circumstances and challenges in cities, communities, and rural areas in terms of land use planning, urban design, transport planning, housing, disaster resilience, and governance and empowerment, with international case studies and empirical research results of age-friendly environment studies. It is essential reading for academics and practicians in urban planning, gerontology, transport planning, and environmental design.
Regular active commuting by walking/cycling can help maintain an active lifestyle. The frequency, duration and correlates of school active commuting were examined for primary school children in NSW, Australia. Walking/cycling-only and in combination with bus/car were of short duration (median 7 or 4 min, respectively) and their frequency dropped within a short distance (>0.75 km) from school. Apart from distance, child's age, school affiliation and perceived safety, regular walking/cycling (10 trips, 22%) was associated with parents' travel mode to work and with father taking the child to school. Frequent walking/cycling (5 trips, 37%) was associated with child's level of independence and the perceived benefits of active commuting. Behaviour change in this setting requires multi-level strategies.
Walking or bicycling to school could contribute to children's daily physical activity, but physical environment changes are often needed to improve the safety and convenience of walking and cycling routes. The California Safe Routes to School (SR2S) legislation provided competitive funds for construction projects such as sidewalks, traffic lights, pedestrian crossing improvements, and bicycle paths.
A cross-sectional evaluation examined the relationship between urban form changes and walking and bicycle travel to school. Surveys were distributed to parents of third- through fifth-grade children at ten schools that had a completed SR2S project nearby. Two groups were created based on whether parents stated that their children would pass the SR2S project on the way to school or not.
Children who passed completed SR2S projects were more likely to show increases in walking or bicycle travel than were children who would not pass by projects (15% vs 4%), based on parents' responses.
Results support the effectiveness of SR2S construction projects in increasing walking or bicycling to school for children who would pass these projects on their way to school.
Studies of the relationship between walking and urban form consistently show that pedestrian-friendly neighbourhoods encourage local walking. However, the geographic scale of measurement of the built environment for developing walkability indices and their relationship with different types of walking (e.g. for transport and recreation) has not been fully examined. In this study, objective measures of the built environment were developed at three geographic scales: suburb, census collection district, and 15 min walk neighbourhood for each participant. Walking for transport and recreation within the neighbourhood was measured using the Neighbourhood Physical Activity Questionnaire. The likelihood of walking at all (yes/no) and as recommended for health benefit (150 min per week) were assessed using logistic regression. The walkability index captured a strong positive relationship between urban form and walking for transport, but found no relationship at any scale for recreational walking. Participants walking for transport and living in high versus low walkable areas were 63% more likely to walk at the suburb scale (odds ratio 1.63; 95% confidence interval 1.22–2.18), twice as likely to walk at the census collection district scale, and nearly three times more likely to walk at the 15 min walk scale (odds ration 2.79; 95% confidence interval 2.09–3.73). The scale at which environmental data are measured influenced the strength of the relationship, showing that the neighbourhood 15 min from home was most predictive of transport walking. This has research and policy implications. Standardised scales across studies would both improve comparability of results and enhance understanding of the influences on walking.
While the first part of this two-part essay portrayed the bleakness of the suburban public realm in the USA, the debate over how physical planning can contribute to making it more vibrant is the subject of this second part. Eurourbanism, or the practice of looking to European cities for a design paradigm, has been criticized on the grounds that the USA has its own distinct public realm which is either non-spatial in character or is located in 'non-traditional' public spaces, such as shopping malls, in contrast with the more 'traditional' European sites such as streets and squares. But there are questions about whether the distinctive 'American public realm' is as democratic, or can offer the diversity of experience of the 'traditional' public realm. A more recent addition to the debate has been 'new urbanism' or 'neotraditionalism', whose proponents have put forth a set of planning guidelines for suburbia by drawing on design principles embodied in the traditional American small town. The essay critically evaluates these guidelines by examining their application in two neotraditional developments and proposes a research agenda to move the debate ahead.
Pedestrian travel offers a wide range of benefits to both individuals and society. Planners and public health officials alike
have been promoting policies that improve the quality of the built environment for pedestrians: mixed land uses, interconnected
street networks, sidewalks and other facilities. Whether such policies will prove effective remains open to debate. Two issues
in particular need further attention. First, the impact of the built environment on pedestrian behavior may depend on the
purpose of the trip, whether for utilitarian or recreational purposes. Second, the connection between the built environment
and pedestrian behavior may be more a matter of residential location choice than of travel choice. This study aims to provide
new evidence on both questions. Using 1368 respondents to a 1995 survey conducted in six neighborhoods in Austin, TX, two
separate negative binomial models were estimated for the frequencies of strolling trips and pedestrian shopping trips within
neighborhoods. We found that although residential self-selection impacts both types of trips, it is the most important factor
explaining walking to a destination (i.e. for shopping). After accounting for self-selection, neighborhood characteristics
(especially perceptions of these characteristics) impact strolling frequency, while characteristics of local commercial areas
are important in facilitating shopping trips.
Few studies have investigated both the self-perceived and measured environment with objectively determined physical activity in older adults. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to examine measured and perceived environmental associations with physical activity of older adults residing across different neighborhood types.
One-hundred and forty-eight older individuals, mean age 64.3 ± 8.4, were randomly recruited from one of four neighborhoods that were pre-determined as either having high- or low walkable characteristics. Individual residences were geocoded and 200 m network buffers established. Both objective environment audit, and self-perceived environmental measures were collected, in conjunction with accelerometer derived physical activity behavior. Using both perceived and objective environment data, analysis consisted of a macro-level comparison of physical activity levels across neighborhood, and a micro-level analysis of individual environmental predictors of physical activity levels.
Individuals residing in high-walkable neighborhoods on average engaged in 11 min of moderate to vigorous physical activity per day more than individuals residing in low-walkable neighborhoods. Both measured access to non-residential destinations (b = .11, p < .001) and self-perceived access to non-residential uses (b = 2.89, p = .031) were significant predictors of time spent in moderate to vigorous physical activity. Other environmental variables significantly predicting components of physical activity behavior included presence of measured neighborhood crime signage (b = .4785, p = .031), measured street safety (b = 26.8, p = .006), and perceived neighborhood satisfaction (b = .5.8, p = .003).
