Rate of force development: reliability, improvements and influence on performance. A review

Abstract

Explosive muscular contractions are fundamental to sports activities such as sprinting, jumping or throwing. In these types of contractions the rate at which force is developed has been suggested to be the most important physical capacity. Therefore, the aims of these review was: to review the reliability of rate of force development (RFD) measures; to show the relationships between RFD and performance in specific sports movements; and to provide information about the response of RFD variables to different training interventions. From a total of 655 articles, after the exclusion criteria 60 articles were read. RFD has shown high to very high reliability in most of the studies, independently of the device used or the specific variable measured. The RFD at early time intervals has shown the higher correlations with performance in several sports movements. In addition, RFD at early time intervals has been shown sensitive to most training interventions, therefore, it seems to be the key point among RFD variables.

Full text

European Journal of Human Movement, 2014: 33, 46-69
RATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENT:
RELIABILITY, IMPROVEMENTS
AND INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE.
A REVIEW
Jose Luis Hernández-Davó; Rafael Sabido
Sports Research Centre. Miguel Hernandez University of Elche, Spain.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACT
Explosive muscular contractions are fundamental to sports activities such as sprinting, jumping or
throwing. In these types of contractions the rate at which force is developed has been suggested to
be the most important physical capacity. Therefore, the aims of these review was: to review the
reliability of rate of force development (RFD) measures; to show the relationships between RFD
and performance in specific sports movements; and to provide information about the response of
RFD variables to different training interventions. From a total of 655 articles, after the exclusion
criteria 60 articles were read. RFD has shown high to very high reliability in most of the studies,
independently of the device used or the specific variable measured. The RFD at early time intervals
has shown the higher correlations with performance in several sports movements. In addition, RFD
at early time intervals has been shown sensitive to most training interventions, therefore, it seems
to be the key point among RFD variables.
Key Words: power, strength, rate of force development, explosive force.
RESUMEN
Las contracciones musculares de carácter explosivo son fundamentales en actividades deportivas
tales como sprints, saltos o lanzamientos. En este tipo de contracciones, la ratio a la cual la fuerza es
desarrollada ha sido sugerida como la capacidad física más importante. Por lo tanto, el objetivo de
esta revisión fue: revisar la fiabilidad de las mediciones de la ratio de desarrollo de la fuerza (RFD);
mostrar las relaciones entre la RFD y el rendimiento en movimientos deportivos específicos; y
aportar información sobre la respuesta de variables de la RFD tras diferentes intervenciones de
entrenamiento. De un total de 655 artículos, después de los criterios de exclusión, 60 artículos
fueron leídos. La RFD ha mostrado fiabilidades entre altas y muy altas en la gran mayoría de los
estudios, independientemente de la herramienta utilizada para la medición, o de la variable
específica medida. La RFD en los primeros instantes del movimiento ha mostrado las mayores
correlaciones con el rendimiento en varios movimientos deportivos. Además, esta RFD en los
primeros instantes se ha mostrado sensible a la mayoría de las intervenciones de entrenamiento,
por lo tanto, parece ser la variable clave dentro de la RFD.
Palabras clave: potencia, fuerza, ratio de desarrollo de la fuerza, fuerza explosiva
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Correspondence:
Jose Luis Hernández-Davó
Sports Research Centre.
Miguel Hernandez University of Elche.
Avda. de la Universidad s/n
03202 Elche – ALICANTE.
jlhdez43@gmail.com
Submitted: 01/12/2014
Accepted: 15/12/2014

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47
INTRODUCTION
The analysis of force-time curves has been widely used to evaluate
neuromuscular function, highlighting the importance of force production
capacity in specific time windows. This kind of analysis give us awareness, for
instance, about the time required to achieve the peak force under isometric
conditions (400 ms approximately). However, that time needed to achieve the
development of this maximal force is significantly longer than the time duration
of most specific sports movements. As a result of this short duration of several
sports movements, the maximal force cannot be reached during the execution.
For example, several sports movements such as sprints, changes of direction,
throws, kicks, etc. involve contraction times lower than 250 ms (Rimmer &
Slivert, 2000; Nunome, Asai, Ikegami & Sakurai, 2002). Consequently, maximal
force parameter has lower importance when it is related to explosive strength,
which reflects the ability to exert maximal force in minimal time. Of particular
importance to sports scientists and coaches is the relationship between force-
time curve variables an actual athletic performance measures. Contractile ratio
of force development (RFD) is a major determinant of the maximal force and
velocity that can be achieved during fast limb movements, therefore, RFD is
inherently of major importance for athletes engaged in sports that involve such
explosive type of muscle action (Aagaard, Simonsen, Andersen, Magnusson &
Dyhre-Poulsen, 2002). For this reason a variable such as RFD is a key point to
measure explosive strength. According to this, the aim of the present article is
to review, the main ways to measure the RFD, the relevance of the RFD in
sports, and the most used methods in the literature to improve this ability.
METHOD
Literature screening
A comprehensive searching for scientific literature relevant to this review
was performed using MEDLINE, SCOPUS and Scholar Google databases (2004-
2014, cute-off date September 30, 2014) and the terms “rate of force
development” and “rate of torque development”. Relevant literature was also
obtained from searches of related articles arising from the reference list of
those obtained from the database searches.
Study selection for data extraction
Study selection was accomplished through an abstract screening, excluding
case reports, letters to editor, comments and reviews, animal studies, studies
with non-healthy populations and studies with either young people (< 18 years
old) or elder people (> 50 years old) . For inclusion in the subset of studies for
data extraction, measurements of RFD or Rate of torque development (RTD)
must have been collected. Reliability data, correlations with sports movements

