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2nd Asia-Arab Sustainable Energy Forum
ORAN - 15 &16 May 2012, ALGERIA
Sahara
Slar
Breeder
Workshop
Jointly with 4th International
Islamic Civilization’s Contribution to Science and Technology
Ali Tahri
Electrotechnics Engineering Department, University of Sciences and Technology of Oran. BP 1505 EL M’Naouer,
Oran (31000) Algeria, E-mail: alitahri.dz@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Many European scholars who study the subject of Muslim contributions to science and technology
do it with prejudice against the Muslims.
The Muslims have really achieved great things in science; they taught the use of ciphers (sc. Arabic
numerals), although they did not invent them, and thus became the founders of the arithmetic of
every day; they made algebra an exact science and developed it considerably and laid the
foundations of analytical geometry; they were indisputably the founders of plane and spherical
trigonometry which, properly speaking, did not exist among the Greeks. In astronomy they made a
number of valuable observations. Al Ma’mum, the Abbassid Khalif, had founded at the beginning
of the ninth century “the house of Wisdom” (bayt el Hikmah) especially for translations. The
Muslims assimilated these works of the ancient and developed them. Philosophy, Mathematics,
Astronomy and Medicine were the first subjects to attract the interest of Muslims. We will give an
idea of Islamic civilization’s contribution to science and technology, the Islamic origins of modern
science and civilization and the influence of Islamic science for about 600 years in the world.
Therefore, we will mention a few Muslims scholars who have marked the history of universal
science by their discoveries and innovations in the humanities science, mathematics, medicine and
technology.
Keywords: Islamic civilization, science and technology, Muslims scholars.
Islamic Civilization’s Contribution to Science and
Technology
Ali Tahri
Electrotechnics Department, Electrical Engineering faculty
University of Sciences and Technology of Oran USTOMB, Algeria
Abstract—Many European scholars who study the subject
of Muslim contributions to science and technology do it
with prejudice against the Muslims.
The Muslims have really achieved great things in science;
they taught the use of ciphers (sc. Arabic numerals),
although they did not invent them, and thus became the
founders of the arithmetic of every day; they made
algebra an exact science and developed it considerably
and laid the foundations of analytical geometry; they were
indisputably the founders of plane and spherical
trigonometry which, properly speaking, did not exist
among the Greeks. In astronomy they made a number of
valuable observations. Al Ma’mum, the Abbassid Khalif,
had founded at the beginning of the ninth century “the
house of Wisdom” (bayt el Hikmah) especially for
translations. The Muslims assimilated these works of the
ancient and developed them. Philosophy, Mathematics,
Astronomy and Medicine were the first subjects to attract
the interest of Muslims. We will give an idea of Islamic
civilization’s contribution to science and technology, the
Islamic origins of modern science and civilization and the
influence of Islamic science for about 600 years in the
world.
Therefore, we will mention a few Muslims scholars who
have marked the history of universal science by their
discoveries and innovations in the humanities science,
mathematics, medicine and technology.
Keywords: Islamic civilization, science and technology,
Muslims scholars.
I. Introduction
In this paper, we would give an idea of the cultural
contributions of Islamic civilization to the West, the
Islamic origins of modern science and civilization and
the influence of Islamic science and learning for about
600 years in the world.
A few scholars who have marked the history of
universal science by their discoveries and innovations in
the humanities, mathematics, medicine and technology
will be mentioned.
Many European scholars who study the subject of
Muslim contributions to science and philosophy do it
with prejudice against the Muslims.
Bernard Carra de Vaux in his chapter “Astronomy and
mathematics’, in Legacy of Islam felt compelled to
begin by disparaging the Arabs.
He said:
“We must not expect to find among the Arabs the same
powerful genius, the same gift of scientific imagination,
the same “enthusiasm”, the same originality of thought
that we have among the Greeks.
The Arabs are before all else the pupils of the Greeks,
their science are a continuation of Greek science which
it preserves, cultivates, and on a number of points
develops and perfects.”
This is what Carra de Vaux began by saying on the
Muslims but a moment later he elaborated and conceded
that: the Arabs have really achieved great things in
science; they taught the use of ciphers (sc. Arabic
numerals), although they did not invent them, and thus
became the founders of the arithmetic of every day;
“they made algebra an exact science and developed it
considerably and laid the foundations of analytical
geometry; they were indisputably the founders of plane
and spherical trigonometry which, properly speaking,
did not exist among the Greeks. In astronomy they made
a number of valuable observations.”