Older adult residents who live in high-walkable neighborhoods, who have easy and close access to nonresidential destinations, have lower social dysfunction pertinent to crime, and generally perceive the neighborhood to a higher overall satisfaction are likely to engage in higher levels of physical activity behavior. Efforts aimed at promoting more walkable neighborhoods could influence activity levels in older adults.
Active school transport (AST) has declined rapidly in recent decades. While many studies have examined walking, cycling to school has received very little attention. Correlates of cycling are likely to differ to those from walking and cycling enables AST from further distances. This study examined individual, social and environmental factors associated with cycling to school among elementary school-aged children, stratified by gender.
Children (n = 1197) attending 25 Australian primary schools located in high or low walkable neighborhoods, completed a one-week travel diary and a parent/child questionnaire on travel habits and attitudes.
Overall, 31.2% of boys and 14.6% of girls cycled ≥ 1 trip/week, however 59.4% of boys and 36.7% of girls reported cycling as their preferred school transport mode. In boys (but not girls), school neighborhood design was significantly associated with cycling: i.e., boys attending schools in neighborhoods with high connectivity and low traffic were 5.58 times more likely to cycle (95% CI 1.11-27.96) and for each kilometer boys lived from school the odds of cycling reduced by 0.70 (95% CI 0.63-0.99). Irrespective of gender, cycling to school was associated with parental confidence in their child's cycling ability (boys: OR 10.39; 95% CI 3.79-28.48; girls: OR 4.03; 95% CI 2.02-8.05), parental perceived convenience of driving (boys: OR 0.42; 95% CI 0.23-0.74; girls: OR 0.40; 95% CI 0.20-0.82); and child's preference to cycle (boys: OR 5.68; 95% CI 3.23-9.98; girls: OR 3.73; 95% CI 2.26-6.17).
School proximity, street network connectivity and traffic exposure in school neighborhoods was associated with boys (but not girls) cycling to school. Irrespective of gender, parents need to be confident in their child's cycling ability and must prioritize cycling over driving.
We examined associations of attractiveness, size, and proximity of multiple neighborhood open spaces (NOSs) with recreational walking.
Adults participating in the Residential Environments (RESIDE) study (n=1366) in Perth, Australia, reported time spent engaging in recreational walking within their neighborhoods. Park audit data and geographic information systems were used to identify the most attractive, largest, and nearest NOS within a 1.6-km radius from each participant's residential location. Regression analysis was used to examine attributes (attractiveness, size, and proximity) of these open spaces and their associations with participants' recreational walking.
Shorter distance to attractive open spaces was associated with doing any recreational walking, but adults with larger attractive open spaces within 1.6 km of their home were more likely to walk 150 minutes or more in a week.
For adults, the presence of a large, high-quality park within walking distance of one's home may be more important in promoting sufficient amounts of walking for health benefits than is the presence of an open space within a shorter distance.
Children's unstructured outdoor free-play (or active free-play) has the potential to make an important contribution to children's overall physical activity levels. Limited research has, however, examined physical activity in this domain. This study examined associations between individual, social and physical environmental factors and the frequency with which children play in particular outdoor locations outside school hours. This study also investigated whether the frequency of playing in outdoor locations was associated with children's overall physical activity levels.
Participants including 8-9 year old children and their parents (n = 187) were recruited from a selection of primary schools of varying socioeconomic status across metropolitan Melbourne, Australia. Parents completed a survey and children's overall physical activity levels were measured by accelerometry. Regression models examined the odds of children playing in various outdoor settings according to particular correlates.
Inverse associations were found between preference for activities not involving physical activity, and the likelihood of children playing in the yard at home on the weekend (OR = 0.65; CI = 0.45,0.95). Positive correlates of children playing in their own street included: parental perceptions that it was safe for their child to play in their street (weekdays [OR = 6.46; CI = 2.84,14.71], weekend days [OR = 6.01; CI = 2.68,13.47]); children having many friends in their neighbourhood (OR = 2.63; CI = 1.21,5.76); and living in a cul-de-sac (weekdays [OR = 3.99; CI = 1.65,9.66], weekend days [OR = 3.49; CI = 1.49,8.16]). Positive correlates of more frequent play in the park/playground on weekdays included family going to the park together on a weekly basis on weekdays (OR = 6.8; CI = 3.4,13.6); and on weekend days (OR = 7.36; CI = 3.6,15.0). No differences in mean mins/day of moderate-vigorous physical activity were found between children in the highest and lowest tertiles for frequency of playing in particular outdoor locations.
The presence of friends, safety issues and aspects of the built environment were reported by parents to be associated with children's active free-play in outdoor locations. Future research needs to further examine associations with time spent in active free-play and objectively-measured overall physical activity levels. It is also important to investigate strategies for developing a supportive social and physical environment that provides opportunities for children to engage in active free-play.
We evaluated the influence of physical activity resources and neighborhood-level socioeconomic status (SES) on walking among community-dwelling older men.
Participants reported time walked per day at baseline (2000-2002) and follow-up. Residential addresses were linked to a geographic information system database to assess proximity to parks, trails, and recreational facilities. Log-binomial regression analyses were conducted to test the hypothesis that men living near physical activity resources were more likely to increase or maintain time walked.
Average time walked per day declined by 6 minutes between baseline and follow-up (P < .05). There was a significant interaction of neighborhood SES and physical activity with walking time (P < .1). Proximity to parks and proximity to trails, respectively, were associated with a 22% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.01, 1.47) and 34% (95% CI = 1.16, 1.55) higher likelihood of maintaining or increasing walking time in high-SES neighborhoods, but there was no association in low-SES neighborhoods. Proximity to recreational facilities was not associated with walking.
Uncovering reasons that proximity to parks and trails is not associated with maintenance of walking activity among men in low-SES neighborhoods could provide new insight into ways to promote physical activity.