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48
or changes after a training intervention are required for including in this
review.
Data retrieval
The initial literature review identified 656 citations for screening. After
reviewing the abstracts, 586 articles were rejected. Of the remaining 70 articles,
9 did not meet inclusion criteria. Finally, 61 articles were selected.
RFD: CONCEPT AND CHARACTERISTICS
One of the most important studies about the RFD was written by Aagaard
et al. (2002) who defined the RDF as the slope of the force-time curve obtained
under isometric (IRFD) or dynamic conditions (DRFD). This parameter has
been used to measure the ability to rapidly generate muscular force. The
importance of RFD in sport movement with a time-limited force production has
been mentioned, but RFD also plays a role in daily activities by improving the
life quality in populations such as the elderly, reducing the risk of falls by fast
activation of the muscles (Gruber, Gruber, Taube, Schubert, Beck & Gollhofer,
2007). Many types of movements, such as preventing a fall, are characterized
by a limited time to develop force (0-200 ms). For this reason the ability to
develop a rapid rise in muscle force may become more important than maximal
muscle force in several situations. Nevertheless, in spite of the importance of
RFD on several populations, this review is focused on young healthy people or
athletes.
RFD is mainly related to neural activation. Particularly, within the neural
factors, the firing frequency seems to be the most important parameter related
to the RFD. The motor unit firing frequency (or discharge rate) can be up to 200
Hz during the onset of a maximum voluntary effort (Van Cutsem, Duchateau &
Hainaut, 1998) with much lower rates at the time of peak force. Duchateau and
Braudy (2014) showed that the increase in RFD during ballistic contractions
was mainly due to adaptations in motor unit discharge rate. An increase in
discharge rate from up to 100-200 Hz augmented substantially the RFD for all
units of the pool. These data underscore the critical role of maximal motor unit
discharge rate on the ability to rapidly develop force. In fact, the RFD continues
to increase at stimulation rates higher than that needed to achieve maximum
tetanic tension. It is possible, therefore, that supramaximal firing rates in the
initial phase of a muscle contraction serve to maximize the RFD rather than to
influence maximal contraction per se. It is possible that the firing of discharge
doublets at the onset of contraction and during the phase of rising muscle force
leads to enhance the initial generation of muscle contraction force, increasing
the RFD (Aagaard, 2003).

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In addition, the muscle size and fibre-type composition also play a role in
the RFD (Aagaard et al, 2002). The firing frequency is related to fibre-type
composition. Motor units with high axonal conduction velocity and short
contraction time (type II myosin heavy chain) are responsible for higher RFD
values. So, connections between fibre type and RFD have been found in several
studies (Aagaard & Andersen, 1998; Andersen, Andersen, Zebis & Aagaard,
2010). Muscle size is another key point for RFD. The bigger size of type II
muscle fibre together with the relevance of these fibres for the RFD, are the
reason for the possible relations between muscle hypertrophy and RFD.
RFD MEASURE
The ability of the human neuromuscular system for explosive force/torque
production is typically measured by the RFD, because it is considered
functional during explosive movements, such as sprinting, jumping or
restabilizing the body after a loss of balance. RFD is calculated as the average
slope of the moment-time curve during maximal efforts, and its values are
expressed as N•s-1
In regard to RFD measures, a great amount of variables should be taken
into account. Throughout the literature, differences in variables such as the
type of contraction (isometric vs dynamic), the device used to measure (force
plate, strain-gauge, isokinetic dynamometer, linear position transducer), or the
specific RFD variable [peak RFD, time to peak RFD (TPeakRFD), RFD at
particular time intervals] are commonly found.
A key point when a measure is being carried out is their reliability (in the
table 1 are shown a summary of the studies where the RFD measures reliability
have been tested). Concerning the device reliability, historically the force plates
and strain gauges have been widely the most used and reliable device when
measuring RFD. On the other hand, other devices such as isokinetic
dynamometers or linear position transducer have been also used by several
researchers. Frequently, some controversy is generated when RFD is measured
with a linear position transducer. Nevertheless, studies carried out with linear
position transducer have shown high and very high reliability for almost all the
RFD variables measured. Only in the study carried out by Chiu, Schilling, Fry &
Weiss. (2004), a low reliability was found for the variable time to peak RFD (-
0.03-0.72), however, the same variable showed such low reliability measured
with a force plate (0.16-0.58). Regarding to isokinetic dynamometers reliability,
unalike results have been shown by different studies. For instance Ingebrigtsen,
Holtermann & Roeleveld (2009) and Prieske, Wick & Granacher (2014) did not
find high reliability (0.69 and 0.68 respectively) for the peak IRFD during the
curl biceps exercise. Conversely this same device has shown high ICC (0.93-0.99)
for this same variable, measuring lower limb muscles (Maffiuletti, Bizzini,

