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The Evaluation of the Aflatoxin Presence in Foods
Abstract
Aflatoxins are mycotoxins that are widely found in food products such as cereals, oil seeds, spices, meat, milk and milk products and also animal feeds. Food for humans and animals could be contaminated with aflatoxins during the product processing, storage and sale. Levels of aflatoxin contamination also may vary according to the climate, regional characteristics or type of food. Aflatoxins in food and feed are usually stable and resistant to heat. The contamination rate may increase when the conditions for the formation of these toxins continue existing. Apparently, it is not possible to completely purify contaminated food from aflatoxins or detoxify the aflatoxin. To prevent accumulation of aflatoxin, contamination of the food with molds should be prevented with developing technologies and best practices. Humans come in contact with aflatoxin through contaminated food and animal products. As a result, aflatoxin can cause acute or chronic toxicitiy, while the quantity of aflatoxin injested, the age, sex, and health factors might affect the degree of toxicity. Aflatoxins are one of the most toxic mycotoxins. In previous studies it was shown that aflatoxins could be dangerous for human due to their toxic, carcinogenic, teratogenic, hepatoxic and mutagenic characteristic. Therefore, aflatoxins contamination remains of importance in terms of food safety. Long-term consumption of food containing high amounts of aflatoxin may result in health problems and adversely affect the export of several products and cause economic losses. In Turkey, similarly to other countries Aflatoxin B1 (AFB 1), Total Aflatoxin-TAF (B 1, B 2, G 1 and G 2) and Aflatoxin M 1 (AFM 1) levels in food should be kept within the legal limits. The present review aimed to evaluate the emerging role of aflatoxin as carcinogenic, teratogenic, hepatoxic and mutagenic products present in food.
... Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites produced by fungal species that may pose a risk to human life, and they can be carried by moulds or wind and air circulation and can endure drought and various other environmental conditions [1,2]. Mycotoxins have more varied chemical structures and biological activities compared to bacterial toxins. ...
... Mycotoxins have more varied chemical structures and biological activities compared to bacterial toxins. Approximately 400 mycotoxin types have been identifed to date and the ones encountered most are afatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxins, and fumonisins [1,2]. Afatoxins (AFs) are mycotoxins that can be commonly found in cereals, oilseeds, spices, meats, and many other foods and fodder including dairy products [1]. ...
... Approximately 400 mycotoxin types have been identifed to date and the ones encountered most are afatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxins, and fumonisins [1,2]. Afatoxins (AFs) are mycotoxins that can be commonly found in cereals, oilseeds, spices, meats, and many other foods and fodder including dairy products [1]. AFs, which are toxic and carcinogenic polyketide secondary metabolites, are mycotoxins produced by Aspergillus favus, Aspergillus parasiticus, Aspergillus nomius, and Aspergillus pseudotamarii strains [3][4][5]. ...
Peanuts, which are rich in nutrients, are used in many products and are often a primary ingredient of protein bars. However, when the necessary production and storage conditions are not met, mycotoxins, and particularly aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), which is the most toxic and most common mycotoxin, may pose a great risk. This study was undertaken to indirectly examine the appropriateness of storage conditions for peanut protein bars sold at different supply points and to identify the presence of AFB1 in compliance with the relevant legal limitations. In February and March 2022, different varieties of peanut protein bars without added sugars were obtained from local markets and nonmarket store chains (places where sports products, cosmetic products, and protein bars are sold) in Ankara, Turkey. AFB1 contents were analysed by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method. The limit imposed by the Turkish Food Codex regulation on contaminants is 5 ppb. While 38.3% of the samples were under that limit, 61.7% were above. No significant difference was found for the place of sale ( p = 0.542 and χ2 = 2.150), selling conditions ( p = 0.497 ), product ingredients, or remaining shelf-life ( p = 0.804 ) regarding the level of AFB1 in the samples. However, it was determined that samples with peanut percentages lower than 17.0% had higher amounts of AFB1 ( p < 0.001 ), and other available ingredients might affect the AFB1 content of peanut bars. It was concluded that most samples (n = 37.0, p < 0.001 , t = −8.607) posed a risk in terms of AFB1. Considering the shelf-life of such products and that peanuts can produce AFB1 during their shelf-life, it would be beneficial to monitor the frequency of supervision and prevent the sale of peanut bars with AFB1 contents higher than the limits.
... For this reason, food control, as well as periodical detections, are of vital importance since fungal contamination leads to aflatoxins' accumulation, which can occur due to temperature and humidity conditions on feed and food during growth, processing, postharvest operations and/or storage (Ardic et al., 2009;Aydin et al., 2007). The most notable aflatoxin contamination can be found in food and feed, such as nuts, dried fruits, cereals, spices, crude vegetable oils, cacao beans, and dairy products (Kabak and Var, 2006;Oruç, 2005;Yentür and Er, 2012). Due to the risk of contamination, tolerance levels of aflatoxin regulations have been enacted in most countries, including Turkey (Colak et al., 2012). ...
... In this regard, our study will serve to extend the up to date literature to this context. Furthermore, Yentür et al. (2012) has inspected 90 different pepper pastes which were collected from supermarkets in Ankara and analysed for AFB1 by ELISA. According to the results of this study, 69 of 90 samples were detected to contain AFB1 lower than 1.25 µg kg -1 , 16 samples were between 1.25-2.00 ...
... Foods and animal feeds can be contaminated with aflatoxins during product processing, storage and sale. Aflatoxin contamination levels may vary according to climatic, regional characteristics or food type (Yentür and Er, 2012). Consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated feeds adversely affects animal health and production. ...
Food safety has become an increasingly important issue as people become more concerned about access to healthy food. Particularly in affluent societies such as the European Union, the increasing consumption of unhealthy fruits and vegetables and carcinogenic residues are constantly on the agenda. Reducing aflatoxin levels in dried foods to below health risk levels, eliminating them from food and ensuring access to healthy food are essential for food safety and human health. In this study, the impact of food safety practices in fruit and vegetable trade between the European Union and Türkiye was examined using mandarins, one of Türkiye’s main fresh fruit and vegetable exports, and the European Union Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) notifications for food and feed for the period between 2019 and 2022. The reasons for these notifications and the requests made in this context were examined and a TOWS analysis matrix was created based on the findings obtained. In conclusion, residue and aflatoxin inspections should be included in traceability activities in Türkiye. Producers need to be informed to ensure the effectiveness of inspections. It is crucial to provide adequate support to producers to improve storage conditions for perishable and dry products and to encourage the use of the latest production techniques. It is of great importance to raise awareness of these techniques among producers. Thus, the European Union can be an alternative market to the Russian Federation, which is Türkiye’s largest trading partner.
... Aflatoxin presence in food is significantly determined by the conditions of air humidity and temperatures. Moisture, drying time of a product, ambient relative humidity, fungi, and spore intensity, as well as elevated temperatures, may be listed as some of the factors affecting the reproduction of aflatoxins 30 . Climate conditions are the most critical characteristic that influences the availability of AFM1 in the mother's milk according to several researchers 21,31 . ...
Objective:
Mycotoxins are different toxic substances at relatively smaller molecular weight produced by some types of fungi. Aflatoxin is the most common type of mycotoxin easily reproducing in food stored for a long time in unsuitable conditions. This study determined the aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) levels in breast milk samples collected from mothers who gave birth in Kırşehir, Turkey.
Materials and methods:
A total of 82 breast milk samples to be analyzed to determine the AFM1 levels were collected from voluntary breastfeeding mothers who gave birth in the Kırşehir Training and Research Hospital and who were randomly selected. The AFM1 levels were determined using the competitive ELISA kit.
Results:
The AFM1 levels in the breast milk samples of mothers who did not consume milk were lower than those of other mothers. The AFM1 levels in the breast milk samples of mothers consuming fabrication milk were lower than mothers consuming homemade milk (p<0.01). Additionally, the AFM1 levels in the breast milk samples of mothers consuming homemade or self-made bread were lower (p<0.05).
Conclusions:
This study found that the nutritional habits of breastfeeding mothers affected the AFM1 levels in breast milk.
... Aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), T-2, HT-2, patulin (PAT), and fumonisins (FBs) are the most common mycotoxins in foods [11]. Humans are exposed to mycotoxins, albeit at residual levels, through food and products derived from animals fed with contaminated feed [15]. Among all the mycotoxins, aflatoxin is the strongest and most toxic carcinogen [14]. ...