This study examined how objective measures of the local road environment related to safety were associated with change in physical activity (including active transport) among youth. Few longitudinal studies have examined the impact of the road environment on physical activity among children/adolescents in their neighborhoods. Participants were children aged 8-9 years (n = 170) and adolescents aged 13-15 years (n = 276) in 2004. Data were collected in 2004 and 2006 during follow-up of participants recruited initially in 2001 from 19 primary schools in Melbourne, Australia. Walking/cycling to local destinations was parent-reported for children and self-reported by adolescents. Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during nonschool hours was recorded using accelerometers. Road environment features in each participant's neighborhood (area within 800 m radius of their home) were measured objectively using a Geographical Information System. Linear regression analyses examined associations between road features and changes in active transport (AT) and MVPA over 2 years. Children's AT increased but MVPA levels decreased in both age groups; on average, younger girls recorded the greatest declines. The number of traffic/pedestrian lights was associated with DeltaAT among younger girls (B=0.45, p=0.004). The total length of walking tracks (in meters) was associated with AT among younger girls (B = 0.0016, p = 0.015) and adolescent girls (B = 0.0016, p = 0.002). For adolescent boys, intersection density was associated with AT (B = 0.03, p = 0.030). Slow points were associated with MVPA among younger boys before school (B = 1.55, p = 0.021), while speed humps were associated with MVPA among adolescent boys after school (B = 0.23, p = 0.015). There were many associations for adolescent girls: for example, the total length of local roads (B = 0.49, p = 0.005), intersection density (B = 0.05, p = 0.036), and number of speed humps (B = 0.33, p = 0.020) were associated with MVPA during nonschool hours. Safety-related aspects of the built environment are conducive to physical activity among youth and may help stem age-related declines in physical activity. Passive road safety interventions may promote AT and physical activity among less active girls, in particular.
We investigated the relationship of perceived environmental characteristics to self-reported physical activity in Texas adults using 2004 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System data.
The 2 research questions were, "Are perceived neighborhood characteristics and reported use of facilities associated with self-reported leisure-time physical activity for male and female Texas residents aged 18 to 64 years?" and "Are perceived neighborhood characteristics and reported use of facilities related to meeting recommendations for moderate to vigorous physical activity for Texas men and women aged 18 to 64 years?" Descriptive statistics and multiple logistic regression were used for the analyses.
Multiple logistic regression analyses controlling for sociodemographic factors showed that for women, perceptions of neighbors being physically active, pleasantness of the neighborhood, lighting, safety, and feelings of neighbor trustworthiness were associated with leisure-time physical activity. Several of these variables were also related to meeting recommendations for physical activity. Reports of use of several types of neighborhood facilities were related to men's and women's leisure-time physical activity and with meeting recommendations for physical activity for women.
Perceptions of neighborhood characteristics and reported use of facilities were related to physical activity and to meeting recommendations for physical activity, with stronger associations for women than for men. Interventions to increase levels of physical activity among Texans should be informed by multilevel assessments including environmental characteristics and by attention to important subpopulations.
The school is an important setting for physical activity. The purpose of the present study was to examine the association between physical environmental characteristics and participation in daily physical activity during school breaks. Data from 130 schools and 16 471 students (Grades 4-10) in Norway were obtained in 2004 through self-administered questionnaires to principals and students. Multilevel logistic regression models revealed that boys at secondary level with a larger number of outdoor facilities at school had 2.69 times [95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.21-5.98] and girls 2.90 times (95% CI = 1.32-6.37) higher odds of being physically active compared with students in schools with fewer facilities. Boys at secondary level with areas for hopscotch/skipping rope had 2.53 times (95% CI = 1.55-4.13), with a soccer field 1.68 times (95% CI = 1.15-2.45), with playground equipment 1.66 times (95% CI = 1.16-2.37) and with a sledding hill 1.70 times (95% CI = 1.23-2.35) higher odds to be physically active compared with students in schools without these facilities. A sledding hill was also associated with girls' physical activity participation in secondary school (odds ratio = 1.58, 95% CI = 1.11-2.24). Outdoor facilities in secondary schools are associated with students' daily physical activity participation during school breaks. Therefore, improving the outdoor environment should be considered in physical activity promotion school programs in secondary schools.
Although personal determinants of exercise behavior have been studied extensively, few investigators have examined the influence of the physical environment on exercise habits. A random sample of 2,053 residents of San Diego, CA, were surveyed regarding exercise habits and other variables. A total of 385 exercise facilities in San Diego were classified into categories of either free or pay. After the addresses of respondents and facilities were located on a grid-map and coded, the density of exercise facilities around each respondent's home address was computed. Subjects who reported engaging in three or more exercise sessions per week reported a statistically greater density of pay facilities near their homes than did those who reported no exercise sessions, after controlling for age, education, and income. The finding suggests an association between proximity of exercise facilities and frequency of exercise.
Background:
Proximity to routine destinations is an important correlate of physical activity. We examined the association between distance from school and physical activity in adolescent girls.
Methods:
We mapped the addresses of 1554 sixth-grade girls who participated in the Trial of Activity for Adolescent Girls (TAAG) Study and calculated the shortest distance from home to school along the street network. Using a hierarchical design we examined the association between MET-weighted moderate to vigorous physical activity (MW- MVPA) and distance to school, while controlling for potential confounders.
Results:
Distance to school was inversely associated with weekday MW- MVPA for middle school girls. For every mile the girls lived from their schools, they engaged in an average of 13 fewer MET-weighted minutes per week.
Conclusions:
Distance to school is inversely associated with MW-MVPA. The most adversely affected girls lived more than 5 miles from school. Time spent commuting could explain reduced time for physical activity.
This chapter focuses on the issues in current city planning and rebuilding. It describes the principles and aims that have shaped modern, orthodox city planning and rebuilding. The chapter shows how cities work in real life, because this is the only way to learn what principles of planning and what practices in rebuilding can promote social and economic vitality in cities, and what practices and principles will deaden these attributes. In trying to explain the underlying order of cities, the author uses a preponderance of examples from New York. The most important thread of influence starts, more or less, with Ebenezer Howard, an English court reporter for whom planning was an avocation. Howard's influence on American city planning converged on the city from two directions: from town and regional planners on the one hand, and from architects on the other.