The Muslims, with a great open mind went through a
gigantesque translation movement from Greek, Indian,
and Syriac [1] [2].
Al Ma’mum, the Abbassid Khalif, had founded at the
beginning of the ninth century “the house of Wisdom”
(bayt el Hikmah) especially for translations.
The Muslims assimilated these works of the ancient and
developed them. Philosophy, Mathematics, Astronomy
and Medicine were the first subjects to attract the
interest of Muslims.
II. Avenues of Transfer of Muslim’s science and
technology
We give below an outline of the transfer of Islamic
science and technology to the West was affected
through various avenues [3].
Al-Andalus
There was a remarkable flow of scientific and
technological knowledge from the Muslim east to al-
Andalus and that was central to its cultural and
economic vitality.
Sicily
Sicily was part of the Muslim Empire and did not lag
behind in the cultivation of a high standard of
civilization including the founding of big institutions for
teaching sciences and arts and after Spain, it was a
bridge between the Arabic-Islamic civilization and
Europe.
Byzantium
The proximity of Byzantium to the Islamic lands and
the common borders between them resulted in active
commercial and cultural contacts. Some Arabic
scientific works were translated into Greek. Technology
was transferred from Islamic lands to Byzantium and
from thence to Europe.
The Crusades in Spain
The Crusades against the Muslims in Spain resulted in
various kinds of technology transfer to the Christians of
Spain.
Arabic Manuscripts in European Libraries
In his research into the avenues through which
Copernicus became acquainted with the Arabic
theorems on astronomy George Saliba indicated that
these theorems were circulating in Italy around the year
1500 and thus Copernicus could have learned about
them from his contacts in Italy. Saliba demonstrated that
the various collections of Arabic manuscripts preserved
in European libraries contain enough evidence to cast
doubt on the prevailing notions about the nature of
Renaissance science, and to bring to light new evidence
about the mobility of scientific ideas between the
Islamic world and Renaissance Europe [4].
III. Muslims Scholars
We give some examples of Muslim scientists who
marked their time by the genius of their minds and
innovations and discoveries in the humanities sciences,
mathematics, medicine and technology [5].
Therefore we will mention just one Muslim scholar by
specialty or field
Abdu Rahmn bin Muhammad bin Khaldun
1332 AD -1406 AD نوﺪﻠﺧ ﻦﺑ ﺪﻤﺤﻣ ﻦﺑ ﻦﻤﺣﺮﻟا ﺪﺒﻋ
Ibn Khaldūn was born on 27 May 1332 /1 Ramaḍān
732. He received a traditional education that was
typical for one of his family’s rank and status. He
learned first at the hands of his father, who was a
scholarly person, and not involved in politics like his
ancestors. He memorized the Qur’an, learned grammar,
jurisprudence, ḥadīth, rhetoric, philology, and poetry.
He reached a certain proficiency in these subjects and
received certification in them. In his autobiography, he
mentions the names of the scholars with whom he
studied [6].
He is best known for his Muqaddimah as shown in
Figure 1 and Figure 2 (known as Prolegomenon in
English), which was discovered, evaluated and fully
appreciated first by 19th century European scholarship,
although it has also had considerable influence on 17th-
century Ottoman historians like Ḥajjī Khalīfa and
Mustafa Naima who relied on his theories to analyze the
growth and decline of the Ottoman empire. Later in the
19th century, Western scholars recognized him as one
of the greatest philosophers to come out of the Muslim
world
Fig.1 Frontispice of the English translation from Arabic of the
Muqaddima of Ibn Khaldun in 3 volumes by Franz Rosenthal: The
Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History (New York: Pantheon
Books, 1958).
Fig.2 Autograph of Ibn Khaldun (upper left corner) on a manuscript of
the Muqaddima
Ibn Khaldūn acknowledges that there are turning points
in history. He wrote that in his time, he believed the
Black Death and Mongol invasions were turning points,
as was the development of Europe. His observations and
research focused on the etiology of civilizational
decline, “the symptoms and the nature of the ills from
which civilizations die.”
Ibn Khaldūn’s thesis, that the conquered race will
always emulate the conqueror in every way, and his
theory about ‘aṣabiyya (group feeling/party spirit) and
the role it plays in Bedouin societies is insightful. The
genius of this work is his study of the science of human
culture, the rise and fall of empires;
Ibn Khaldūn termed this the science of ‘umrān
(civilization), and it contains many pearls of wisdom.
His “Introduction” is his greatest legacy, left for all of
humanity and generations to come.