In this study, a total of 85 cereal-based baby foods with or without milk (four different brands; A, B, C, and D) collected from Ankara local markets, Turkey were analyzed for mycotoxins, total aerobic mesophilic bacteria (TAMB), and Enterobacteriaceae contamination. Baby foods were analyzed for 12 toxicological important mycotoxins such as aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, and G2; fumonisin B1 and B2; ochratoxin A; sterigmatocystin (STE); deoxynivalenol (DON); zearalenone (ZON); and T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin by LC-MS/MS multi-mycotoxin method. In addition to these mycotoxins, the presence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) was investigated in baby foods containing milk. The classical culture method was used for microbiological analysis. Consequently, at least one mycotoxin was detected in 69.41% of the total samples. The most frequently detected mycotoxins were STE (34.12%) and HT-2 (34.12%). However, AFM1 was not detected in any of the baby foods containing milk. Also, TAMB and Enterobacteriaceae were isolated from 30.59% and 10.59% of samples, respectively. As a result, it was determined that the mycotoxin levels in the analyzed samples were in accordance with the mycotoxin levels specified in the Turkish Food Codex.
... The percentage of superoxide scavenging activity was calculated using Eq. (1). ...
In this study, the toxic effects of aflatoxin B2 (AFB2) on Swiss albino mice and the protective effects of resveratrol were investigated. Physiological (body weight, liver and kidney weight), biochemical (aspartate aminotransferase-AST, alanine transaminase-ALT, blood urea nitrogen-BUN, creatinine, malondialdehyde-MDA and glutathione-GSH) and cytogenetic parameters (micronucleus-MN in buccal epithelium, erythrocyte and leukocyte cells and chromosomal aberrations-CAs) were used to determine the toxic effects. Additionally, scavenging effects of resveratrol against superoxide, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals were also investigated. In experimental period, mice were divided into six groups and the groups were treated with tap water, 10 mg/kg b.w resveratrol, 20 mg/kg b.w resveratrol, 20 µg/kg b.w. AFB2, 10 mg/kg b.w resveratrol + 20 µg/kg b.w AFB2, 20 mg/kg b.w resveratrol + 20 µg/kg b.w AFB2, respectively. As a result, the scavenging effects of resveratrol increased with increasing dose and the superoxide, H2O2 and DPPH radical scavenging activity of resveratrol were 74.9%, 79.1% and 49.2%, respectively. AFB2 administration caused a significant decrease in physiological parameters, and these decreases regressed in AFB2 + resveratrol treated groups. Serum ALT and AST activities, BUN and creatinine levels were higher in the AFB2 treated group compared to the control group and serious abnormalities were found in MDA and GSH levels in the kidney and liver. In the group treated with AFB2 + 20 mg/kg resveratrol, ALT, AST, BUN and creatinine levels decreased significantly and GSH levels increased compared to only-AFB2 treated group. AFB2 triggered MN formation in buccal epithelium, erythrocyte and leukocyte cells and CAs in bone marrow cells. The application of 20 mg/kg resveratrol together with AFB2 was decreased the MN and CAs frequency. Resveratrol exhibited a recovery effect in the range of 40.9–80.5% against AFB2 toxicity in all tested parameters. In this study, it was determined that AFB2 caused serious changes in selected physiological, biochemical and cytogenetic parameters while resveratrol displayed a protective role against these toxic effects.
... It is estimated that mycotoxins contaminate about 25% of the world's nutrients each year and that approximately 4.5 billion people are chronically exposed to mycotoxins, according to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Among the different type of mycotoxins; aflatoxins are widespread in major food crops such as groundnuts, maize, dried fruits and spices as well as milk and meat products (17)(18)(19)(20). ...
This study was designed to investigate the aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1(AFG1), G2(AFG2) and total aflatoxin levels in 27 samples of several packaged chips randomly obtained from various markets in Istanbul using immunoaffinity chromatography and post-column UV derivatization system by HPLC. Seventeen of the samples contained some aflatoxins at detectable levels, whereas 10 did not. The levels of aflatoxin ranged between 1 and 39 μg/kg. AFB1 and AFB2 were detected in 63% and 41% in analyzing chip samples respectively. The levels of AFB1 varied from 1 to 24 μg/kg in chip samples and the levels of AFB2 varied from 1 to 16 μg/kg in chip samples. Low levels of AFG2 ranging from 0 to 3 μg/kg were found in chips. Groundnut chips showed high aflatoxin concentrations and recorded relatively higher AFB1, AFB2, AFG2 and Total aflatoxin levels ranging from 1 to 39 μg/kg, indicating that groundnut is potentially causing serious health risks to consumers of these products than other chips. The aim of this study is to determine the presence and amount of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2 in various chips samples consumed in Istanbul.
... It is estimated that mycotoxins contaminate about 25% of the world's nutrients each year and that approximately 4.5 billion people are chronically exposed to mycotoxins, according to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Among the different type of mycotoxins; aflatoxins are widespread in major food crops such as groundnuts, maize, dried fruits and spices as well as milk and meat products (17)(18)(19)(20). ...
This study was designed to investigate the aflatoxin B1(AFB1), B2(AFB2), G1(AFG1), G2(AFG2) and total aflatoxin levels in 27 samples of several packaged chips randomly obtained from various markets in Istanbul using immunoaffinity chromatography and post-column UV derivatization system by HPLC. Seventeen of the samples contained some aflatoxins at detectable levels, whereas 10 did not. The levels of aflatoxin ranged between 1 and 39 µg/kg. AFB1 and AFB2 were detected in 63% and 41% in analyzing chip samples respectively. The levels of AFB1 varied from 1 to 24 µg/kg in chip samples and the levels of AFB2 varied from 1 to 16 µg/kg in chip samples. Low levels of AFG2 ranging from 0 to 3 µg/kg were found in chips. Groundnut chips showed high aflatoxin concentrations and recorded relatively higher AFB1, AFB2, AFG2 and Total aflatoxin levels ranging from 1 to 39 µg/kg, indicating that groundnut is potentially causing serious health risks to consumers of these products than other chips. The aim of this study is to determine the presence and amount of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2 in various chips samples consumed in Istanbul.
Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is the hydroxylated metabolite of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), which is formed in the liver by cytochrome P450 enzymes and can be secreted into the urine, feces, and milk of mammals. AFM1 is a carcinogenic, cytotoxic, teratogenic, mutagenic and genotoxic agent that poses a significant health risk to both humans and animals. This study was conducted to determine the presence of AFM1 in both raw and ultra-high temperature (UHT) cow’s milk samples produced in the northern part of Cyprus, and to determine whether it poses a risk to public health. In this survey, a total of 20 UHT cow’s milk samples from 2 different milk brands produced in the northern part of Cyprus, and 22 raw cow’s milk samples collected from the different dairies were analyzed for the presence of AFM1 by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detector after immunoaffinity cleanup. AFM1 could not be detected in any of the analyzed raw and UHT cow milk samples. The LOD and LOQ values of the HPLC-FLD method were 1.038 μg/kg and 3.145 μg/kg, respectively. The mean recovery and repeatability values of the method were 95.6% and 4.9%, respectively. Although the presence of AFM1 in milk samples produced in the northern part of Cyprus poses no major risk to public health, more milk samples and animal feed must be monitored on a regular basis to decrease potential consumer exposure.
In this study, AFM1 toxicity and the protective role of trans-resveratrol (t-rsv) against this toxicity were investigated with the help of multiple parameters in albino mice. As a result, AFM1 (16 mg/kg b.w) administration caused a decrease in body, kidney and liver weights. This reduction was associated with a decrease in feed consumption. AFM1 induced an increase in AST and ALT enzyme parameters and BUN, creatinine and MDA levels and a decrease in GSH levels. These increases have been associated with liver and kidney cell damage. AFM1 decreased MI and encouraged increases in MN and CAs numbers. The decrease in MI was correlated with AFM1-tubulin and the increase in CAs was associated with the AFM1-DNA interaction, which was demonstrated by molecular docking and spectral shifting. Besides, the decrease in DNA damage and amount was demonstrated by the comet assay technique. Administration of t-rsv (10 and 20 mg/kg b.w) reduced the toxic effects of AFM1 and caused a dose-dependent improvement in all physiological, biochemical and cytogenetic parameter values studied. For this reason, foods containing t-rsv or food supplements should be consumed in the daily diet to reduce the effect of toxic agents.
Aflatoxins comprise a group of mycotoxins that are found in the environment. Exposure to aflatoxins has been reported to cause serious health problems in humans. Since aflatoxin M 1 (AFM 1 ) is secreted in breast milk, the exposure of infants to this toxin is an important concern. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence, levels of, and factors associated with the presence of AFM 1 in breast milk of mothers in Fethiye, Turkey. Breast milk samples were taken from 100 mothers who had given birth over the period of October–November 2017. The AFM 1 content of the samples was determined via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The lowest limit for milk samples in the Ridascreen® AFM 1 commercial test kit is 5 ng/L. Because of this, AFM 1 levels below 5 ng/L in the breast milk samples were assessed as negative. Of the breast milk samples tested, 53 were positive. The average AFM 1 amount in the positive samples was 6.36 ng/L (ppt; range 5.10–8.31 ng/L). Mothers who were housewives, lived in damp, humid houses, or ate spices or dried fruits and vegetables had significantly greater prevalence of AFM 1 in their breast milk than those who were employed, did not report dampness or mold in the home, or did not eat spices or dried fruits and vegetables. AFM 1 in breast milk could be an important risk factor for infant health. Informing the public about food safety could reduce the amount of AFM 1 being transferred into breast milk via food channels.