The purpose of this report is to provide an overview of efforts by communities across the United States to increase street connectivity. It is aimed at commmunities struggling with this goal themselves. The report looks at the motivations behind such efforts, the wide variety of issues these efforts have raised, and the different approaches that communities have taken to resolve them. • What is the most appropriate way to measure connectivity? • How much connectivity is the right amount? • What is the best network design for achieving the desired level of connectivity? • What does street connectivity mean for nonautomobile modes? • How can connectivity in commercial areas be improved? • What can be done about existing street networks? Nevertheless, planners, decision makers, and residents should gain from this report a better understanding of the concept of connectivity as well as ideas about how best to address the goal of connectivity in their own communities. The report is organized as follows. Chapter 1 describes the history of street network design, including the emergence of the concept of a street hierarchy after World War II. Chapter 2 discusses the arguments for and against increased street connectivity. Chapter 3 includes summaries of efforts by 11 U.S. cities and one regional agency to increase connectivity; it also describes the jurisdictions' ordinances and the political processes that resulted in their adoption. Chapter 4 compares the case of Raleigh, North Carolina, where the city succeeded in adopting increased connectivity standards, with that of Austin, Texas, where various parties have been negotiating a connectivity requirement for several years; these cases illuminate the importance of a cost-benefit analysis of connectivity standards during the adoption process. The Afterword concludes with a discussion of the larger issues that need further attention as efforts to promote street connectivity evolve.
Few studies have specifically investigated fear of crime as a deterrent to walking. This study tested the hypothesis that fear would inhibit residents from walking in their local neighborhoods. Homeowners (n = 1,044) in Perth, Western Australia, reported their fear of crime, neighborhood problems and walking, and objective environmental measures were generated for each participant's neighborhood. Multivariate logistic regression models examined the association between fear and walking, with progressive adjustment for other correlates. Fear was associated with lower odds of transport walking (OR = 0.79, p = .034); however, car access was ubiquitous so fearful participants could avoid walking. A similar association between fear and recreational walking attenuated after controlling for other neighborhood factors. Findings suggest that the capacity for fear to deter recreational walkers is not fixed, and that a supportive environment can lessen its impact. Community initiatives that encourage social interaction between residents and improve neighborhood aesthetics may increase levels of recreational walking.
Urban planning has an important role to play in supporting human health. While this is increasingly recognized in a burgeoning interdisciplinary body of literature, there remains an ongoing need to clarify and conceptualize the relationship between planning and health. This is especially the case from the perspective of built environment professionals, as they increasingly focus on health and well-being issues. The key contribution of this article is such a conceptualization-a framework to group and review the literature in this rapidly expanding area of research. We suggest three domains where urban planning can most effectively focus support for health and well-being. These domains address the principle risk factors for contemporary chronic disease-physical inactivity, obesity, and social isolation. Our framework is then used to review an evidence base that supports the development, prioritization, and implementation of healthy built environment practice. This article concludes with a critical discussion of theoretical and practical tensions identified as potential impediments to the progression of this new and exciting interdisciplinary area of research.
Purpose:
Evaluate the implementation of a government planning policy (Liveable Neighbourhoods Guidelines) and its impacts on residents' walking behaviors.
Design:
Cross-sectional study of participants from the RESIDential Environments project (RESIDE).
Setting:
Nineteen "liveable" and 17 "conventionally designed" housing developments across Perth, Western Australia.
Subjects:
Five hundred ninety-four participants from RESIDE who resided in 36 housing developments.
Measures:
Developed in geographic information systems to assess the on-ground implementation of 43 policy requirements. Policy compliance was defined as the degree to which construction of the developments adhered to the standards outlined. Walking behaviors were measured using the Neighborhood Physical Activity Questionnaire. K-means cluster analyses identified groups of homogeneous developments with respect to policy implementation.
Analysis:
Logistic regression with generalized estimating equations estimated the odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) for the likelihood of undertaking any and ≥ 60 minutes of transport and recreational walking associated with (1) policy compliance and (2) different clusters of developments.
Results:
There were few significant differences in on-ground outcomes between the two development types. Despite incomplete implementation, the odds of walking for transport increased with overall levels of policy compliance (OR = 1.53, 95% CI 1.13-2.08) and compliance with the community design (OR = 1.3, 95% CI 1.13-1.42), movement network (OR = 2.49, 95% CI 1.38-4.50), and lot layout elements (OR = 1.26, 95% CI 1.06-1.50).
Conclusion:
Consistent with the aims of the policy, residents in walkable (i.e., liveable) neighborhoods may be more physically active.
While public health and urban planning fields worked closely to tackle communicable disease outbreaks in the 19th century, this collaboration faded during the 20th century. Over the last few decades, engagement in physical activity – even walking – has declined substantially, with serious impacts on population health. Recently there has been an emerging body of literature and guidance illustrating the role the built environment has in shaping health outcomes; much of this has focussed on physical activity behaviours. Associations between built environment attributes and physical activity have been reported by many studies, however the geographic scales at which these built environment attributes need to be measured and the magnitude of the built environment attributes required to support physical activity are not clear. Further studying these geographical scales and thresholds will facilitate development of specific guidance to urban designers and planners to create supportive built environments to facilitate physical activity engagement. This is an important addition for re-connecting the fields of public health and urban design and planning.
Associations between access to local destinations and children’s independent mobility (IM) were examined. In 2007, 10- to 12-year-olds (n = 1,480) and their parents (n = 1,314) completed a survey. Children marked on a map the destinations they walked or cycled to (n = 1,132), and the availability of local destinations was assessed using Geographic Information Systems. More independently mobile children traveled to local destinations than other children. The odds of IM more than halved in both boys and girls whose parents reported living on a busy road (boys, OR = 0.48; girls, OR = 0.36) and in boys who lived near shopping centers (OR = 0.18) or community services (OR = 0.25). Conversely, the odds of IM more than doubled in girls living in neighborhoods with well-connected low-traffic streets (OR = 2.32) and increased in boys with access to local recreational (OR = 1.67) and retail (OR = 1.42) destinations. Creating safe and accessible places and routes may facilitate children’s IM, partly by shaping parent’s and children’s feelings of safety while enhancing their confidence in the child’s ability to use active modes without an adult.
Background
Well-designed public open space (POS) that encourages physical activity is a community asset that could potentially contribute to the health of local residents.