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Desbrosses, Babault & Munzinger, 2007; Muehlbauer, Gollhofer & Granacher,
2013).
Therefore, it seems that the reliability of RFD measures is more variable-
dependent that device-dependent. In addition, most of the studies checking the
RFD measures have been carried out performing movements that involve
mainly the low limb muscles [countermovement jumps (CMJ), squat jumps (SJ),
weightlifting movements], with only a minor part using the upper body muscles.
Hence, more research is necessary involving upper body muscles to give
knowledge about the reliability of RFD measures in these specific muscles.
TABLE 1
Summary of studies analyzing the reliability of RFD measures.
Study
Type of
movement
Device Variable Reliability (ICC)
Chiu et al.
2004 Dynamic: CMJ
Force plate (FP)
& Linear
position
transducer
(LPT)
Peak RFD,
TPeakRFD,
average RFD
FP: 0.91-0.95 (Peak
RFD), 0.16-0.58
(TPeakRFD), 0.96-
0.98 (average RFD)
LPT: 0.89-0.94
(Peak RFD),
-0.03-0.72
(TPeakRFD), 0.92-
0.97 (average RFD)
Chiu et al.
2004 Dynamic: SJ
Force plate (FP)
& Linear
position
transducer
(LPT)
Peak RFD,
TPeakRFD,
average RFD
FP: 0.88-0.93 (Peak
RFD), 0.91-0.97
(TPeakRFD), 0.9-
0.95 (average RFD)
LPT: 0.8-0.93 (Peak
RFD), 0.81-0.93
(TPeakRFD), 0.7-
0.93 (average RFD)
Kawamori et
al. 2005
Dynamic: SJ
Force plate
Peak DRFD,
TPeakDRFD
0.95 (Peak DRFD),
0.98 (TPeakDRFD)
McGuigan et
al. 2006
Isometric:
Midthigh pull
Force plate
Peak IRFD
> 0.96
Holtermann
et al. 2007
Isometric: Leg
extension
Strain gauge
RFD 0-
300ms
0.88
Maffiuletti et
al. 2007
Isometric and
isokinetic:
Knee
extension
(KE) and
flexion (KF)
Isokinetic
dynamometer
Peak IRTD,
Peak DRTD
KE: 0.97-0.99 (Peak
DRTD), 0.87-0.92
(Peak IRTD)
KF: 0.97-0.99 (Peak
DRTD), 0.9-0.91
(Peak IRTD)
McGuigan et
al. 2008
Isometric:
Midthigh pull
Force plate
Peak IRFD
> 0.96
González-
Badillo et al.
2009
Dynamic: CMJ
Linear position
transducer
Peak DRFD,
RFD at peak
force
0.88-0.97 (Peak
DRFD), 0.87-0.96
(RFD at PF)

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TABLE 1 (Cont.)
Ingebrigtsen
et al. 2009
Isometric and
isokinetic: curl
biceps
Isokinetic
dynamometer
Peak IRTD
0.69
Kraska et al.
2009
Isometric:
Midthigh clean
pull
Force plate
Peak IRFD
0.86
Stevenson et
al. 2010
Dynamic: CMJ
Force plate
Eccentric
DRFD,
concentric
DRFD
0.8-0.84 (eccentric
DRFD), 0.78-0.83
(concentric DRFD)
Tillin et al.
2010
Isometric:
Knee
extension
Strain gauge
RFD 0-50, 50-
100 and 100-
150ms
Coefficient of
variation: 12.8 (0-
50), 5.7 (50-100)
and 12.5 (100-
150ms)
Comfort et
al. 2011
Dynamic:
Power clean,
hang-power
clean,
midthigh
power clean,
midthigh clean
pull
Force plate Peak DRFD
0.92 (power
clean), 0.95 (hang-
power clean), 0.93
(midthigh power
clean), 0.96
(midthigh clean
pull)
McLellan et
al. 2011
Dynamic: CMJ
Force plate
Peak DRFD,
average DRFD
0.89 (Peak DRFD),
0.89 (average
DRFD)
West et al.
2011b
Isometric:
Midthigh pull
Force plate
Peak IRFD
0.89
Leary et al.
2012
Isometric:
Midthigh pull
Force plate
Peak IRFD
> 0.81
Muehlbauer
et al. 2013
Isometric:
Plantar flexion
Isokinetic
dynamometer
Peak IRFD
0.93
Marques et
al. 2014
Dynamic: CMJ
Linear
position
transducer
Peak DRFD,
TPeakDRFD
0.91 (Peak DRFD),
0.8 (TPeakDRFD)
Marques et
al. 2014b
Dynamic: CMJ
Linear
position
transducer
Peak DRFD,
RFD at peak
force (PF)
0.98 (Peak DRFD),
0.93 (RFD at PF)
Prieske et al.
2014
Isometric: Curl
biceps
Isokinetic
dynamometer
Peak IRTD,
IRTD at 30,
50, 100, 200,
300 and
400ms
0.68 (Peak IRTD),
0.76 (30ms), 0.8
(50ms), 0.85
(100ms), 0.95
(200ms), 0.96
(300ms), 0.97
(400ms)