This review paper describes briefly on the history of aflatoxins, the metabolism of aflatoxin B 1 (AFB 1) that leads to the activation and detoxification of AFB 1 , and the findings of some of the studies relating to food nutrients and additives, and drugs on AFBJ carcinogenicity and detoxification. Aflatoxins have been linked to many public health problems, especially to liver cancer incidences, in different parts of the world. Many studies have shown the potential of dietary factors modulating the formation of AFB 1 -DNA adduct, the initial and important step of AFB 1 carcinogenesis process. Among the food nutrients that have been shown to reduce the binding of AFB 1 to DNA are vitamin A, vitamin C and riboflavin. On the contrary, vitamin E and β-carotene increase the DNA binding. Choline-deficient animals when subjected to multiple doses of AFB 1 had higher amount of the DNA adduct being formed than the choline-sufficient animals. Carnitine supplement, feed restriction, and some vegetables and their extracts can also decrease the AFB 1 -DNA adduct formation. The observed and proposed mechanisms for the reduction include the inhibition of bioactivation of AFB 1 and induction of glutathione S-transferase activity that detoxify the activated AFB 1 . However, more research is needed before nutritional recommendations could be given to the public to control AFB 1 toxicity and carcinogenicity.
Aflatoxins are the potent toxic, mutagenic, het-erogenic and carcinogenic metabolites produced by species of A. flavus and A. parasiticus. In the present study, an attempt has been made to prevent aflatoxin production using an antican-cerous drug taxol. Taxol (Paclitaxel) is a well known drug for its anticancerous property mainly to treat breast and ovarian cancers. It was obtained from Taxus brevifolia and it was also obtained from the endophytic fungi present in Taxus brefivolia [1]. Therefore, this drug is specifically selected to screen its activity on the control of A. flavus and AFB1 production at various concentrations. Among the 6 concentrations used, 3 μg of taxol was found to be suitable to control the growth and AFB1 production. The content of AFB1 found at this concentration was 6 ppm by TLC and 6.3 ppm by HPTLC. The complete elimination of AFB1 might require higher concentrations of taxol.
In this study, total number of 220 milk and cheese samples were analysed, consisting 120 pasteurised milk samples from 8 different firms, 30 raw milk samples and 70 Turkish white brined cheese samples from 7 different firms which were collected from Ankara region, Turkey. Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) was determined with an Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (Elisa) using the I'screen Afla M1 ELISA kit. Sample preparations were done according to the instructions of the Tecna kit. Mean levels of AFM1 was 0.025±0.003 ppb in the milk samples. Regarding the Turkish white brined cheese samples, mean level of AFM1 was found to be 0.023±0.004 ppb. The data revealed that while mean AFM1 levels found in pasteurised milk of two firms were higher than Turkish Food Codex (TFC) values for the other milk was within TFC values. In raw milk and cheese samples all the AFM1 levels were within the TFC.
This paper presents an assessment of the aflatoxin B 1 contamination of some food grains (wheat, millet, Guinea corn, breadfruit and groundnut) from major markets in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The concentrations of aflatoxin B 1 obtained ranged from 17.01-20.53 μg kg -1 for wheat, 34.00- 40.30 μg kg -1 for millet, 27.22-36.13 μg kg -1 for guinea corn, 40.06-48.59 μg kg -1 for breadfruit and 74.03-82.12 μg kg -1 for groundnut. Aflatoxin B 1 was detected in all the samples. There were significant differences (p
Aflatoxins cause health hazards to human and animals and has also economical problems. Therefore, the detoxification effect of citric acid was investigated in rice as the main food of Iranian people.
Initially 275 samples of rice were examined for aflatoxins by HPLC. The aflatoxins contaminated samples were later treated by aqueous citric acid and detoxification of aflatoxins were quantified using HPLC.
Among the 275 samples analyzed, aflatoxin B(1) and aflatoxin B(2) were detected in 211(76.72% of total) samples. Aflatoxin B(1) was detected in 203(73.82% of total) samples with a mean and standard deviation of 2.3±10.21ppb. Aflatoxin B(2) together with aflatoxin B(1) were detected in only 8(2.91% of total) samples with a mean and standard deviation of 1.38±2.7ppb of aflatoxin B(2) and 2.99±1.56 of aflatoxin B(1) respectively. Aflatoxin B(1) level in 5 samples (1.82%) was above the maximum tolerated level of aflatoxin B(1) in Iran (5ppb). However considering the Iranian maximum tolerated level for aflatoxins in rice (30ppb), only 3(1.09%) samples were above the 30ppb and also in regard to the European maximum tolerated level for aflatoxins in rice (4ppb), only 9(3.27%) samples were considered as higher than 4ppb.
The HPLC assay showed that although aflatoxins with a concentration of <30 and <4 ppb in the rice samples were completely degraded, but 97.22% degradation occurred in rice contaminated with ≥30 and ≥4ppb when treated with 1N citric acid. These results revealed the efficacy of 1N citric acid in reducing aflatoxins levels in rice.
This paper reports the results of a two year survey on AFM1 contamination in goat milk and hard goat cheese produced in Sardinia (Italy). The AFM1 content in 208 bulk-tank goat milk samples was measured, using an ELISA commercial kit. The samples came from 45 extensive and 7 intensive farms. During each lactation period, four samples were collected. The AFM1 content was also studied in 41 hard goat cheese samples from 12 cheese factories. AFM1 was detected in 36 bulk-tank goat milk samples (17.3%) at concentrations of between 5 and 40 ng/l, while in 172, it was not detectable (<5 ng/l). The incidence of contaminated samples was higher in intensive (71.4%) than in extensive ones (11.2%). AFM1 was also detected in 4 (9.8%) out of 41 samples of ripened goat cheese at levels of between 79.5 ng/kg and 389 ng/kg. These contaminated samples were obtained from the same cheese factory where the milk from the intensive farms was used.
Insufficient hygiene conditions during drying, transport and storage stages in the production of red pepper could cause microbiological and mycological growth which could result in the formation of mycotoxins. This study was designed to assess the aflatoxin B1 levels in 100 samples of powdered red pepper randomly obtained from markets in Istanbul using microtitre plate Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). Aflatoxin B1 levels were below the minimum detection limit (0.025 μg/kg) in 32 samples, between 0.025 and 5 μg/kg in 50 samples, whilst 18 samples had unacceptable contamination levels higher than the maximum tolerable limit (5 μg/kg), according to the Turkish Food Codex and the European Commission.
Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites produced by some species of mould genera such as Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium. Mycotoxins are carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic and immunosuppressive to most animal species and humans. Humans are exposed to aflatoxins via risky foods such as milk, cereals and various spices. This study aimed to determine the aflatoxin levels in red scaled, red and black pepper. For this purpose, 84 spice samples were randomly obtained from markets and bazaars in Istanbul. Thirty-six of 84 spice samples (42.9%) were found contaminated with aflatoxins in the range of 0.3-46.8 µg/kg. All positive samples were also analyzed and confirmed by HPLC. The results obtained by ELISA were closely related to those by HPLC. In conclusion, aflatoxins continue to pose a health concern via human exposure to contaminated spices.
Giriş Gıda maddelerinde üreyebilen, bu yolla günlük yaşantıda çok sık te-masın söz konusu olabildiği küfler ve özellikle bunların oluşturdukları toksik metabolitler üzerinde önemle durulan bir araştırma konusudur. Bu toksinler günümüzde halk sağlığını tehdit etmenin yanısıra ekono-mide de ciddi kayıplara neden olmaktadır. Konuyla ilgili olarak tarafı-mızdan ülkemizdeki gıdalarda mikotoksin kontaminasyon sorununu de-ğerlendirmek amacıyla bilhassa tahıl, çocuk mamaları dahil süt ve süt ürünlerinde kapsamlı araştırmalar yapılmıştır 1-5 . Ayrıca, anne sütü ve insan serumunda mikotoksin düzeylerinin saptanmasıyla ilgili projeler kapsamında çalışmalar devam etmektedir. Küfler, uygun koşullarda ham ve işlenmemiş materyalde çoğalarak bir yandan ürünün nitelik ve niceliğini değiştirip bozulmasına neden ol-makta, diğer yandan da insan sağlığı üzerinde olumsuz etkilere sahip toksik maddeleri oluşturmaktadırlar. Oluşan bu ürünler, mikotoksin olarak adlandırılan, son derece toksik, çoğu karsinojen, teratojen, mu-tajen maddelerdir 6 . Mikotoksinler, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Alternaria başta ol-mak üzere bazı mantarların belirli nem ve ısı koşullarında oluşturdukları fungal metabolitlerdir 7,8 . En sık karşılaşılan mikotoksinler aflatoksinler, okratoksin, trikotesen, zearalenon, patulin ve fumonisin olarak sıralana-bilir 9 .