Methods
In 1995–1996, two studies were conducted—an environmental audit of POS over 2 acres (n =516) within a 408-km2 area of metropolitan Perth, Western Australia; and personal interviews with 1803 adults (aged 18 to 59 years) (52.9% response rate). The association between access to POS and physical activity was examined using three accessibility models that progressively adjusted for distance to POS, and its attractiveness and size. In 2002, an observational study examined the influence of attractiveness on the use of POS by observing users of three pairs of high- and low-quality (based on attractiveness) POS matched for size and location.
Results
Overall, 28.8% of respondents reported using POS for physical activity. The likelihood of using POS increased with increasing levels of access, but the effect was greater in the model that adjusted for distance, attractiveness, and size. After adjustment, those with very good access to large, attractive POS were 50% more likely to achieve high levels of walking (odds ratio, 1.50; 95% confidence level, 1.06–2.13). The observational study showed that after matching POS for size and location, 70% of POS users observed visited attractive POS.
Conclusions
Access to attractive, large POS is associated with higher levels of walking. To increase walking, thoughtful design (and redesign) of POS is required that creates large, attractive POS with facilities that encourage active use by multiple users (e.g., walkers, sports participants, picnickers).
There are a series of discrete but related critiques of the contemporary public space situation, and it was these that the first part of this paper identified and organized. These drew on different scholarly traditions to highlight the key tensions at the heart of the contemporary public space debate. It revealed that critiques of public space could broadly be placed into two camps: those who argue that public space is over-managed, and those who argue that it is under-managed. This second part of the paper begins by arguing that both over and under-management critiques result in the same end, a homogenization of public space, although these outcomes may not be as stark as many of the critics would have us believe. What is clear is that the critiques reveal a range of public space types and means of classification. These are used in a final section of this paper to suggest a new typology of public space, one based on how public space is managed.
Objectives:
We examined whether people moving into a housing development designed according to a state government livable neighborhoods subdivision code engage in more walking than do people who move to other types of developments.
Methods:
In a natural experiment of 1813 people building homes in 73 new housing developments in Perth, Western Australia, we surveyed participants before and then 12 and 36 months after moving. We measured self-reported walking using the Neighborhood Physical Activity Questionnaire and collected perceptions of the environment and self-selection factors. We calculated objective measures of the built environment using a Geographic Information System.
Results:
After relocation, participants in livable versus conventional developments had greater street connectivity, residential density, land use mix, and access to destinations and more positive perceptions of their neighborhood (all P < .05). However, there were no significant differences in walking over time by type of development (P > .05).
Conclusions:
Implementation of the Livable Neighborhoods Guidelines produced more supportive environments; however, the level of intervention was insufficient to encourage more walking. Evaluations of new urban planning policies need to incorporate longer term follow-up to allow time for new neighborhoods to develop.
Parks and other forms of green space are among the key environmental supports for recreational physical activity. Measurements of green space access have provided mixed results as to the influence of green space access on physical activity.
This cross-sectional study uses a geographical information system (GIS) to examine the relationships between the amount of and distance to green space and county-level (n = 67) moderate and vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in the state of Florida.
The gross amount of green space in a county (P < .05) and the amount of green space within defined distances of where people live (1/4 mile, P < .01; 1/2 mile, P < .05; 1 mile, P < .01) were positively associated with self-reported levels of MVPA. Distance to the nearest green space and the amount of green space furthest from where people live (10 miles) were not significantly associated with MVPA. All measures were weighted by the population living in census tracts.
The results suggest that there is an association between the accessibility created by having more green space closer to home and MVPA, but this holds only for areas up to and including 1 mile from home.
The design of urban environments has the potential to enhance the health and well-being of residents by impacting social determinants of health including access to public transport, green space and local amenities. Commencing in 2003, RESIDE is a longitudinal natural experiment examining the impact of urban planning on active living in metropolitan Perth, Western Australia. Participants building homes in new housing developments were surveyed before relocation (n = 1813; 34·6% recruitment rate); and approximately 12 months later (n = 1437). Changes in perceived and objective neighbourhood characteristics associated with walking following relocation were examined, adjusted for changes in demographic, intrapersonal, interpersonal and baseline reasons for residential location choice. Self-reported walking was measured using the Neighbourhood Physical Activity Questionnaire. Following relocation, transport-related walking declined overall (p < 0.001) and recreational walking increased (p < 0.001): access to transport- and recreational destinations changed in similar directions. However, in those with increased access to destinations, transport-related walking increased by 5.8 min/week for each type of transport-related destination that increased (p = 0.045); and recreational walking by 17.6 min/week for each type of recreational destination that increased (p = 0.070). The association between the built environment and recreational walking was partially mediated by changes in perceived neighbourhood attractiveness: when changes in 'enjoyment' and 'attitude' towards local walking were removed from the multivariate model, recreational walking returned to 20.1 min/week (p = 0.040) for each type of recreational destination that increased. This study provides longitudinal evidence that both transport and recreational-walking behaviours respond to changes in the availability and diversity of local transport- and recreational destinations, and demonstrates the potential of local infrastructure to support health-enhancing behaviours. As neighbourhoods evolve, longer-term follow-up is required to fully capture changes that occur, and the impact on residents. The potential for using policies, incentives and infrastructure levies to enable the early introduction of recreational and transport-related facilities into new housing developments warrants further investigation.
Objective: The objective of this study was to identify school environmental characteristics associated with moderate to vigorous physical activity during school recess, including morning and lunch breaks.
Methods: Accelerometry data, child-level characteristics and school physical activity, policy and socio-cultural data were collected from 408 sixth grade children (mean age 11 years) attending 27 metropolitan primary schools in Perth, Western Australia. Hierarchical modelling identified key characteristics associated with children's recess moderate to vigorous physical activity (RMVPA).
Results: Nearly 40% of variability in children's RMVPA was explained by school environment and individual characteristics identified in this study. Children's higher daily RMVPA was associated with newer schools, schools with a higher number of grassed surfaces per child and fewer shaded grassed surfaces, and the physical education coordinator meeting Australian physical activity guidelines.
Conclusions: Characteristics of the school physical and social environments are strongly correlated with children's MPVA during recess.
Implications: The school environment is an ideal target for maximising children's physical activity during recess. Future research could examine the impact of modifying these environmental characteristics on children's school physical activity.