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RELATIONSHIPS WITH PERFORMANCE
Traditionally, the RFD has been theoretically linked to performance in
explosive/time-limited contractions or movements. In this way, several authors
have explained the main reasons for this relationship.
For instance, Aagaard et al. (2002) presented the RFD as an important
parameter with functional significance in fast and forceful muscle contractions.
As several explosive movements such as sprint running, karate or boxing
typically involve contraction times of 50-250 ms, any increase in contractile
RFD becomes highly important as it allows reaching a higher level of muscle
force in the early phase of muscle contraction. Due to this reasoning, Aagaard
postulated contractile RFD as a major determinant of the maximal force and
velocity that can be achieved during fast movements, and therefore, it is
inherently of major importance for athletes engaged in sports involving
explosive type of muscle actions.
In other example, Wilson, Lyttle, Ostrowski & Murphy (1995) proposed
that, although in most sporting activities both the RFD and the maximum force
produced are strongly related to performance, for explosive movements such
as sprints, throws and jumps, in which force production times are on the order
of 100 to 300 ms, the rate at which force is developed is suggested to be the
most important physical capacity.
In a most recent article, Tillin, Jimenez-Reyes, Pain & Folland (2010) were
in line with the previous arguments, postulating that explosive muscular
contractions are fundamental to sports activities such as sprinting, jumping and
punching, and included that are important for preventing injuries. As during
explosive movements the time for the muscles to develop force is limited, the
RFD is an important descriptor of performance in explosive contractions.
These kinds of arguments are commonly used in articles where the RFD is
related with torque/force production in the early phase after the contraction
onset. Nevertheless, when analyzing the relationships between the RFD and the
performance in specific sport movements, the results are quite inconsistent.
Below are shown the main results of the studies relating the RFD and the
performance in such sport movements (table 2).

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TABLE 2
Summary of studies correlating RFD variables and performance.
Study Sample Ability
RFD
measure
Results
Stone et al.
2004
Cyclists
Sprint
cycling
Peak IRFD
r = 0.28-0.39
Haff et al.
2005
Weightlifters
Weightlifting
Peak IRFD
r = 0.79 (snatch RM)
0.69 (clean and jerk
RM)
Kawamori et
al. 2005
Diverse athletes
CMJ, SJ
Peak DRFD
r = -0.28-0.33 (CMJ),
-0.45-0.39 (SJ)
De Ruiter et
al. 2006
Physically active
CMJ, SJ
IRFD (0-
40ms)
r = 0.76-0.86 (CMJ),
0.75-0.84 (SJ)
Kawamori et
al. 2006
Weightlifters
CMJ, SJ
Peak IRFD,
peak DRFD
IRFD: r = 0.12 (CMJ),
0.14 (SJ) DRFD: r =
0.65 (CMJ), 0.74 (SJ)
McGuigan et
al. 2006
Wrestlers
CMJ
Peak IRFD
No correlations (data
not shown)
Ebben et al.
2007
Track and field
athletes
CMJ
Peak DRFD
r = 0.19
De Ruiter et
al. 2007
Volleyball players
CMJ
Peak EERFD,
peak IRFD
r = 0.7 (EERFD), 0.04
(IRFD)
Ugrinowitsch
et al. 2007
Power track
athletes, body
builders,
physically active
CMJ
Peak DRFD
No correlations (data
not shown)
McGuigan et
al. 2008
Football players
CMJ
Peak IRFD
No correlations (data
not shown)
Nuzzo et al.
2008
Football players,
track and field
athletes
CMJ
Peak IRFD
(squat and
midthigh)
Squat: r = -0.045
(JH), 0.78 (JPP)
Midthigh: r = 0.35
(JH), 0.65 (JPP)
Storen et al.
2008
Runner athletes
Running
economy
Peak DRFD
R2 = 0.26
Kraska et al.
2009
Diverse athletes
CMJ, SJ
Peak IRFD
r = 0.48 (SJ), 0.66
(LSJ), 0.43 (CMJ),
0.62 (LCMJ)
Sunde et al.
2010
Cyclists
Cycling
economy
Peak IRFD
R2 = 0.58
Khamoui et al.
2011
Physically active
Weighlifting
IRFD (0-50, 0-
100ms)
r = 0.49-0.52 (DHP),
0.56 (HPPF)
McLellan et al.
2011
Physically active
CMJ
Peak DRFD,
average
DRFD
r = 0.68 (Peak
DRFD), 0.49 (average
DRFD)
Thompson et
al. 2011
Football players
Level
TPeakRFD,
RFD at 30, 50,
100 and
200ms
ES = 0.82
(TPeakRFD), 0.82
(RFD at 30ms) 0.81
(RFD at 50ms)
West et al.
2011
Swimmers
Swimming
starts
Peak DRFD
r = -0.56 (p > .05)
West et al.
2011b
Rugby players
CMJ, 10m
sprint
Peak IRFD
r = 0.39 (CMJ), -0.66
(10m sprint)