This study was undertaken to determine the presence and levels of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in Turkish white brined cheese consumed in the province of Erzurum, Turkey. For this purpose, a total of 193 cheese samples were randomly obtained from retail outlets and Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) technique was used to determine the presence and levels of AFM1. AFM1 at detectable level (50 ng/kg) was found in 82.4% of the samples. The concentration of AFM1 in samples ranged from 52 to 860 ng/kg. Of the samples, 26.4% exceed the legal limit of 250 ng/kg established by Turkish Food Codex. It was concluded that widespread occurrence of AFM1 in Turkish white brined cheese samples were considered to be possible hazards for public health especially children.
Two hundred and twenty-three samples of dairy products (49 samples of cheese, 94 samples of white cheese, 53 samples of Kashar cheese, and 27 samples of butter), 51 dehulled hazelnut and 40 cacao hazelnut cream, marketed in Ankara, Turkey during September 2002–September 2003, were analysed for aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), total aflatoxin and AFB1 by microtitre plate enzyme-linked immunosorband assay (ELISA). The incidence of AFM1 contamination in dairy products analysed was 90.58%. AFB1 contamination was detected in 43 (84.32%) of dehulled hazelnut samples (ranging from <1 to 10 ppb) and in 38 (95%) samples of cacao hazelnut cream (ranging from <1 to 13 ppb). Total aflatoxin contamination was determined in 47 (92.16%) of dehulled hazelnut samples and in 39 (97.5%) samples of cacao hazelnut cream.AFM1 levels in 19 (8.52%) of 223 dairy product samples were determined higher than maximum tolerable limit of the Turkish Food Codex, whereas total aflatoxin levels in only one of 51 dehulled hazelnut and one of 40 hazelnut cacao cream samples were exceeded the legal limit.Continuous surevillance programme may be warranted to monitor regularly the occurrence of aflatoxins in foods and foodstuffs which consumed by human.
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) may develop according to two major pathways, one involving HBV infection and TP53 mutation and the other characterized by HCV infection and CTNNB1 mutation. We have investigated HBV/HCV infections and TP53/CTNNB1 mutations in 26 HCC patients from Thailand. HBV DNA (genotype B or C) was detected in 19 (73%) of the cases, including 5 occult infections and 3 coinfections with HCV. TP53 and CTNNB1 mutations were not mutually exclusive, and most of TP53 mutations were R249S, suggesting a significant impact of aflatoxin-induced mutagenesis in HCC development.
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), or liver cancer, is the third leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide, with prevalence 16-32 times higher in developing countries than in developed countries. Aflatoxin, a contaminant produced by the fungi Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus in maize and nuts, is a known human liver carcinogen.
We sought to determine the global burden of HCC attributable to aflatoxin exposure.
We conducted a quantitative cancer risk assessment, for which we collected global data on food-borne aflatoxin levels, consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated foods, and hepatitis B virus (HBV) prevalence. We calculated the cancer potency of aflatoxin for HBV-postive and HBV-negative individuals, as well as the uncertainty in all variables, to estimate the global burden of aflatoxin-related HCC.
Of the 550,000-600,000 new HCC cases worldwide each year, about 25,200-155,000 may be attributable to aflatoxin exposure. Most cases occur in sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and China where populations suffer from both high HBV prevalence and largely uncontrolled aflatoxin exposure in food.
Aflatoxin may play a causative role in 4.6-28.2% of all global HCC cases.
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fifth leading cause of cancer mortality in the world and, in certain parts of Asia and Africa, it accounts for about 70% of cancer deaths. Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection and dietary exposure to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) are the two major risk factors in multi factorial aetiology of HCC. Multiple lines of evidence indicate synergistic interaction between these two agents in the development of HCC. Several mechanisms of interaction have been suggested including activation of cytochrome P450s by HBV infection leading to the metabolism of inactive AFB1 to the mutagenic AFB1-8,9-epoxide as well as the generation of reactive oxygen species by HBV and AFB1 sensitising the cells to AFB1-induced p53 249ser mutations. The poor survival rate achieved by the current surgical procedures and chemotherapy treatment has motivated a number of scientific investigations to elucidating the molecular events involved in HCC thus providing the scientific rationale for prevention strategies, including primary and chemoprevention approaches. Recent findings have implicated intracellular signalling cascades involving nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and nuclear transcription factor erythroid 2p45 (NF-E2)-related factor 2 (Nrf2) as molecular targets of a wide range of chemopreventive agents. The new findings thus raise the intriguing possibility that chemopreventives modulating these molecular targets in the liver might provide a novel therapeutic approach to the development of liver cancer.
Hepatocellular carcinoma is the fifth most common cancer and a major public health problem worldwide. Differences in distribution of hepatocellular carcinoma incidence are probably due to different levels of exposure to hepatocellular carcinoma risk factors: chronic infections with hepatitis B virus (HBV) and aflatoxin exposure in developing countries, and smoking and alcohol abuse in developed countries. Aflatoxin is one of the most important of the environmental toxins that contribute to the pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma, especially in the regions where dietary foodstuffs (peanuts, corn, Brazil nuts, pistachios, spices and figs) are highly contaminated. High aflatoxin levels have been shown in the foodstuffs that are produced in our country. The specific aim of this study was to assess the rate of aflatoxin exposure and to determine some clues about aflatoxin metabolism by measuring and comparing the levels of carcinogenic forms in healthy subjects, in different stages of viral disease, and in different viral hepatitis types.
This was a cross-sectional observational, single-center study. A total of 203 (male/female: 119/84) viral hepatitis patients who were consecutively admitted to Ankara University, School of Medicine, Gastroenterology Clinic, between January 2006 and June 2007 were enrolled into the study. Sixty-two healthy subjects (male/female: 33/29) with normal blood chemistry and negative viral serology served as controls. Chemical forms AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2 were assessed in plasma of study participants by high-performance liquid chromatography.
AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2 were detected in 24.6%, 17.2%, 22.7%, 18.2% of the 203 patients, respectively, and were significantly higher than in the control group for all chemical forms. Percentage of AFB1-positive patients was significantly higher than in the control group irrespective of disease stage. There was no significant difference between chronic infected patients, cirrhotic patients and patients with Hepatocellular carcinoma with respect to percentage of aflatoxin-positive individuals.
With this study, we have documented that in viral hepatitis patients, aflatoxin exposure is significantly higher than in healthy subjects in Turkey and it may play an important role in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma. Thus, large studies exploring the relation between aflatoxin exposure, viral hepatitis status, and risk of hepatocellular carcinoma development are needed.
A survey for aflatoxin B(1) (AFB(1)) was conducted on 88 food-grade rice samples randomly collected during July and August 2002 in Seoul, Korea. The presence of AFB(1) was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and the positive samples from enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay were confirmed using high-performance liquid chromatography. Besides this, from the surveying data from the literature published since 1997, the intake of AFB(1) from food in Korea was calculated and compared with the provisional maximum tolerable daily intakes. Naturally occurring AFB(1) was found in 5/88 (6%) samples of rice with an average of 4.8 ng g(-1). A calculated probable daily intake of AFB(1) for Koreans fell into the range 1.19-5.79 ng kg(-1) bw day(-1), hence exceeding the estimated provisional maximum tolerable daily intakes. In conclusion, the exposure of Koreans to AFB(1) could bring about health concerns. This is the first report discovering that rice is the major contributor to the dietary intake of AFB(1) in Korea.
There are many contaminants like aflatoxin present in food products. Aflatoxin in comparison to many other contaminants is very toxic and also carcinogenic. There are reports of outbreak of aflatoxin toxicity in many parts of the world.
To find out the level of aflatoxin in common food and feed.
The study was conducted in 16 districts of the Eastern region of Nepal.
Samples were collected from retailers and whole sellers from 1995 to 2003. Common food items that had high chances of infestation were collected. Food sample were taken to the laboratory to estimate the level of aflatoxin. The thin layer chromatography method was used to detect aflatoxin in the samples and comparison of fluorescence of sample spot with fluorescence of standard for estimation.
