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Breeding for Chlorogenic Acid Content in Eggplant: Interest and Prospects
Abstract and Figures
Chlorogenic acid (5-O-caffeoyl-quinic acid; CGA) is an ester of caffeic acid and (-)-quinic acid with many beneficial properties for human health, such as anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, anti-carcinogenic, anti-obesity, and anti-diabetic properties. This has raised an interest for the development of new crop cultivars with increased CGA content. One of the crops with higher CGA content is eggplant (Solanum melongena). There is a wide diversity for CGA content in cultivated eggplant germplasm, which is influenced by the fruit developmental stage, storage conditions, and environmental factors. Therefore, appropriate experimental designs are required for an efficient breeding. Several strategies are proposed for breeding for high CGA content such as intraspecific variation, selection among accessions, development of hybrids and lines with good agronomic and commercial characteristics, or introgression of the high CGA trait in élite lines. Some wild relatives, like S. incanum, present higher CGA contents than those of eggplant. Interspecific hybridization can be used to introgress favorable alleles from the wild species into the genetic background of cultivated eggplant. Fruit flesh browning, as a result of CGA oxidation by polyphenol oxidases, could be a side effect of increasing the CGA content in eggplant. However, experimental results indicate that the relationship between CGA content and fruit flesh browning is low or moderate. Furthermore, selection for low polyphenol oxidase activity might result in reduced fruit flesh browning. Overall, the available data suggest that the development of eggplant cultivars with improved functional quality resulting from a higher CGA content is feasible
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... Many of eggplant's health advantages appear to be derived from the variety of secondary metabolites it produces, including antioxidants, glycoalkaloids, and vitamins. For instance, the major phenolic compound in fruit flesh chlorogenic acid (5-O-caffeoyl-quinic acid; CGA) has been shown to have numerous health benefits for humans, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, cardioprotective, anabolic, and anti-diabetic properties (Plazas et al., 2013) [53] . The carotenoids lycopene, lutein, and betacarotene, as well as the flavonoids myricetin and kaempferol, are all found in aubergine fruits (Miean and Mohamed, 2001) [23] . ...
... Many of eggplant's health advantages appear to be derived from the variety of secondary metabolites it produces, including antioxidants, glycoalkaloids, and vitamins. For instance, the major phenolic compound in fruit flesh chlorogenic acid (5-O-caffeoyl-quinic acid; CGA) has been shown to have numerous health benefits for humans, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, cardioprotective, anabolic, and anti-diabetic properties (Plazas et al., 2013) [53] . The carotenoids lycopene, lutein, and betacarotene, as well as the flavonoids myricetin and kaempferol, are all found in aubergine fruits (Miean and Mohamed, 2001) [23] . ...
... Chlorogenic acid (5-O-caffeoyl-quinic acid; CQA) is an ester formed from caffeic acid and quinic acid. It offers numerous health bene ts, including antioxidant, anti-carcinogenic, anti-in ammatory, anti-obesity, cardioprotective, and anti-diabetic effects (Gramazio et al., 2013). CQA incorporates catechol, a compound susceptible to oxidation under enzymatic or alkaline conditions when exposed to oxygen, leading to the formation of quinone. ...
The interactions of whey protein isolate (WPI) with chlorogenic acid (CQA) using two techniques, alkaline (pH 9) and enzymatic (tyrosinase) were investigated. Complexes, formed between WPI and CQAby alkaline technique (AWPI-CQA) and enzymatic technique (EWPI-CQA), compared to control WPI (CWPI), were characterized in terms of their chemical, structural, emulsifying, antioxidant and antibacterial properties. The obtained data indicate that the interaction decreases the number of free amino and thiol groups and tryptophan content under both conditions. Decrease in AWPI-CQA complexes was higher than in EWPI-CQA complexes. Changes in protein structure were examined using internal fluorescence spectra, ultraviolet-visible spectra (UV-Vis) scan, and ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography with electrospray ionization and quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS). WPI fluorescence spectra showed that CQA leads to quenching of protein fluorescence. ESI-MS data show that one or more CQA molecules are covalently bound to WPI under both conditions. In addition, AWPI-CQA showed high antioxidative capacity compared to EWPI-CQA and CWPI. On the other hand, EWPI-CQA exhibited notable antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus LMG 10147 and MU50 in comparison to AWPI-CQA and CWPI. The development of nutraceutical foods meets the modern consumer needs. Therefore, whey protein isolate-chlorogenic acid complexes can be used as functional components into many food products. Moreover, consumers may benefit from the health-enhancing effects of phenolic compounds.