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TABLE 2 (Cont.)
Leary et al.
2012
Golf players
Club
head
speed
Peak DRFD, DRFD
at 30, 50, 90, 100
200 and 250ms
DRFD 0-150ms: r =
0.38
Tillin et al.
2012
Rugby players
CMJ, 5
and 20m
sprint
Peak DRFD, DRFD
at 50, 100, 150 and
200ms
DRFD 0-100ms: r = -
0.63 (5m sprint), -
0.54 (20m sprint)
Peak DRFD 0-200ms:
r = 0.51 (CMJ)
Muehlbauer
et al. 2013
Physically active
CMJ
Peak IRFD
r = 0.69 (CMJPP),
0.63 (CMJH)
Thompson et
al. 2013
Football players CMJ
Peak IRFD, IRFD at
30, 50, 100 and
200ms
r = 0.48 (peak IRFD),
0.62 (0-30ms), 0.57
(0-50ms), 0.52 (0-
100ms) and 0.54 (0-
200ms)
Marques et al.
2014
Physically active
CMJ
Peak DRFD,
TPeakDRFD
r = 0.83 (Peak
DRFD), -0.81
(TPeakDRFD)
Marques et al.
2014b
Diverse athletes
CMJ
Peak DRFD,
TPeakDRFD
r = 0.44 (Peak DRFD)
non significant, 0.03
(TPeakDRFD)
Note. CMJH = countermovement jump height; CMJPP = countermovement jump peak power;
EERFD: electrically evoked RFD; JH = Jump height; JPP = jump peak power; LCMJ: loaded
countermovement jump; LSJ: loaded squat jump;
Jumping ability
Jumping ability is clearly the most studied sports movement when talking
about the relationships between RFD and sports performance. Since some
years ago controversial results have been shown for this relationship. Thus, for
isometric measures, 4 articles have shown positive correlations between peak
IRFD and CMJ performance (Kraska et al. 2009; West et al. 2011b; Muehlbauer
et al. 2013; and Thompson et al. 2013), whereas a similar number of articles
have shown no correlations between these two variables (Kawamori et al. 2006;
McGuigan, Winchester & Erickson, 2006; De Ruiter, Vermeulen, Toussaint & De
Haan, 2007; McGuigan & Winchester, 2008 and Nuzzo, McBride, Cormie &
McCaulley, 2008). In addition, IRFD at early time intervals has shown moderate
(Thompson et al. 2013) to high (De Ruiter, Van Leeuwen, Heijblom, Bobbert &
De Haan, 2006) correlations with CMJ performance. In the same line, DRFD has
shown diverse relations with CMJ performance. Four studies found positive
correlations between eccentric PRFD (De Ruiter et al. 2007), peak DRFD and
average DRFD (McLellan, Lovell & Gass, 2011), peak DRFD and DRFD at early
time intervals (Tillin et al. 2012), and peak DRFD and TPeakDRFD (Marques,
Izquierdo, van den Tillaar, Moir, Sánchez-Medina & González-Badillo, 2014) and
CMJ performance. On the other hand, there are four articles showing no

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correlations between peak DRFD and CMJ performance (Kawamori et al. 2005;
Ebben, Flanagan & Jensen, 2007; Ugrinowitsch, Tricoli, Rodacki, Batista &
Ricard, 2007; Marques & Izquierdo, 2014).
Regarding to SJ performance, two studies showed significant correlations
with both IRFD at early time intevals (De Ruiter et al. 2006) and peak IRFD
(Kraska et al. 2009), while Kawamori et al. (2006) did not show correlations
between peak IRFD and SJ performance. Finally, Kraska et al. (2009) studied
the relation between peak IRFD and loaded jumps, finding significant
correlations between peak IRFD and both loaded CMJ (0.62) and SJ (0.66).
Sprint ability
Two studies were carried out looking for relationships between RFD and
sprint performance. Both showed significant correlations between 10m sprint
time and peak IRFD (West et al. 2011b), and between both 5 and 20m sprint
time and DRFD at 0-100ms (Tillin et al. 2012).
Weightlifting
There are a couple of studies checking the relationships between RFD
variables and weightlifting abilities. Haff et al. (2005) showed high correlations
between IPRFD and both snatch and clean and jerk 1RM. In the same way,
Khamoui et al. (2011) found significant correlations between IRFD at early time
intervals and both dynamic high pull (DHP) performance and high pull peak
force (HPPF).
Cycling performance
Stone et al. (2004) did not found correlations between peak IRFD and
sprint cycling performance. In a different way, Sunde, Storen, Bjerkaas, Larsen,
Hoff & Helgerud (2010) showed a very high relationship (R2 = 0.58) between
peak IRFD and cycling economy.
Others
The RFD variables have been also studied in relation with several
performance indicators. Thus, Storen, Helgerud, Stoa & Hoff (2008) found peak
DRFD related with running economy (R2 = 0.26), while West, Owen,
Cunningham, Cook & Kilduff (2011) showed a moderate (0.56) but not
significant correlation between peak DRFD and swimming starts. Leary et al.
(2012) found significant correlations between DRFD at early time intervals (0-
150ms) with swing speed. In a different way, Thompson et al. (2011) showed
several RFD variables (peak DRFD, DRFD 0-30 and 0-50ms) as a good indicator
of the football players’ level.