Strong evidence shows that physical inactivity increases the risk of many adverse health conditions, including major non-communicable diseases such as coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and breast and colon cancers, and shortens life expectancy. Because much of the world's population is inactive, this link presents a major public health issue. We aimed to quantify the eff ect of physical inactivity on these major non-communicable diseases by estimating how much disease could be averted if inactive people were to become active and to estimate gain in life expectancy at the population level.
For our analysis of burden of disease, we calculated population attributable fractions (PAFs) associated with physical inactivity using conservative assumptions for each of the major non-communicable diseases, by country, to estimate how much disease could be averted if physical inactivity were eliminated. We used life-table analysis to estimate gains in life expectancy of the population.
Worldwide, we estimate that physical inactivity causes 6% (ranging from 3·2% in southeast Asia to 7·8% in the eastern Mediterranean region) of the burden of disease from coronary heart disease, 7% (3·9-9·6) of type 2 diabetes, 10% (5·6-14·1) of breast cancer, and 10% (5·7-13·8) of colon cancer. Inactivity causes 9% (range 5·1-12·5) of premature mortality, or more than 5·3 million of the 57 million deaths that occurred worldwide in 2008. If inactivity were not eliminated, but decreased instead by 10% or 25%, more than 533 000 and more than 1·3 million deaths, respectively, could be averted every year. We estimated that elimination of physical inactivity would increase the life expectancy of the world's population by 0·68 (range 0·41-0·95) years.
Physical inactivity has a major health eff ect worldwide. Decrease in or removal of this unhealthy behaviour could improve health substantially.
None.
The majority of older people in the UK are not sufficiently active. Since physical inactivity is a very common, yet preventable, health risk, promoting an active lifestyle is considered one of the most important health initiatives. In recent research on physical activity, an increasing interest has been paid to the role of environmental variables. Such research has demonstrated that overall characteristics of neighbourhood environments predict residents’ physical activity patterns. However, there is a limited understanding about how natural, open spaces in a neighbourhood such as parks are involved in people's activity. This study examines what aspects of neighbourhood open space are associated with walking for recreation and for transport by older people. The study sample consisted of 286 people over 65 years old living in Britain who completed a self-administered questionnaire. Logistic regression analyses were carried out to examine associations between the level of walking and six attributes of neighbourhood open space, which were identified through principal component analysis. It was found that pleasantness of open space and lack of nuisance were associated with walking for recreation, while good paths to reach open space and good facilities in open space were conducive to more walking for transport. The study suggests the possibility that enhancing these aspects of neighbourhood open spaces may contribute to active lifestyles of older adults.
There is growing evidence that residents are more likely to walk in attractive neighbourhoods, and that negative visual cues can deter residents from engaging in physical activity. This study explored the premise that house design and upkeep could inhibit the incidence of physical disorder in suburban streets, thus contributing to a more pleasant walking environment for pedestrians. Street segments (n = 443) in new residential developments (n = 61) in Perth, Western Australia, were audited for house attributes that facilitate natural surveillance (e.g., porch/verandah) or indicate territoriality (e.g., garden/lawn upkeep), and physical incivilities. A composite index of street-level house attributes yielded highly significant associations with disorder (trend test p = 0.001) and graffiti (trend test p = 0.005), signifying that the cumulative effect of several key attributes had greater potential to discourage incivilities in the street than any single characteristic. The findings suggest house design and upkeep may contribute to the creation of safe, inviting streets for pedestrians.
This paper looks at pedestrian travel in Atlanta by US youths aged 5–18 years. Relationships between five urban form variables and walking in specific demographic subgroups are assessed using stratified logistic models and controlling for participant demographics. All five urban form and recreation measures were related to walking among whites, but only land use mix and access to recreation spaces were significantly related to walking in non-whites. There were more significant urban form physical activity associations in high-income than in low-income households. More urban form variables were related to walking in households with 3 or more cars than in households with no cars. Living in mixed use-areas and having access to recreational space were related to youth walking for transport in 11 of 13 population subgroups studied.
Background:
The presence and mix of destinations is an important aspect of the built environment that may encourage or discourage physical activity. This study examined the association between the proximity and mix of neighbourhood destinations and physical activity.
Methods:
Secondary analysis was undertaken on physical activity data from Western Australian adults (n=1394). These data were linked with geographical information systems (GIS) data including the presence and the mix of destinations located within 400 and 1500 m from respondents' homes. Associations with walking for transport and recreation and vigorous physical activity were examined.
Results:
Access to post boxes, bus stops, convenience stores, newsagencies, shopping malls, and transit stations within 400 m (OR 1.63-5.00) and schools, transit stations, newsagencies, convenience stores and shopping malls within 1500 m (OR 1.75-2.38) was associated with participation in regular transport-related walking. A dose-response relationship between the mix of destinations and walking for transport was also found. Each additional destination within 400 and 1500 m resulted in an additional 12 and 11 min/fortnight spent walking for transport, respectively.
Conclusion:
Proximity and mix of destinations appears strongly associated with walking for transport, but not walking for recreation or vigorous activity. Increasing the diversity of destinations may contribute to adults doing more transport-related walking and achieving recommended levels of physical activity.
Background:
This study examines the relationships between the availability and use of recreational destinations and physical activity.
Methods:
Analysis included n = 1355 respondents. Associations between the density of free and pay-for-use recreational destinations, demographics, and use of free and pay-for-use recreational destinations within the neighborhood were examined, followed by associations with sufficient moderate and vigorous physical activity using generalized estimating equations.
Results:
The likelihood of using a local pay recreational destination increased for each additional local pay facility (OR 1.51, 95% CI 1.32 to 1.73) and was lower for those with motor vehicle access (OR 0.51, 95% CI 0.26 to 0.99). The likelihood of using a local free destination increased for each additional local free facility (OR 1.12, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.20) and was higher among women (OR 1.64, 95% CI 1.11 to 2.44). Destination use was associated with both moderate and vigorous-intensity physical activity.
Conclusions:
Increasing the density of neighborhood recreational destinations is associated with the use of facilities and participation in sufficient levels of physical activity.