... Rich in bioactive compounds essential vitamins and minerals, eggplants provide significant nutritional value while being low in calories [7,8]. Notably, phenolic compounds like anthocyanins in the skin and chlorogenic acid in the flesh enhance the health benefits of eggplants, contributing to their bioactive properties [9][10][11][12]. Increased fruiting and extended harvest periods, alongside higher yields and nutritional value, have led to a rise in eggplant cultivation [13][14][15]. ...
... mg/g CGA (Vu and Alvarez, 2021). In Solanum melongena (eggplant), CGA constitutes the predominant phenolic compound in pulp tissues, with concentrations between 1.4 and 28.0 mg/g (Plazas et al., 2013). Notably, V. dunalianum exhibited exceptional CGA accumulation levels of 44.71-97.64 ...
Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) is the first key enzyme in the metabolic pathway of phenylpropanoid. Chlorogenic acid (CGA) is an important secondary metabolite in the phenylpropanoid metabolic pathway of plants. However, the role of the PAL gene in CGA biosynthesis in Vaccinium dunalianum Wight is still unclear. In this study, seven PAL genes (VdPAL1–VdPAL7) were cloned and analyzed through full-length transcriptome sequencing combined with reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) amplification in V. dunalianum. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that the seven VdPAL genes contain complete open reading frames (1,860–2,148 bp) encoding hydrophilic proteins of 619–715 amino acids, with molecular weights ranging from 67.44 to 77.70 kDa. The VdPAL proteins contain the PLN02457 domain, with the secondary structures predominantly composed of α-helices and the tertiary structures exhibiting a characteristic “hippocampus” conformation. Phylogenetic analysis grouped these VdPAL genes into three subfamilies: VdPAL1, VdPAL3, and the VdPAL2/4/5/6/7 cluster. Reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) analysis showed that the expression levels of the VdPAL1 and VdPAL4/5/6/7 genes were significantly higher in both tender and mature leaves, in flower buds, flowers, green and red fruits, and in green and red fruit stems than those of VdPAL2 and VdPAL3. In the same tissue type, except for VdPAL2, the expression levels of the other six PAL genes were significantly higher in young tissues compared with mature tissues. The PAL gene family mediates the biosynthesis of CGA in V. dunalianum, with the combined expression of VdPAL1/2/4/5/6/7 showing a positive correlation with the CGA content across the analyzed tissues. These results provide experimental evidence for understanding the composition, structural characteristics, and biological functions of the PAL genes in V. dunalianum.
... Additionally, the plant is voracious for these elements because the plant is one of the plants that soil-stressing plants. However, the eggplant plant has the medicinal importance according to [5,6] . ...
A field trial was carried out through the 2023-2024 agricultural growing season inside the greenhouse at the second station of agricultural research in the Al-Bandar region belonging to the College of Agriculture/Al-Muthanna University to investigate the response of splitting potassium and humic acid to eggplant growth and yield. The potassium fertilizer was added within the recommended fertilizer recommendation and according to the required splitting as P1: without potassium fertilizer (control), P2: full recommendation for potassium fertilizer in one dose, P3: full recommendation for potassium fertilizer in two doses, P4: half the recommendation for potassium fertilizer in one dose, and P5: half the recommendation for potassium fertilizer in two doses. Humic acid was added to the ground and spraying in three doses according to the instructions on the can with concentrations (0, 5, 10 ml L-1 of water) and coded with the symbols (H1, H2, and H3), respectively. The study indicators were averaged and compared using the LSD test at a 0.05 probability level in a factorial experiment that used a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The results showed a statistically significant superiority of the full potassium recommendation treatments in two doses and the humic spray treatment at a concentration of 10 ml L-1 separately in all the studied traits. In conclusion, the results demonstrated that splitting potassium fertilizer along with humic acid spraying enhanced the eggplant's vegetative growth characteristics and yield and improved the quality of the fruits.
... Additionally, the plant is voracious for these elements because the plant is one of the plants that soil-stressing plants. However, the eggplant plant has the medicinal importance according to [5,6] . ...
A field trial was carried out through the 2023-2024 agricultural growing season inside the greenhouse at the second station of agricultural research in the Al-Bandar region belonging to the College of Agriculture/Al-Muthanna University, to investigate the response of splitting potassium and humic acid to eggplant growth and yield. The potassium fertilizer was added within the recommended fertilizer recommendation and according to the required splitting as P1: without potassium fertilizer (control), P2: full recommendation for potassium fertilizer in one dose, P3: full recommendation for potassium fertilizer in two doses, P4: half the recommendation for potassium fertilizer in one does, and P5: half the recommendation for potassium fertilizer in two doses. Humic acid was added to the ground and spraying in three doses according to the instructions on the can with concentrations (0, 5, 10 ml L ⁻¹ of water) and coded with the symbols (H1, H2, and H3), respectively. The study indicators were averaged and compared using the LSD test at a 0.05 probability level in a factorial experiment that used a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The results showed a statistically significant superiority of the full potassium recommendation treatments in two doses and the humic spray treatment at a concentration of 10 ml L ⁻¹ separately in all the studied traits. In, conclusion, the results demonstrated that splitting potassium fertilizer along with humic acid spraying enhanced the eggplant’s vegetative growth characteristics and yield and improved the quality of the fruits.