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56
TRAINING INTERVENTIONS TO IMPROVE RFD
Growing interest has been given to the ability of the muscle to produce
maximum power and high force values within short periods of time. Explosive
muscle strength is considered to be of major importance in many sports that
involve ballistic muscle contractions (Gruber, Gruber, Taube, Schubert, Beck &
Gollhofer, 2007). Given the importance of the contractile RFD to movement
capability, there is an obvious need to develop interventions to improve these
performance parameters (Blazevich, Horne, Cannavan, Coleman, & Aagaard,
2008).
Through analysing the literature, different argumentations about the best
way to improve the RFD have been shown. On the one hand, the use of heavy
loads in strength training has shown to improve the RFD. Hartman, Bob, Wirth
& Schimdtbleicher (2009) exposed that increases in RFD especially depends on
the maximum effort of producing maximal muscle contraction speed regardless
of actual movement velocity. This explains the positive training effect of
maximum explosive strength actions with loads >90% of 1RM, on the power
ability in the same movement.
On the other hand, other authors have postulated ballistic training as the
best way to improve the RFD. Thus, Ricard et al. (2005) exposed that dynamic
training promotes higher initial discharge rates by motor units, and increases
motor unit synchronization during ballistic training, which enhances the RFD.
Moreover, Gruber et al. (2007), stand for training with moderate loads
accelerated with maximal effort to enhance RFD extensively compared to
training with high loads, which improve maximal voluntary contraction (MVC)
considerably, with only minor changes in RFD (Duchateau & Hainaut, 1984;
Hakkinen and Komi, 1986).
Nevertheless, the influence of different strength-training modalities on
explosive force production and its various determinants is still unclear (Tillin,
Pain & Folland, 2012). Maybe one of the biggest problems is the lack of
standardization in the strength-training modalities used in the literature to
investigate the influence of strength training on RFD improvements.
Throughout the analysis of the methods used by different researchers, it can be
seen differences in training intervention duration (4-15 weeks), contraction
types (isometric-concentric-eccentric), training intensity (maximal loads -
heavy loads - light loads), exercises used (knee extension – squats -
plantar/dorsal flexion – curl bíceps – bench press) or training volume (number
of days/exercises/sets/repetitions). Furthermore, differences in the way to
measure the RFD are very usual: during isometric/dynamic contractions, peak
RFD, time to peak RFD, RFD at different time intervals (30, 50, 100, 200….ms)
or absolute RFD vs normalized RFD.

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57
As a result of all of these experimental differences, unalike results have
been shown from different researches. A summary of the data reported from
studies aiming to improve the RFD with a training intervention are shown in
table 3.
TABLE 3
Summary of studies showing RFD responses after a training intervention.
Study
Sample
Intervention
Training
Results
Gruber et al.
2004
17
participants
(5 males, 12
females)
4 weeks
2 days/week
60 min (postural
stabilization
tasks) 4 x 20''
(20'' rest)
↑ peak RFD (p <
.05)
RFD ↑ at 30 and 50
ms (p < .05)
No changes in time
to peak RFD
No changes in RFD
at times longer
than 100 ms
Barry et al.
2005
16 males (8
young, 8
elderly)
4 weeks
3 days/week
4 x 6 (40 to 100%
MVC) (1-2’ rest)
Young group (YG)
and elderly group
(EG)
Unilateral elbow
flexion
Peak RTD ↑ in both
groups (
p
< .05
YG ↑ RTD at 100
and 200 ms (p <
.05)
EG ↑ RTD at 200
ms (
p
< .05)
Kyrolainen
et al. 2005 23 males 15 weeks
2 days/week
80-180
repetitions/sessio
n
Jumping exercises
(DJ, SJ HJ, HDJ)
Peak RFD ↑ after
10 weeks (p < .05)
Del Balso et
al. 2007 20 males 4 weeks
3 days/week
6 x 10 MVCs (3-
4’’) (2’ rest
between sets)
Unilateral plantar
flexion
Peak RFD ↑ 42.5 ±
13.3% (
p
< .05
↑ RFD correlated
with ↑ rate of
muscle activation(r
= .95)
Gruber et al.
2007
33
participants
(17 males, 16
females)
4 weeks
Sensoriomotor
training group
(SMT): 4
stabilization tasks,
4 x 20'' (40'' rest)
Ballistic training
(BST): 2 exercises
2 x 10 (30-40%
RM) Control
group (CG)
Peak RFD ↑ in SMT
and BST groups (
p
< .05) Time to peak
RFD ↓ in SMT and
BST groups (p <
.05)
Peak RFD ↑ in BST
vs SMT groups (
p
<
.05)
Holtermann
et al. 2007
24 males
3 weeks
3 days/week
5x10 MVC
Plantar flexion
RFD 28.4% ↑ at
300 ms (p < .01)

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TABLE 3 (Cont.)
Holtermann
et al. 2007b
14 males 1 week
9 sessions/week
5x5 MVC
Ankle dorsiflexion
↑ Peak RFD, RFD at 0-
50, 0-100 and 100-
200ms ↓
RFD at 200-300 and
300-400ms
Adamson et
al. 2008
10 females
8 weeks
3 days/week
5 x 5 RM (2-3' rest)
Unilateral curl biceps
Peak RFD ↑ 40-60%
(trained arm), 30-55%
(untrained arm)
Blazevich et
al. 2008
33
participants
(16 males,
17 females)
10 weeks
3 days/week
4 x 6 RM (weeks 1-3), 5 x 6
RM (weeks 4-7), 6 x 6 RM
(weeks 8-10)
Concentric (CON) and
eccentric group (ECC)
Isokinetic knee extension
(30°·s-1)
RFD ↑ at 30, 50, 100
and 200 ms in CON
and ECC groups
RFD at 30 ms ↑ in CON
vs ECC groups (p <
.05)
Haff et al.
2008
6 female
athletes 11 weeks
Non specified
Exercises: clean, clean and
jerk, snatch, clean pull,
snatch pull, squat and
front squat
No changes in peak
IRFD or peak DRFD
Peak IRFD inversely
related to volume load
(VL): ↑ 5.1%
when VL ↓ 57.5%
Storen et al.
2008
17 runner
athletes
8 weeks
3 days/week
4x4 RM
Half squats
Peak RFD ↑ 26%
Winchester
et al. 2008
14 males
8 weeks
3 days/week
3 x 3-12 (26-48% RM)
Jump squat
Peak IRFD ↑ 49%
Blazevich et
al. 2009
14
particpants
(non
specified)
5 weeks
3 days/week
4 x 6 RM (weeks 1-3), 5 x 6
RM (weeks 4-5)
Concentric (CON) and
eccentric group (ECC)
Isokinetic knee extension
(30°·s-1)
RFD ↑ 16% (-
56.9/+72.4%) at 30
ms and 2.4% (-
19/+28.8%) at 200 ms
RFD at 30 ms
inversely related to
the moment-angle
shift (R2 = .50)
Hartman et
al. 2009 40 males 14 weeks
3 days/week
Strength-power group
(SPP): hypertrophy +
strength-
power phase
Daily undulating
periodization (DUP)
Bench press
No changes in peak
RFD in SPP and DUP
groups High
variability in peak
RFD changes: 7.06 ±
36.46% (SPP group),
1.61 ± 21.71% (DUP
group)