There were 832 samples for aflatoxin detection and estimation. One-third samples were found to be contaminated with aflatoxin. The highest percentage of contamination was found in peanut butter/vegetable oil (42.5%) and the lowest in areca nut (25%). Highest proportion of cornflakes samples were found to be contaminated with aflatoxin by more than the recommended value (30 ppb) and contamination in peanut was the lowest.
People consume many common food items that contain aflatoxin. It is of high importance for the concerned department to give attention to this important public health issue. Even in small doses, continuous consumption can lead to many health problems. So it is of paramount importance to detect and control these contaminants in food items.
Sixty-three samples of cheese consisting of 23 White cheeses, 14 Kaşar cheeses, 11 Tulum cheeses, 9 Civil cheeses and 6 Lor cheeses (whey-curd), were analyzed for the occurrence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) using enzymatic immunoassay. In 28 of 63 samples (44.44%), the presence of AFM1 was detected in concentrations between 7 ng/kg and 202 ng/kg. The mean levels of AFM1 were 28.08 ng/kg in White cheeses, 22.80 ng/kg in Ka̧ar cheeses, 74.05 ng/kg in Tulum cheeses, 12.32 ng/kg in Civil cheeses and 15.95 ng/kg in Lor cheeses.
Bu çalışmada kırmızıbiberin tüm veya açılmış olarak şeklinin, kurutma yerinin, ortam şartlarının, dış yüzeyde meydana gelen zedelenmelerin ve A. flavus sporu yükünün kurutma sırasında fungal gelişim ve aflatoksin oluşumu üzerine etkisi incelenmeye çalışılmıştır. Bu amaçla kırmızıbiberlerin tüm olarak kurutulması ile içinin açılıp tohumlar ve plasentanın çıkartılması biçiminde iki şekli; ipe dizerek havada asma, toprağa yayma ve betona yayma olarak üç kurutma yerinde uygulanmıştır. Belirtilen altı yöntem ile üç kaynaktan sağlanan kırmızıbiberler kurutulmuş ve kurutulan biberlerde toplam küf sayımı, A. flavus grubu fungusların belirlenmesi ve aflatoksin tayini yapılmıştır. Ayrıca kurutma sürecinde ortam sıcaklığı ve nisbi rutubeti, kırmızıbiberin su aktivitesi ve hemen iç ve dış yüzeyi üzerindeki havanın nisbi rutubeti ile kurumakta olan kırmızıbiberlerin ağırlık kaybı hızları izlenmeye çalışılmıştır. İçi açılarak tohumlar ve plasentası çıkartılan kırmızıbiberlere ait örneklerin 48 saat içinde sabit ağırlığa gelmesi ve su aktivitelerinin 0.70’in altına inmesine karşılık kapalı örneklerde ise kurumanın 8-13 gün sürdüğü görülmüştür. İçi açılarak kurutulan biberlerde dış yüzey ve iç yüzeyin hemen üzerindeki havanın nisbi rutubeti hep <%70 olarak gözlenmiştir. Tüm olarak kurutulan kırmızıbiberlerde ise dış yüzeyin hemen üzerindeki havanın nisbi rutubeti yine <%70’den küçük bulunurken iç yüzeye bakan meyve içi, kapalı hava ortamının nisbi rutubetinin hemen hemen ürünün su aktivitesiyle dengede ve çok uzun bir süre hep >%90 olarak kaldığı gözlenmiştir. Küf sayım sonuçları, tüm kırmızıbiberlerde 2.7x104-1.55x106 arasında değişirken içi açılanlarda 4.5x103-3.15x105 arasında olduğu, açarak kurutmanın toplam küf sayısının bir logaritmik devre kadar azalttığı görülmüştür. Yapılan bu çalışmada içi açılarak kurutulan 9 kırmızıbiber örneğinden sadece 1 adedinde, toprakta kurutulanda 80 ppb Aflatoksin B1 bulunurken kapalı olarak kurutulan 9 adet kırmızıbiberden 4 adedinde 20-80 ppb arasında Aflatoksin B1’e rastlanmıştır. Zedeleme ve spor yükünün etkisini incelemek amacıyla tek kaynaktan sağlanan kırmızıbiberler açık ve kapalı olarak kurutmaya hazırlandıktan sonra bir kısmı mekanik olarak zedelenerek açık-zedeli, kapalı-zedeli, açık-sağlam ve kapalı sağlam olmak üzere 4 grup materyal oluşturulmuştur. Her grubun yarısı 105 adet spor/biber oranında A. flavus sporları ile aşılandıktan sonra kurutmaya bırakılmıştır. Kurutma sonucu hiç bir biberin dış yüzeyinde fungus kolonisi oluşmamıştır. Açılan biberlerde gözle görülebilir bir kolonizasyona rastlanmamıştır. Aşılanmış kapalı biberlerin zedeli olanlarında 100 taneden 16’sında toplam 22 adet ve sağlam olanlarda 100 taneden ikisinde A. flavus kolonisine rastlanırken aşılanmamışların hiçbirinde A. flavus kolonisi gözlenmemiştir. Diğer funguslara ait koloniler sağlam kapalı biberlerin %2’sinde görülürken bu oran zedelenmişlerde %4-8 koloni/100 adet biber civarında kalmıştır. Yapılan bu çalışma kırmızıbiberin kuruma sürecinde iç boşluğunun iç yüzeyde fungal kolonizasyon için uygun bir ortam oluşturduğunu, zedelenmenin ve ortamda yeterli miktarda sporun bulunması ile iç ortamda koloni gelişiminin arttığı gösterilmiştir. Kırmızıbiberlerin iç yüzeyi tamamen dış atmosfer ile temas edecek şekilde açılarak kurutulmaları durumunda ise fungal yük, kolonizasyon ve aflatoksin oluşumu önemli ölçüde engellenmektedir.
Aflatoxins, on a worldwide scale, are important mycotoxins in human foods and animal feedstuffs. Aflatoxin contamination causes economic losses of corn, cottonseed, peanuts, sorghum, wheat, rice and other commodities, and economic losses of processed food and feedstuffs. Commodities considered unsafe for human consumption can be incorporated into animal feedstuffs. Aflatoxins are teratogenic. Aflatoxicosis in the human population, especially in areas stricken by poverty and drought and other adverse growing conditions, is an important public health problem. Most governmental jurisdictions regulate the levels of aflatoxins allowed in animal feedstuffs and human foods because of their toxicity. Worldwide aflatoxins, because of their prevalence and toxicity, are important in public health. Public health concerns center on both primary poisoning from aflatoxins in commodities, food and feedstuffs, and relay poisoning from aflatoxins in milk. The allowable levels of aflatoxins in animal feedstuff and human foods vary with governmental jurisdictions. Aflatoxins, on a world scale, are one of the most important groups of mycotoxins.
Aflatoxins are food-borne secondary toxic fungal metabolites produced during the growth of Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. Aflatoxins are well known hepatotoxic, hepatocarcinogenic and mutagenic agents. These effects are mainly due to adduct formation with DNA, RNA and protein. In addition, it also causes lipid peroxidation as well as oxidative damage to DNA. AFB1 possess genotoxic potential in a variety of test systems. Other aflatoxin has not been so extensively investigated, but in a variety of studies B2, G1, G2 and M1 have all shown evidence of genotoxicity.
Agricultural commodities are frequently contaminated by mycotoxins worldwide. Not only the economic loss, but also the health risks for humans and animals cause the necessity to avoid or at least reduce the mycotoxin load. Fungal growth and mycotoxin formation cannot be avoided, therefore many methods were developed to decontaminate feedingstuffs, to detoxify mycotoxins or reduce the bioavailability of mycotoxins. This chapter presents a review on these methods and informs about the applicability in practice. Fungal growth and the formation of mycotoxins depend upon climate conditions. The most important mycotoxins, aflatoxins, are produced by Aspergilli only under warm and humid conditions and are, therefore, restricted to specific climate regions. Other mycotoxins like Fusarium toxins and Ochratoxin A are typical for moderate climate areas. A number of physical procedures like mechanical separation, cleaning, washing, dehulling, polishing and heat treatment have been used, with varying effects on decontamination or detoxification. The success depends on the initial degree of contamination and the distribution of mycotoxins throughout the grain. The removal of mycotoxins from contaminated feed commodities by solvent extraction is well known and widely used in mycotoxin analysis. Until reliable, cost-effective, commercially applicable methods are more widely available, problems associated with mycotoxin contamination and the economic losses resulting will continue to be seen in the food and agriculture industries.