Increasing adults' physical activity through environmental initiatives that promote walking as a public health priority. To this end, evidence relevant to the urban planning and transport sectors is required. This review synthesized findings on destination and route attributes associated with utilitarian and recreational walking.
A literature search was conducted in April 2011 using Web of Science, PubMed, Transport Research Information Services, GEOBASE, and SPORTDiscus. Environmental attributes were classified into the domains of utilitarian and recreational destinations (presence, proximity, quality) and route (sidewalks, connectivity, aesthetics, traffic, safety). Forty-six studies examining associations of these attributes with utilitarian and/or recreational walking were identified. Specific destination and route attributes associated with each type of walking were summarized.
Adults' utilitarian walking was consistently associated with presence and proximity of retail and service destinations (in 80% of the studies reviewed). It was also associated with functional aspects of routes (sidewalks and street connectivity) in 50% of studies. Recreational walking was associated with presence, proximity, and quality of recreational destinations (35% of studies) and route aesthetic (35% of studies). Both types of walking were found unrelated to route safety and traffic in most studies.
There is consistent evidence that better access to relevant neighborhood destinations (e.g., local stores, services, transit stops) can be conducive to adults' utilitarian walking. Some evidence also suggests that availability of sidewalks and well-connected streets can facilitate utilitarian walking. To better inform initiatives to promote adults' walking in the planning and transport sectors, future studies need to examine how accessible such destinations should be, as well as the effect of the quality of recreational destinations.
Efforts to increase the prevalence of children's active school transport require evidence to inform the development of comprehensive interventions. This study used a multilevel ecological framework to investigate individual, social, and environmental factors associated with walking to and from school among elementary school-aged children, stratified by gender.
Boys aged 10 to 13 years (n = 617) and girls aged 9 to 13 years (n = 681) attending 25 Australian primary schools located in high or low walkable neighborhoods completed a 1-week travel diary and a parent/child questionnaire on travel habits and attitudes.
Boys were more likely (odds ratio [OR] = 3.37; p < .05) to walk if their school neighborhood had high connectivity and low traffic and less likely to walk if they had to cross a busy road (OR = 0.49; p < .05). For girls, confidence in their ability to walk to or from school without an adult (OR = 2.03), school encouragement (OR = 2.43), scheduling commitments (OR = 0.41), and parent-perceived convenience of driving (OR = 0.24) were significantly associated (p < .05) with walking. Irrespective of gender and proximity to school, child-perceived convenience of walking (boys OR = 2.17 and girls OR = 1.84) and preference to walk to school (child perceived, boys OR = 5.57, girls OR = 1.84 and parent perceived, boys OR = 2.82, girls OR = 1.90) were consistently associated (p < .05) with walking to and from school.
Although there are gender differences in factors influencing children walking to and from school, proximity to school, the safety of the route, and family time constraints are consistent correlates. These need to be addressed if more children are to be encouraged to walk to and from school.
The impact of neighborhood walkability (based on street connectivity and traffic exposure) within 2 km of public primary schools on children regularly walking to school was examined. The most (n=13) and least walkable (n=12) schools were selected using a school-specific 'walkability' index and a cross sectional study undertaken of Year 5, 6 and 7 children (n=1480) and consenting parents (n=1332). After adjustment, regularly walking to school was higher in children attending schools in high walkable neighborhoods (i.e, high street connectivity and low traffic volume) (Odds ratio (OR) 3.63; 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 2.01-6.56), and less likely in neighborhoods with high connectivity but high traffic volume (OR 0.32; 95% CI 0.22-0.47). Connected street networks provide direct routes to school but when designed for heavy traffic, the potential for children to walk to school is reduced. This highlights the importance of carefully considering school siting and, particularly, street design in school neighborhoods.
This study investigated the relationship between individual and neighborhood environmental factors and cycling for transport and for recreation among adults living in Perth, Western Australia.
Baseline cross-sectional data from 1813 participants (40.5% male; age range 18 to 78 years) in the RESIDential Environment (RESIDE) project were analyzed. The questionnaire included information on cycling behavior and on cycling-specific individual, social environmental, and neighborhood environmental attributes. Cycling for transport and recreation were dichotomized as whether or not individuals cycled in a usual week.
Among the individual factors, positive attitudes toward cycling and perceived behavioral control increased the odds of cycling for transport and for recreation. Among the neighborhood environmental attributes, leafy and attractive neighborhoods, access to bicycle/walking paths, the presence of traffic slowing devices and having many 4-way street intersections were positively associated with cycling for transport. Many alternative routes in the local area increased the odds of cycling for recreation.
Effective strategies for increasing cycling (particularly cycling for transport) may include incorporating supportive environments such as creating leafy and attractive neighborhood surroundings, low traffic speed, and increased street connectivity, in addition to campaigns aimed at strengthening positive attitudes and confidence to cycle.
Background and Aims: Children's declining physical activity has attracted attention from those concerned with the health and well-being of the young. The present study aims to determine if the extent of walking to and from a school with an active participation program differed from that in another school without a program.
Method and Results: Data from 21 parents of Grade 7 children from School A, sourced from a previous study, were compared with data from parents of Grade 7 children in School B, collected using the same questionnaire. No significant difference in the mean number of days walked to (t= 0.098, P= 0.92) or from school (t= 0.251, P= 0.80) was identified.
Conclusions: This small-scale project suggests that a mélange of variables has the potential to influence children's incidental activity levels.