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59
TABLE 3 (Cont.)
Ingebrigtsen
et al. 2009 39 males 3 weeks
3 days/week
High-load slow-
contraction group
(HS), high-load fast-
contraction group
(HF) and low-load
fast-contraction group
(LH)
Elbow flexions
No changes in peak IRFD
No differences between
training groups
Lamont et al.
2009 30 males 6 weeks
2 days/week
3-4 x 3-6 (55-90%
RM)
Squat training (SQT)
and squat + vibration
training (SQVT)
Half squats
↑ IRFD initial in SQTV (p
= 0.041)
No differences in RFD at
30, 50, 80, 100, 150 and
250 ms
Andersen et
al. 2010 25 males 14 weeks
3 days/week (38
sessions)
4 x 10-12 RM
(sessions 1-15), 4 x 8-
10 RM (sessions 16-
25), 5 x 6-8 RM
(sessions 26-38)
4 leg exercises
RFD ↑ 11% at 250 ms (p
< .05)
RFD/MVC ↓ 10-18% at
time intervals up to 140
ms (p
< .05)
↓ RFD/MVC at 50 ms
correlated with ↓ in type
IIx muscle fibers (r =
.61)
Sunde et al.
2010
16 cyclists
(12 males, 4
females)
8 weeks
3 days/week
4 x 4 RM
Half squats
Peak IRFD ↑ 16.7% (p <
.05)
Vila-Cha et
al. 2010 27 males 6 weeks
3 days/week
Strength group (SG):
3-4 x 8-15 (60-85%
RM), endurance group
(EG): 20-50 min 50-
70% HRR
Peak IRFD ↑ 33.3% (p <
.05) in SG
Marshall et
al. 2011
32 males
10 weeks
2 days/week
1 x 8 RM (G1), 4 x 8
RM (G4), 8 x 8 RM
(G8) Half squats
Peak IRFD, IRFD at 30
and 50ms ↓ in all groups
Kramer et al.
2012
32
participants
(18 males, 14
females)
4 weeks
3 days/week
Training group: 5 x 20
jumps (sledge jump
system)
Peak DRFD ↑ 35% (p <
.05)
Lamas et al.
2012 40 males 8 weeks
3 days/week
Strength group (SG):
4-8 x 4-10 RM, power
group (PG): 4-8 x 30-
60% 1RM
Half squats
Peak DRFD (SJ) ↑ 42%
(SG) and 24% (PG)
No changes in peak
DRFD (CMJ)

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60
TABLE 3 (Cont.)
Ronnestad
et al. 2012 18 males 12 weeks
2 days/week
3 x 4-10 RM (S group), 3 x
4-10 RM + endurance
training (S+E group)
Half squats, leg press,
ankle plantar flexions
Peak IRFD ↑ 15% (S)
with no changes in
S+E group
Behrens et
al. 2013
20
participants
(13 males, 7
females)
8 weeks
2 days/week
3 x 6-7 jumps (CMJ, SJ, DJ)
IRFD at 30 ms ↑ (p =
0.033)
Heggelund
et al. 2013 8 males 8 weeks
3 days/week
3 x 10 RM (CON leg), 4-5 x
5 RM (MST leg) Leg
extensions
Peak IRFD and peak
DRFD ↑ in both
groups (p < .05) MST
leg ↑ more peak
DRFD (p = 0.044) and
peak IRFD (p =
0.053)
Oliveira et
al. 2013
19 males
6 weeks
3 days/week
3 x 6-10 MVC
Knee extension
No changes in peak
IRFD
RFD ↑ 28% (0-10ms)
and 22% (0-20ms)
Farup et al.
2014 14 males 10 weeks
3 days/week
4-5 x 4-10 RM (RT group)
or endurance group (END
group)
Normalized RFD ↓ at
30, 50, 100 and 200
ms (knee flexors)
and at 200ms (knee
extensor) in both
groups
Note. DJ = Drop jump; HDJ = Hurdle jump; HJ = Hop jump; HRR = Heart rate reserve
The summary of the main findings are commented below, divided into the
adaptations on specific RFD measures.
Peak RFD
Regarding to changes in peak RFD, 14 articles showed improvements in
this variable after the training interventions. These improvements in peak RFD
have been shown after significant different training interventions, such as
sensoriomotor training (Gruber et al. 2004; Gruber et al. 2007), plyometrics
(Kyrolainen et al. 2005; Kramer, Ritzmann, Gruber & Gollhofer, 2012), heavy
loads (Adamson, MacQuaide, Helgerud, Hoff & Kemi, 2008; Storen et al. 2008;
Sunde et al. 2010; Lamas et al. 2012; Ronnestad, Hansen & Raastad, 2012;
Heggelund, Fimland, Helgerud & Hoff, 2013), hypertrophy training (Vila-Cha,
Falla & Farina, 2010; Heggelund et al. 2013) MVCs (Del Balso & Cafarelli, 2007),
ballistic training (Gruber et al. 2007; Winchester et al. 2008), power training
(Lamas et al. 2012) and after training with a wide range of intensities (Barry,
Warman & Carson, 2005).