Muhammad Ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi
780 AD-850 AD ﻰﺳﻮﻣ ﻦﺑ ﻲﻣزراﻮﺨﻟا ﺪﻤﺤﻣ
Some words reflect the importance of al-Khwarizmi's
contributions to mathematics. "Algebra" is derived from
al-jabr, one of the two operations he used to solve
quadratic equations. Algorism and algorithm stem from
Algoritmi, the Latin form of his name. His name is also
the origin of (Spanish) guarismo and of (Portuguese)
algarismo, both meaning digit [7] [8].
Al-Khwārizmī's method of solving linear and quadratic
equations worked by first reducing the equation to one
of six standard forms (where band care positive
integers)
squares equal roots (ax2=bx)
squares equal number (ax2=c)
roots equal number (bx =c)
squares and roots equal number (ax2+bx =c)
squares and number equal roots (ax2+c=bx)
roots and number equal squares (bx +c=ax2)
by dividing out the coefficient of the square and using
the two operations al-jabr (Arabic: ﺮﺒﺠﻟا “restoring” or
“completion”) and al-muqābala ("balancing"). Al-jabr
is the process of removing negative units, roots and
squares from the equation by adding the same quantity
to each side. For example, x2= 40x−4x2is reduced to
5x2= 40x. Al-muqābala is the process of bringing
quantities of the same type to the same side of the
equation. For example, x2+ 14 = x+ 5 is reduced to
x2+ 9 = x.
Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahrawi
936 AD–1013 AD ƸƃǛƬƵǚ
Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, known also by his Latin
name Albucasis, was born near Cordoba in 936 CE. He
was one of the greatest surgeons of his time. His
encyclopaedia of surgery was used as standard reference
work in the subject in all the universities of Europe for
over five hundred years [9].
His outstanding contribution to medicine is his
encyclopaedic work Al-Tasrif li-man 'ajaza 'an al-ta'lif,
a long and detailed work in thirty treatises depicted in
Figure 3 and Figure 4. The Al-Tasrif, completed about
1000 CE, was the result of almost fifty years of medical
practice and experience [10]. Here is how the author
expressed his credo in this book:
“What ever I know, I owe solely to my assiduous
reading of books of the ancients, to my desire to
understand them and to appropriate this science; then I
have added the observation and experience of my whole
life."
Figure 5 shows a copper spoon used as a medical
implement to press down the tongue preserved at the
Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo. This tool demonstrates
that the physicians of the Islamic medical tradition
attached much importance to medicine and medical
tools in various areas of treatment and how they
developed them. A detailed description of these tools
can be found in the book Al-Tasrif of al-Zahrawi.
Fig. 3 The beginning of the first article of Part I of a manuscript of
"Kitab Al-Tassrif Liman Aajaz an Al-taaleef" authored by Abul
Qasim Khalaf ibn Abbas Al-Zahrawi (Albucasis, Bucasis, Zahravius,
936-1013 AD). The page shows his definition of medicine, quoted
from Al-Razi, as the preservation of health in healthy individuals and
its restoration unto sick individuals as much as possible by human
abilities .
Fig. 4 The 300 pages of the book on surgery represent the first book of
this size devoted solely to surgery, which at that time also included
dentistry and what one may term surgical dermatology. Here, Al-
Zahrawi developed all aspects of surgery and its various branches,
from ophthalmology and diseases of the ear, nose, and throat, surgery
of the head and neck, to general surgery, obstetrics, gynaecology.
Military medicine, urology, and orthopaedic surgery were also
included.
Fig. 5 A copper spoon used as a medical implement to press down the
tongue (dated from the 3rd century H/ 9th century CE, Abbasid
period) preserved at the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo. This tool
demonstrates that the physicians of the Islamic medical tradition
attached much importance to medicine and medical tools in various
areas of treatment and how they developed them. A detailed
description of these tools can be found in the book Al-Tasrif of al-
Zahrawi
Abū al-Qāsim specialized in curing disease by
cauterization. He invented several devices used during
surgery, for purposes such as inspection of the interior
of the urethra, applying and removing foreign bodies
from the throat, inspection of the ear, etc. He is also
credited to be the first to describe ectopic pregnancy in
963, in those days a fatal affliction
Figure 6 shows a page from a 1531 Latin translation by
Peter Argellata of El Zahrawi's treatise on surgical and
medical instruments.
Fig. 6 Page from a 1531 Latin translation by Peter Argellata of El
Zahrawi's treatise on surgical and medical instruments.