Important role of milk in human, especially in infant nutrition is well known. On the other hand, contamination of milk with aflatoxins is considered as a potential risk for human health. The aim of this study was to determine the levels of aflatoxin M1 in commonly consumed milk samples in Ankara, capital city of Turkey. Aflatoxin M1 levels were investigated by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a fluorescence detector following sample clean-up using immunoaffinity columns. The mean recovery of the method was 117.9%. Standard curves were linear in the range of 10–200 ng/l with correlation coefficient of 0.9998. The limit of detection was found to be 10 ng/l. In this study, 27 milk samples were analysed. 24 of them were in categories of ultra high temperature treated, and 3 of them were daily-pasteurised milk. Aflatoxin M1 was detected in 59.3% of all samples. However, only one sample among these was contaminated at a level above the maximum permissible limit (50 ng/l) accepted by European Union and Turkey for aflatoxin M1.
A total of 102 helva samples consisting of 34 plain helva, 34 helva containing cacao, and 34 helva containing pistachio nuts purchased from helva-factories and supermarkets in Adana of Turkey were analysed for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) by thin-layer chromatography. The detection limit of AFB1 was 1μgkg−1. Recovery experiments were carried out with spiked samples in the range 2–10μgkg−1 of AFB1. No AFB1 was found in any plain helva and helva containing cacao samples. On the other hand, of 34 helva containing pistachio nuts AFB1 was determined in eight samples. AFB1 was found in excess of Turkish legal limit of 5μgkg−1 in 4 of 102 helva samples. This paper reports the data of the first survey for the presence of AFB1 in helva in Turkey.
Mycotoxin contamination in certain agricultural systems has been a serious concern for human and animal health. Mycotoxins are toxic substances produced mostly as secondary metabolites by fungi that grow on seeds and feed in the field, or in storage. The major mycotoxin-producing fungi are species of Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium and the important mycotoxins are aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxins, cyclopiazonic acid, deoxynivalenol/nivalenol, patulin and zearalenone. The food-borne mycotoxins likely to be of greatest significance for human health in tropical developing countries are aflatoxins and fumonisins. This paper reviews the commodity-wise aetiology and contamination process of the major mycotoxins and the magnitude of contamination in commercially important agricultural commodities. This database would be useful as benchmark information for development and prioritization of future research programmes.
Maize is a very important dietary component in animal feeding. The aim of this study was to determine the total aflatoxin (B1, B2, G1, and G2) and fumonisin (B1, B2, B3) levels in maize samples obtained from different regions of Turkey (n=19) and from imported material from USA (n=7). Aflatoxin and fumonisin levels were analyzed by ELISA. The aflatoxin levels ranged from 0.01 to 32.30μg/kg in maize obtained from Turkey (mean=10.94) and from 0.09 to 1.50μg/kg in imported maize (mean=0.78). Fumonisin levels ranged from 0.80 to 356.8mg/kg in maize from Turkey (mean=88.24) and from 4 to 263mg/kg in imported maize (mean=74.2). The results on fumonisin have shown that in samples from Turkey and the USA, respectively, the proportion of samples containing the toxin at the levels which may lead to some toxic effects for poultry is 0.15 and 0.14. The corresponding proportions for ruminants, particularly for young ruminants, were 0.31 and 0.14.
The anti-fungal properties of a series of chemical and herbal compounds at different levels was tested on potato dextrose agar. Among the chemical compounds, propionic acid at 0.1–0.5%, ammonia at 0.5%, copper sulphate at 0.08–0.5% and benzoic acid at 0.1–0.5% completely inhibited Aspergillus parasiticus growth. Urea, citric acid and sodium propionate had moderate anti-fungal properties (36–64% reduction). Among the herbal compounds, clove oil at 0.5% completely inhibited fungal growth. Compounds which inhibited fungal growth by at least 20% were selected to test their efficacy to inhibit fungal growth and aflatoxin production in feeds. All the selected chemical and herbal compounds reduced (P
Determination of aflatoxin B1 and total aflatoxin (B1+B2+G1+G2) in red paprika powder is described using column chromatographic sample clean-up, overpressured layer chromatography (OPLC) separation and fluorescence densitometric evaluation. Two OPLC methods were developed for separation of the four aflatoxins. The detection limit and quantification limit of aflatoxins in red paprika were 0.5 and 1 μg/kg in both methods, respectively. Recovery experiment was carried out with sample containing 1.74 μg/kg aflatoxin B1 and 3.56 μg/kg total aflatoxins measured by European standard HPLC method. Mean recovery amounted to 78.5% (SD 16.1%, n=5) for aflatoxin B1 and 81.8% (SD 17.1%, n=5) for total aflatoxins in the case of method 1. It was 105.3% (SD 10.7%, n=5) for aflatoxin B1 and 97.4% (SD 18.6%, n=5) for total aflatoxins using the method 2. Despite of that the Hungarian climate is not proper for the toxin production of moulds high aflatoxin B1 contaminated red paprika purchased from the market was found, which may originate from mixing of imported paprika containing very high level toxin with Hungarian one.
The study examines the occurrence of aflatoxin and ochratoxin A in the !988 dried figs crop. Mycotoxin content, moisture, and aw (water activity) were analyzed in a total of 103 fig samples collected from various orchards and different stages of fig processing. Aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, and G2) were present in 29% of the samples examined at 0.5-63.0, 0.5-37.7, 0.5-78.3, and 0.5-12.5μ/kg, respectively. Ochratoxin A was detected in only 3% of the samples at 5.2-8.3 μ/kg. The moisture (and aw) values of the fruits were found suitable for mycotoxin formation in firm ripened and shrivelled figs.
In this study, 28 hazelnuts, 24 walnuts, 18 peanuts, 13 almonds, and 11 roasted chickpeas (leblebi) were analyzed for aflatoxin contamination using thin layer chromatography (TLC). Aflatoxin was found in 26 of 94 samples (27.66%) at concentrations ranging from 1 to 113 ppb. Detectable levels of aflatoxin were 33.4 ppb in hazelnuts, 22.1 ppb in walnuts, 43.0 ppb in peanuts, 7.4 ppb in almonds, and 1.7 ppb in roasted chickpeas. The highest level of aflatoxin was 113 ppb in a single hazelnut sample. Aspergillus and Penicillium species were frequently determined in all the samples.
Nuts are important agricultural commodities in Turkey as they are exported and largely consumed domestically. Two hundred and seventeen samples of hazelnuts, pistachio nuts and peanuts were randomly collected from public markets, bazaars, supermarkets and retail stores in several regions of Turkey and analyzed for the incidence of aflatoxin (B1, B2, G1, G2) contamination by high-performance liquid chromatography. The levels of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and the total aflatoxins in the majority of samples analyzed (87.09%) were so low that they were not quantifiable. Thirty-one samples (14.28%) were found to have low levels of aflatoxins, below the Turkish National regulatory limits of 5 µg/kg for AFB1 and 10 µg/kg for total aflatoxins. However, four samples (1.84%) showed a level of contamination that exceeded the maximum tolerated levels set in the Turkish regulations. The highest value of AFB1 was 36.81 µg/kg in pistachio nuts. This article reports the data of the first survey on the presence of aflatoxins in nuts sampled in three distinct regions of Turkey.
The formation of aflatoxins depends not only on the genetic potential of mold strains but also on environmental factors, especially during post-harvest transportation and storage. Although further national surveys must be performed on a regular base, the results of the present study indicate a reduced level of aflatoxin contamination of nut-based products compared to earlier observations. The results conclude that implementation of stricter quality control measures, technical assistance to private sector actors and regulatory initiatives to support employment of these strategies undertaken in recent years by the National Authorities have paid back.
Three hundred and thirteen of 2643 dried fig, two of eighty hazelnut, sixteen of twenty-eight pistachio, five of ten peanut and nineteen of twenty-three paprika samples for export from Turkey were contaminated with total aflatoxins in the range of 0.2–162.76, 5.46–6.55, 2.31–63.11, 0.75–26.36 and 1.79–6.55 μg kg−1, respectively. Samples were collected from January to August 2007 and tested for aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1 and G2) by immunoaffinity column extraction using RP-HPLC. Fifty-six of the 313 dried fig, all of the contaminated hazelnut and pistachio, two of the sixteen peanut and three of the nineteen paprika samples exceeded the regulatory limits of the European Union. The ratio of the different types of aflatoxin present in each sample exhibited great variability. For example, of 313 contaminated fig samples, 159 contained only aflatoxin B1, eighty-five contained B1 (49.7%) + G1 (50.3%), twenty-two contained only G1, twenty contained B1 (89.4%) + B2 (10.6%), thirteen contained B1 (73.7%) + B2 (10.8%) + G1 (15.5%) and fourteen contained all four types, B1 (26%) + B2 (2.5%) + G1 (66.5%) + G2 (5%).