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61
Among the training interventions showing no improvements in peak RFD,
it has been also found several training methodologies, such as weightlifting
training (Haff et al. 2008), both heavy loads and power training (Ingebrigtsen et
al. 2009; Lamas et al. 2012), hypertrophy training (Marshall, McEwen &
Robbins, 2011), MVCs (Oliveira, Oliveira, Rizatto & Denadai, 2013) and after a
periodized strength period with phases of both hypertrophy and power
training (Hartmann, Bob, Wirth & Schmidtbleicher, 2009).
Time to peak RFD
Only both studies carried out by Gruber et al. evaluated changes in time to
peak RFD, showing unalike results. While no changes were found after training
interventions performing tasking stabilization tasks (Gruber et al. 2004), lower
times required to achieve the peak RFD were found after quite similar
stabilizations tasks and after a ballistic training (Gruber et al. 2007).
RFD at early time intervals
This parameter seems to be more sensitive to a period of training
intervention. Thus, seven articles have shown improvements in this variable at
10 and 20 ms (Oliveira et al. 2013), 30 ms (Behrens, Mau-Moeller & Bruhn,
2013), 30 and 50 ms (Gruber et al. 2004), 30, 50, 100 and 200 ms (Blazevich et
al. 2008), 30 and 200 ms (Blazevich et al. 2009), 50, 100 and 200 ms
(Holtermann, Roeleveld, Vereijken & Ettema, 2007), and at 100 and 200 ms
(Barry et al. 2005).
Nevertheless, there were three articles founding no changes in RFD at early
time intevals: Lamont, Cramer, Bemben, Shehab, Anderson & Bemben (2009) at
30, 50, 80, 100, 150 and 250 ms; Marshall et al. (2011) at 30 and 50 ms; and
Farup, Sorensen & Kjolhede (2014) at 30, 50, 100 and 200 ms.
This disagreement in the improvements in RFD at early time intervals
could be explained by differences in the training interventions. While in the
studies where the RFD at early time intervals showed improvements the
training interventions consist of heavy loads, MVCs, plyometrics, or ballistic
training, in the studies in which RFD at early time intervals did not show
changes were used hypertrophy loads. Regarding to this, Andersen et al. (2010)
found that decreases in RFD at early time intervals can be explained by a
parallel decrease in the area of type IIx muscle fibers (r = .61). As a training
intervention focusing in hypertrophy usually leads to a decrease in type IIx
muscle fibers, it seems logical the lack of improvements in RFD at early time
intervals showed in these three studies.
In addition, two studies measured the RFD average in a wide period of time,
showing both improvements in the values of the RFD at 0-300 ms (Holtermann,
Roeleveld, Engstrom & Sand, 2007) and at 0-250 ms (Andersen et al. 2010).

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62
CONCLUSIONS
Measures
Isometric contractions have been clearly the most usual way of measuring
RFD compared to dynamic contractions. This is probably because of the better
standardization of the protocol and the greater control of isometric actions in
contrast of dynamic ones. In relation to the device employed to measure the
RFD, force plate seems to be the better option due to the possibility of
measuring both isometric and dynamic actions (isokinetic and non isokinetic) ,
but strain gauges linear position transducers and isokinetic dynamometers
have also shown good reliability.
Relative to the specific RFD variable measured, an evolution can be seen. At
the beginning of RFD studies, most of them were focused on both peak RFD and
time to peak RFD, but over the years, growing interest has appeared on the RFD
at early time intervals.
Relationships with sport performance
Generally, unclear results have been observed in different studies,
independently of the type of contraction (isometric vs dynamic), ability (i.e.
jumping, weightlifting, running sprint, cycling sprint) or population (athletes vs
recreational). So, there is no clear the influence of parameters such as peak RFD
or time to peak RFD on sports performance. Nevertheless, it seems clearer that
the ability to produce high RFD at early time intervals (i.e. 0-100ms) is related
to the performance in several sports movements.
RFD improvements
After analysing the RFD response following a training intervention, the
parameter seeming to be more sensitive is the ability to develop higher RFD at
early time intervals. Peak RFD have also shown improvements after most of the
training interventions found in the literature, while time to peak RFD have
received lower attention, being measured only in two studies and showing
improvements in one of them.
Finally, as RFD at early time intervals have shown both the higher
correlations with sports performance and the greater response after a training
intervention, this seems to be the key point within RFD variables. Therefore,
researchers and coaches must be aware of the importance of RFD at early time
intervals and, accordingly, this parameter should be measured during
functional tests. In addition, coaches should pursued improvements in this
variable because of its relationship with several sports movements.

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