Abu Alizz Ismail Ibn Al Razaz Al-Jazari
1136AD–1206 AD
يرﺰﺠﻟا زازﱢﺮﻟا ُﻦْﺑ ِﻞﯿِﻋﺎﻤْﺳإ ُﻦْﺑ ِﺰِﻌْﻟَا ﻮُﺑَأ
The kitab fi ma rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya (the book of
ingenious mechanical devices) by Al-Jazari was
completed in 1206.
It was arguably the most comprehensive and methodical
compilation of the most current knowledge about
automated devices and mechanics.
The work systematically charted out the technological
development of a variety of devices and mechanisms
that both exemplified and extended existing knowledge
on automata and automation.
Al-Jazari constructed a variety of water clocks and
candle clocks. These included a portable water-powered
scribe clock, which was a meter high and half a meter
wide, reconstructed successfully at the Science Museum
(London) in 1976, Al-Jazari also invented monumental
water-powered astronomical clocks which displayed
moving models of the Sun, Moon, and stars.
Fig. 7 One of al-Jazari's candle clocks.
The elephant clock was described by al-Jazari in 1206 is
notable for several innovations. It was the first clock in
which an automaton reacted after certain intervals of
time (in this case, a humanoid robot striking the cymbal
and a mechanical robotic bird chirping) and the first
water clock to accurately record the passage of the
temporal hours to match the uneven length of days
throughout the year [11] [12].
Figure 8 shows two photos of the fascinating
reproduction of the 8.5 meters high elephant clock of
Al-Jazari in Ibn Battuta Mall, Dubai
Fig. 8 Two photos of the fascinating reproduction of the 8.5 meters
high elephant clock of Al-Jazari in Ibn Battuta Mall, Dubai
IV. Conclusion
We want to emphasize the Islamic origins of modern
science and civilization, and the ascendancy of Islamic
science and learning in the world for over 600 years.
The West has generally maintained a conspiracy of
silence about its rejuvenation through medieval Islam
(imitative-innovative assimilation of Islamic culture by
non-Muslims - Islam is the adoption of Islamic culture
ideal religion and culture in behavioral).
In more recent times a number of Western scholars and
Muslim scholars writing in Western languages, have
been bringing to the dissemination of Islamic science,
philosophy, and other aspects of Islamic culture
medieval West.
This fact of medieval Islamicization of the West must
be fully documented, accepted and integrated into the
literature and instructional materials of schools and
colleges around the world and in the promotion of
international understanding and cooperation
development and peace in the world.
V. REFERENCES
[1] El Diwani, Rachida. "Islamic Contributions to the West."
Lecture. Web. 25 June 2011.
www.lssu.edu/.../jswedene/FULBRIGHT_FILES/Islamic%
20Contributions%20to%20the%20West.doc>.
[2] Arnold, T., Guillaume, A, (ed) The Legacy of Islam,
Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1931.
[3] History of Science and Technology in Islam.
http://www.history-science-
technology.com/articles/articles%207.htm
[4] Saliba, George, “Mediterranean Crossings: Islamic
Science in Renaissance Europe”, an article on the Internet:
http://ccnmtl.columbia.edu/ services/ dropoff/ saliba/document/
[5] Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_contributions_to_Medieval
_Europe
[6] Briffault, The Making of Humanity, London, 1928.
[7] Boyer, Carl B. (1991). "The Arabic Hegemony". A History of
Mathematics (Second ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
ISBN 0471543977.
[8] Berggren, J. Lennart (1986). Episodes in the Mathematics of
Medieval Islam. New York: Springer Science+Business Media.
ISBN 0-387-96318-9
[9] Ahmad, Z. (St Thomas' Hospital) (2007), "Al-Zahrawi - The
Father of Surgery", ANZ Journal of Surgery 77 (Suppl. 1): A83,
doi:10.1111/j.1445-2197.2007.04130_8.x
[10] Al-Zahrāwī, Abū al-Qāsim Khalaf ibn ʻAbbās; Studies,
Gustave E. von Grunebaum Center for Near Eastern (1973).
Albucasis on surgery and instruments. University of California
Press. ISBN 978-0-520-01532-6.
[11] C. G. Ludlow and A. S. Bahrani, 1978, "Mechanical
Engineering during the Early Islamic Period",
I. Mech. E, The Chartered Mechanical Engineer, pp. 79-83.
[12] Hill, Donald R., Studies in Medieval Islamic Technology,
edited by David King, Ashgate, U.K., 1998, Article II, p. 229.