As anyone who has flown into Los Angeles at dusk or Houston at midday knows, urban areas today defy traditional notions of what a city is. Our old definitions of urban, suburban, and rural fail to capture the complexity of these vast regions with their superhighways, subdivisions, industrial areas, office parks, and resort areas pushing far out into the countryside. Detractors call it sprawl and assert that it is economically inefficient, socially inequitable, environmentally irresponsible, and aesthetically ugly. Robert Bruegmann calls it a logical consequence of economic growth and the democratization of society, with benefits that urban planners have failed to recognize. In his incisive history of the expanded city, Bruegmann overturns every assumption we have about sprawl. Taking a long view of urban development, he demonstrates that sprawl is neither recent nor particularly American but as old as cities themselves, just as characteristic of ancient Rome and eighteenth-century Paris as it is of Atlanta or Los Angeles. Nor is sprawl the disaster claimed by many contemporary observers. Although sprawl, like any settlement pattern, has undoubtedly produced problems that must be addressed, it has also provided millions of people with the kinds of mobility, privacy, and choice that were once the exclusive prerogatives of the rich and powerful. The first major book to strip urban sprawl of its pejorative connotations, Sprawl offers a completely new vision of the city and its growth. Bruegmann leads readers to the powerful conclusion that "in its immense complexity and constant change, the city-whether dense and concentrated at its core, looser and more sprawling in suburbia, or in the vast tracts of exurban penumbra that extend dozens, even hundreds, of miles-is the grandest and most marvelous work of mankind." âLargely missing from this debate [over sprawl] has been a sound and reasoned history of this pattern of living. With Robert Bruegmannâs Sprawl: A Compact History, we now have one. What a pleasure it is: well-written, accessible and eager to challenge the current cant about sprawl.ââJoel Kotkin, The Wall Street Journal âThere are scores of books offering âsolutionsâ to sprawl. Their authors would do well to read this book.ââWitold Rybczynski, Slate
Introduction
This study assessed the relative contributions of psychological, social, and environmental variables to walking, moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity.
Methods
A questionnaire was mailed to a random sample (57% response rate). Analyses used a backwards elimination logistic regression model, removing and replacing individual variables, and adjusting for age, gender, household composition, and education ( N = 1827).
Results
The sociodemographic and correlate variables collectively accounted for 43% of the variation in total activity, 26% of walking, 22% of moderate-intensity activity and 45% of vigorous-intensity activity (Nagelkerke R ² ). Individually, the correlates accounted for 0.0 to 4.0% of unique variation, with habit, efficacy, and support having higher values. Physical health, discouragement, competition, and time management contributed more to vigorous-intensity activity. Anticipated benefits of social interactions and weight management contributed more to moderate-intensity activity. Neighborhood aesthetics contributed more to walking.
Conclusion
Walking, moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity might be associated with different correlates.
Studies have identified various environmental factors associated with physical activity. However, mixed findings have been reported on environment correlates of physical activity for recreation. Using a sample of Australian adults (n=2194), we examined perceived environmental attributes associated with recreational physical activity or exercise taking place on neighbourhood streets, which are known to be frequently used for such activity. Attractiveness, street connectivity, access to outdoor recreational facilities and access to places of interest were significantly associated with neighbourhood street use after adjusting for socio-demographic variables. Enhancing these environmental attributes and perceptions about them may be effective in promoting residents' physical activity.
Research on physical activity and the physical environment is at the correlates stage, so it is premature to attribute causal effects. This paper provides a conceptual approach to understanding how the physical design of neighborhoods may influence behavior by disentangling the potential effects of income, university education, poverty, and degree of urbanization on the relationship between walking to work and neighborhood design characteristics.
The study merges Canadian data from 27 neighborhood observations with information on walking to work from the 1996 census. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to create a latent environment score based on 18 neighborhood characteristics (e.g., variety of destinations, visual aesthetics, and traffic). The relationship between the environment score and walking to work was modeled at the second level, controlling for income, university education, poverty, and degree of urbanization.
With the exceptions of visual interest and aesthetics, each neighborhood characteristic contributed significantly to the environment score. The environment score was positively associated with walking to work, both with and without adjustment for degree of urbanization. Controlling for university education, income, and poverty did not influence these relationships.
The positive association between the environment score and walking to work, controlling for degree of urbanization supports the current movement toward the development of integrated communities for housing, shops, workplaces, schools, and public spaces. Given the need for research to guide environmental interventions, collaboration among public health practitioners, urban planners, and transportation researchers is essential to integrate knowledge across sectors.
Well-designed public open space (POS) that encourages physical activity is a community asset that could potentially contribute to the health of local residents.
In 1995-1996, two studies were conducted-an environmental audit of POS over 2 acres (n =516) within a 408-km2 area of metropolitan Perth, Western Australia; and personal interviews with 1803 adults (aged 18 to 59 years) (52.9% response rate). The association between access to POS and physical activity was examined using three accessibility models that progressively adjusted for distance to POS, and its attractiveness and size. In 2002, an observational study examined the influence of attractiveness on the use of POS by observing users of three pairs of high- and low-quality (based on attractiveness) POS matched for size and location.
Overall, 28.8% of respondents reported using POS for physical activity. The likelihood of using POS increased with increasing levels of access, but the effect was greater in the model that adjusted for distance, attractiveness, and size. After adjustment, those with very good access to large, attractive POS were 50% more likely to achieve high levels of walking (odds ratio, 1.50; 95% confidence level, 1.06-2.13). The observational study showed that after matching POS for size and location, 70% of POS users observed visited attractive POS.
Access to attractive, large POS is associated with higher levels of walking. To increase walking, thoughtful design (and redesign) of POS is required that creates large, attractive POS with facilities that encourage active use by multiple users (e.g., walkers, sports participants, picnickers).
Enhancing community environments to support walking and bicycling serves as a promising approach to increase population levels of physical activity. However, few studies have simultaneously assessed perceptions and objectively measured environmental factors and their relative association with transportation or recreational physical activity.
For this cross-sectional study, high- and low-income study areas were selected among census tracts in St. Louis MO ("low-walkable" city) and Savannah GA ("high-walkable" city). Between February and June 2002, a telephone survey of 1068 adults provided measures of the perceived environment and physical activity behavior. In this timeframe, objective measures were collected through environmental audits of all street segments (n =1158). These measures were summarized using 400-m buffers surrounding each respondent. Neighborhood characteristics included the land use environment, transportation environment, recreational facilities, aesthetics, and social environment. Associations were examined between neighborhood features and transportation- and recreation-based activity.
After adjusting for age, gender, and education, transportation activity was negatively associated with objective measures of sidewalk levelness and perceived and objective neighborhood aesthetics. It was positively associated with perceived and objectively measured number of destinations and public transit, perceived access to bike lanes, and objective counts of active people in the neighborhood. Recreational activity was positively associated with perceived access to recreational facilities and objective measures of attractive features.
These findings indicate that physical activities for transportation or recreational are associated with different perceived and objective environmental characteristics. Modifications to these features may change the physical activity behavior of residents exposed to them.