Biodetoxification aspects can be further divided into three categories, depending on the type of system involved, which are as follows: (a) Commodity-dependent detoxification, (b) Enzymatic detoxification, and (c) Microbial detoxification. Aflatoxins are the serious source of contamination of most foods and feeds, thereby causing potential threat to both human and animal health. There has been a tremendous amount of information available on physical and chemical methods of detoxification of these potentially toxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic secondary metabolites. However, biodetoxification of aflatoxins by the factors already present in the substrates infected with the toxigenic fungi, by the toxigenic as well as atoxigenic aspergilli or by various other microorganisms, provide a very useful, novel and safe method for biological control of these toxins. More attention should be given to the improved methods of decontamination and detoxification of the contaminated agricultural product under natural solid-substrate conditions.
In this study, total number of samples analysed were 20 packages of sesame and 20 cans of peanut butter, which were collected from Ankara local markets, Turkey. Extraction and determination of aflatoxins have been made by immunoaffinity column technique and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method. Mean levels (±SE) of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 were found to be 15.756±3.129ng/g, 1.232±0.244ng/g and 9.689±1.005ng/g, respectively in peanut butter samples. Regarding the sesame samples, mean level of aflatoxin G1 was found to be 0.754±0.213ng/g. Our data revealed that while aflatoxin levels found in sesame samples were within the Turkish Food Codex (TFC) values, for peanut butter samples, they were higher than the TFC values.
A rapid and sensitive indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method using monoclonal antibody for measuring aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk and milk products has been described. One monoclonal antibody was isolated and characterized after fusion of myeloma cells with spleen cells isolated from BALB/c mice that had been immunized with AFM1 carboxymethyl oxime conjugated with bovine serum albumin (BSA). Cross-reactivities of the anti-AFM1 monoclonal antibody clone were 100, 13.9, 6.7 and <1% against AFM1, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin G1 (AFG1) and deoxynivalenol (DON), respectively. Assays of milk samples mixed with AFM1 ranging in concentration from 0.1 to 3.2 ng/ml gave mean ELISA recovery of 98%. The limit of detection concentration of AFM1 was 0.04 ng/ml. AFM1 contamination was measured in 12 samples of raw milk, 15 samples of powdered milk, 104 samples of liquid milk and four cheese samples collected from different supermarkets in Northeast of China. Of 135 milk samples tested, 55 (41%) samples contained AFM1 at levels that ranged from 0.32–0.50 ng/ml, 24 (18%) samples contained 0.16–0.32 ng/ml, and 18 (13%) samples contained 0–0.16 ng/ml; in 38 (28%) samples AFM1 was not detected. The results indicate that the necessary precaution will have to be taken to minimize the AFM1 contamination in milk and milk products from Northeast of China.
Aflatoxins are highly toxic, mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic compounds. The purpose of this survey was to determine natural occurrence and level of AFM1 in pasteurized liquid milk, infant formula and milk-based cereal weaning food consumed in Tehran, Iran.A total of 328 branded milk products and liquid milk samples were collected and investigated by Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay (ELISA).The samples of pasteurized liquid milk (n = 128), infant formula (n = 120) and milk-based cereal weaning food (n = 80) showed that the incidence of contamination with AFM1 is 96.3%, the presence of AFM1 in each group was 72.2 ± 23.5, 7.3 ± 3.9 and 16.8 ± 12.5 ng/kg, ranging between 31–113, 1–14 and 3–35 ng/kg, respectively.In general, the amount of AFM1 in 100 (78%) of liquid milk samples and 24 (33%) of milk-based weaning food was higher than the maximum tolerance limit accepted by European Union, but in all of the infant formula samples was lower (European Communities and Codex Alimentarius has prescribed a limit of 50 ng/kg for AFM1 in milk and 25 ng/kg in infant milk products).
This study was undertaken to determine the presence and levels of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in cheeses consumed in the province of Ankara. For this purpose, a total of 400 cheese samples containing 100 samples each of white, kashar, tulum and processed cheeses were used as the study material. The cheese samples were purchased randomly from different markets. The competitive ELISA (RIDASCREEN Aflatoxin M1, no. R1101) was used to determine the presence and levels of AFM1. Different levels of AFM1 were detected in the 327 (81.75%) cheese samples consisting of white (82%), tulum (81%), kashar (85%) and processed cheese (79%) samples. Altogether, 110 cheese samples (27.5%) were found to have levels that exceed the legal limits of 250 ng/kg established by the Turkish Food Codex. Among these, 27% of white cheese, 24% of tulum cheese, 34% of kashar cheese and 25% of processed cheese exceeded the Turkish safety limits. It was therefore concluded that, widespread occurrence of AFM1 in cheese samples sold in the Ankara province were considered to be possible hazards for human health.
The effect of pH (5.5 and 5.9), propionic acid concentration (129, 258 and 516 ppm) and temperature (25, 30 and 36 °C) on aflatoxin production by Aspergillus parasiticus in solid media at controlled water activity 0.95 was studied. Modelling of aflatoxin production was carried out using adequate equations to obtain the maximum aflatoxin concentration (C values) and the corresponding time to reach the maximum (a values). For control samples, the highest C values were observed for aflatoxin B1 and G1. The effect of temperature on aflatoxin production at different pH was analysed using a function derived from the Arrhenius equation. Optimum temperatures for aflatoxin production were 27.84 and 27.32 °C at pH 5.9 and 5.5, respectively. Two indices were defined in order to analyse the effect of undissociated propionic acid concentration (uac) on C and a values. Propionic acid showed the highest inhibition on C values for aflatoxin G1 and on a values for aflatoxin B1. Concentrations over 60 ppm uac did not show an increase in both indices indicating that there is no need to increase the concentration of propionic acid over this value. These plots may be useful for technological purposes and to identify conditions (pH, propionic acid and storage temperature) to inhibit aflatoxin production in foodstuffs.
Red pepper (Capsicum annuum) is one of the most important agricultural products of Turkey. For public health and export requirements, red pepper must be produced free of hazardous contaminants. However, previous investigations showed that red pepper could be contaminated by aflatoxin above the limits that may be critical for health. In this study, use of the high oxidising power of ozone achieved detoxification of aflatoxin. Samples were subjected to ozonation at various ozone concentrations (16, 33, 66 mg/l) and exposure times (7.5, 15, 30, 60 min). In summary, the reductions of content of aflatoxin B1 in flaked and chopped red peppers were 80% and 93% after exposures to 33 mg/l ozone and 66 mg/l ozone for 60 min, respectively.
The level of microbiological contamination with yeasts and moulds in 60 samples of raw milk and 40 samples of curd, soft salted or non-salted cheese and semi-hard cheese manufactured by small artisan food-processing plants, collected in autumn and winter season was evaluated. The yeasts were present in 95.0% of raw milk samples with the mean concentration of 1.7 log10 cfu/ml. Moulds were found in 63.3% of raw milk samples, their mean concentration was 0.6 log10 cfu/ml. Isolated mould strains belonged to genera Geotrichum (51.5%), Aspergillus (33.8%), Mucor (5.9%), Fusarium (2.9%) and Penicillium (2.9%). Both, yeasts and moulds were isolated from 60% of tested cheese samples with average concentrations 2.5 log10 cfu/g and 2.1 log10 cfu/g, respectively. The genera Geotrichum (91.9%), Moniliella (5.4%) and Aspergillus (2.7%) were most frequently isolated strains from tested cheese samples. None of the isolated Aspergillus strains with typical growth on AFPA medium produced aflatoxin M1 on YES or YGC medium supplemented with Methyl-β-cyclodextrin. The contamination with aflatoxin M1 in concentrations above 50 ng/kg was detected in 10% of cheese samples.
Aflatoxins (AFs), the secondary metabolites produced by species of Aspergilli, specifically Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, have harmful effects on humans, animals, and crops that result in illnesses and economic losses. Wheat that is susceptible to these fungi infections through its growth, harvest, transport, and storage, is the most important staple food in Turkey. Therefore, this study has been undertaken to determine the AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2 levels by HPLC in forty-one wheat samples grown and consumed in some regions of Turkey. The concentrations of total AFs in the wheat samples were determined to be ranging from 10.4 to 643.5 ng/kg. Fiftynine percent of the samples were found to be positive for total AFs. The percentage of positive samples for AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2 were 42, 12, 37, and 12%, respectively. Although the detected levels are under the permitted levels for AFs in cereals, these amounts should be considered in regard to overall daily exposure to mycotoxins.
This study was undertaken to determine the presence of mycotoxins in foods from Jordan. For this purpose, a total of 108 samples of different groups of foods widely consumed by the Jordanian population were collected during 2008–2009 years. Samples were analyzed for contamination with aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, zearalenone and T-2 toxin by direct competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The predominant mycotoxin was ochratoxin A with a mean level of 4.17 μg kg−1 in 25% of analyzed samples. Furthermore, aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol and fumonisins were detected with a contamination frequency of 3%, 4% and 2%, respectively. The present report is the first one ever carried out on the occurrence of mycotoxins in food consumed by the Jordanian population.
The difurancoumarin derivatives known as aflatoxins are highly toxic fungi metabolites belonging to the vast class of mycotoxins, which can contaminate foods and feeds when storage conditions favor fungal growth. Because of potential health hazards for humans, levels of aflatoxins are monitored throughout the world. During the past two decades several chromatographic and other methods were developed for identification and determination of aflatoxins in agricultural and food products. This paper is a review of the overpressured-layer chromatographic (OPLC) and high performance liquid chromatographic methods most often used for the analysis of aflatoxins. However, emphasis is placed on summarizing the OPLC methods developed for determination of aflatoxins in maize, wheat, fish meat, peanut samples, rice and sunflower seeds spiked with aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 in concentration of 2–10 μg/cm3, which were developed in our laboratory. The results of the proposed validation procedure, whose development was based on the guideline of the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) for pharmaceutical products (1994, Brussels), for the determination of the above-mentioned aflatoxins in wheat samples are also presented.
Aflatoxins are secondary metabolites produced by certain strains of Aspergillus species. They have immunsupresive, genotoxic, hepatoxic and carcinogenic (particularl liver cancer) effects which are the common problems worldwide for people of all age groups. This study was aimed to investigate the presence and levels of AFM1 in the milk powder sold in retail stores of Kars, Erzurum, Mersin, Konya and Ankara vicinities in Turkey. AFM1 was determined in 62.5% of all samples analyzed. Amount of the AFM1 in samples was higher in 45% of the samples than the maximum allowed level according to the Turkish Food Codex (TFC) criteria (500 ng kg -1). Consequently, milk powders sold in retail stores in Turkey pose a great risk for public health. Serious programmes controlling the occurence of the aflatoxin will surely help on dealing with the risk factors.
The aim of the present work was to apply mathematical models for the prediction of growth of aflatoxigenic moulds in powdered Capsicum fruits as a function of its water availability. As prevention of fungal growth effectively conduces to prevention of mycotoxin accumulation, the development of models for prediction of growth of mycotoxigenic fungi becomes a key step in risk management. Two aflatoxigenic A. flavus from chilli powder were grown on 3% chilli powder extract agar at different water activity levels and their growth was evaluated over time in terms of colony sizes and ergosterol accumulation. Both variables were modelled over time, and the resulting parameters (growth rates and lag phases) were modelled as a function of water availability using the Rosso cardinal model. Linear logistic regression was also applied to predict the probability of growth over storage time. Both isolates showed a similar pattern of behaviour, with decreasing growth rates and increasing lag phases with decreasing water activity level. While estimation of optimum a(w) for growth was consistently around 0.97-0.99, the minimum estimated a(w) varied from 0.82 to 0.88 depending on the isolate and on the parameters used for predictions. Comparing growth rates obtained for colony size and ergosterol accumulation, a linear relationship between them could be observed. The rate of root square ergosterol/colony diameter/unit of time was 0.25-0.27. Probabilities of growth before 10 days over 90% were estimated at a(w) 0.91, while the safe period could be extended to more than 20 days (22-29 days) if water activity was decreased to an a(w)=0.87. Finally, the probability of growth is always under 50% when water availability is under a(w) 0.85, and almost null for A. flavus UdLTA 3.147. It was concluded that for safe production, storage and transport, chillies and chilli powder must be kept under 31% mc (db) (probability of growth <50%). However, growth is unlikely to occur if chilli is kept at approx. 34% for less than 10 days, or at approx. 33% for less than 20 days. Careful hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) techniques during raw material production and the subsequent stages of drying, transportation, elaboration and storage are indispensable.
Raw whole milk was artificially contaminated to contain 1 ppb aflatoxin M1. A thin layer of milk (.1 cm) was irradiated with ultraviolet energy. In the first experiment, milk was held at 90 degrees C for 10 min, cooled to 20 degrees C, and irradiated for 30 min. Amount of aflatoxin M1 decreased equally (56.2 vs. 53.9%) in raw or preheated milk, suggesting no involvement of milk enzymes in degrading aflatoxin M1 by ultraviolet energy. Data obtained when raw milk containing aflatoxin M1 was exposed to ultraviolet energy for 15 to 60 min suggest first order kinetics for the degradation reaction. In another experiment, milk was held at 5, 25, or 65 degrees C while it was being irradiated. Aflatoxin M1 was degraded at all temperatures. Amount of toxin decreased nonlinearly when temperature at which milk was held was increased. Presence in milk of benzoyl peroxide at .002% did not change the extent to which aflatoxin M1 was degraded by irradiation. Amount of toxin, however, decreased by 89.1% in milk containing .05% H2O2 as compared with 60.7% for H2O2-free milk when both were exposed to ultraviolet irradiation for 20 min at 25 degrees C.
The fungi Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus produce a potent class of hepatocarcinogens known as aflatoxins. Corn-derived volatile compounds have been previously found to affect growth and aflatoxin production in A. flavus. In this study, the effects on A. parasiticus of three corn-derived volatile compounds, n-decyl aldehyde, hexanal and octanal, were measured. These three compounds were previously found to be variably expressed in five Aspergillus-resistant maize strains and three susceptible strains. In this study, A. parasiticus radial growth was restricted least by n-decyl aldehyde and most by octanal. Treatments of 100 microl of both hexanal and octanal were found to completely inhibit radial growth of the fungus using an agar plate assay method. While the volatile compound n-decyl aldehyde had less of an effect on radial growth than the other volatiles, the n-decyl aldehyde treated colonies had a predominance of uniquely aerial hyphae. These colony structures were found to have more complex hyphae and significantly fewer conidiophores than the control and other aldehyde treatments. Furthermore, aflatoxin production by the fungus was reduced by n-decyl aldehyde and hexanal, but was stimulated by octanal. The results presented here indicate that all three volatile compounds reduce radial growth but only n-decyl aldehyde significantly inhibits aflatoxin biosynthesis in A. parasiticus.
The worldwide contamination of foods and feeds with mycotoxins is a significant problem. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of molds that have adverse effects on humans, animals, and crops that result in illnesses and economic losses. Aflatoxins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes, zearelenone, fumonisins, tremorgenic toxins, and ergot alkaloids are the mycotoxins of greatest agro-economic importance. Some molds are capable of producing more than one mycotoxin and some mycotoxins are produced by more than one fungal species. Often more than one mycotoxin is found on a contaminated substrate. Factors influencing the presence of mycotoxins in foods or feeds include environmental conditions related to storage that can be controlled. Other extrinsic factors such as climate or intrinsic factors such as fungal strain specificity, strain variation, and instability of toxigenic properties are more difficult to control. Mycotoxins have various acute and chronic effects on humans and animals (especially monogastrics) depending on species and susceptibility of an animal within a species. Ruminants have, however, generally been more resistant to the adverse effects of mycotoxins. This is because the rumen microbiota is capable of degrading mycotoxins. The economic impact of mycotoxins include loss of human and animal life, increased health care and veterinary care costs, reduced livestock production, disposal of contaminated foods and feeds, and investment in research and applications to reduce severity of the mycotoxin problem. Although efforts have continued internationally to set guidelines to control mycotoxins, practical measures have not been adequately implemented.
An ELISA Microtiter Plate, Total Aflatoxin Test called AgraQuant was validated to measure total aflatoxins in a range from 4 to 40 ppb in corn, corn meal, corn gluten feed, corn gluten meal, corn germ meal, corn/soy blend, popcorn, sorghum, wheat, milled rice, soybeans, peanuts and cottonseed. The test is performed as a solid phase direct competitive ELISA using a horseradish peroxidase conjugate as the competing, measurable entity. For the test method, aflatoxins are extracted from ground samples with 70% methanol and sample extracts plus conjugate are mixed and then added to the antibody-coated microwells. After 15 min incubation at room temperature, the plate is washed and enzyme substrate is added and allowed to incubate for an additional 5 min. Stop solution is then added and the intensity of the resulting yellow color is measured optically with a microplate reader at 450 nm. Results obtained from internal validation studies assessing accelerated stability indicate a minimum of 1 year shelf life for the kits; accuracy and precision are comparable to HPLC in the range of 0-320 ppb and limit of detection in corn is 2.5 ppb. Comparison of the method to HPLC, ability to detect individual aflatoxins and ruggedness of the test kits at 18-30 degrees C determined this test to be rugged, sensitive, accurate, precise and effective comparable to HPLC for measuring total aflatoxins ranging from 4 to 40 ppb in the commodities evaluated.