Solanaceae is one of the major angiosperm plant families, with untapped potential to provide food and nutritional security worldwide. The Northeast Indian region is characterised by a variety of relative species of cultivated eggplant, such as Solanum gilo, Solanum indicum, Solanum torvum, Solanum khasianum, Solanum macrocarpon, Solanum xanthocarpum, etc. Wild edible plants comprise a significant component of the diet of indigenous people. The communities here follow traditional processing and cooking methods to make these species suitable for consumption and even help aid ill people in the use of traditional wisdom. Several comparative studies revealed that these relative species are as nutritious as commercial crops and have fewer antinutritional compounds, such as the leaves of Solanum nigrum, which have high protein (21.7±0.9%) and carbohydrate (38.1 ±1.2%) contents and moderate phytate (233.3±83.7mg/100g), tannin (260.8±0.6mg/100g) and oxalate (443.9±10.9mg/100g) contents, ensuring their safe consumption. However, proper use of these eggplant relative species is unavailable, even if they have the potential to alleviate poverty and provide food and nutritional security. Additionally, they carry resistance genes which have helped them to prosper in the wild, which may be due to their broad genetic base; for example, Solanum torvum and Solanum sisymbriifolium are resistant to verticillium wilt, which can be utilised for effective gene introgression. This review is an attempt to compile all essential knowledge, maintain cultural traditions and facilitate research into food history, new food sources and crop improvement for fruit quality and food composition as well as biotic and abiotic stress resistance.
The food industry faces significant challenges in meeting the demand for healthier and more sustainable products, particularly in the search for natural alternatives that optimize the nutritional value of processed products and, at the same time, improve their functionality and shelf life. The objective of this study was to evaluate eggplant flour (EF) in different concentrations (2–9%) as an alternative ingredient in the production of Frankfurt sausages. The physicochemical (Aw and pH) and chromatic properties, as well as the antioxidant activity (ABTS, DPPH, ORAC), total phenolic content, flavonoids, and sensory evaluation were analyzed. The physicochemical properties were as follows: Aw showed an average value of 0.973, and the average pH was 6.35. Additionally, significant differences were observed in chromatic properties across treatments. The antioxidant activity values ranged between 586.4–1775.5 ABTS µM eq. of Trolox/g of sausage and 550.7–1764.0 µM eq. of Trolox/g of sausage, indicating an improvement in activity as EF concentration increased. Treatments containing EF at 2% (T2) and 3% (T3) achieved an average acceptability rating close to 4 (“I like it slightly”), demonstrating a balance between functionality and sensory acceptability, although higher concentrations adversely affected flavor and texture perception. Eggplant flour was an effective and sustainable choice for enhancing meat products’ quality and shelf life, contributing to the development of healthier and more sustainable food options.
Background
Solanum melongena Linnaeus (brinjal) belongs to the Solanaceae family and is also known as eggplant. It is one of the most common vegetables that is grown abundantly and consumed by a large number of people. However, it is found to be highly susceptible to harmful pests such as brinjal shoot and fruit borer, (Leucinodes orbonalis) which are responsible for causing severe damage to the plant’s health and, correspondingly, its yield. Damages include shoot and leaf spoilage which leads to overall hampering of the metabolic process of the plant. This study aims to suggest that the plant, Solanum melongena L., has certain self-induced mechanisms to withstand these stress and pest attacks by secreting compounds known as “Chlorogenic Acid.” Chlorogenic acid is known to be a plant-derived product and is a part of secondary metabolites. Different plant parts were examined for their diverse secondary metabolite content under laboratory conditions. The study was further proceeded by implementing chlorogenic acid exogenously, on the pest-infected plants at a concentration of 1 mg/ml in two different foliar sprays, one consisting of simple water and another 50% ethanol. Moreover, molecular analysis shows a higher expression of the genes which are pivotal for the secretion of chlorogenic acid within the plant itself. The results of this research reveal that chlorogenic acid exhibits a massive potential in controlling pest attacks against Solanum melongena L. and can be used as a potential bio-pesticide.
Local varieties of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) represent an elite germplasm for the development of hybrids specifically adapted to open field conditions. Fifteen local varieties obtained from a germplasm collection and selected so that they spanned a wide range of morphological and genetic distances, 10 experimental hybrids obtained using these materials as parents, and five commercial hybrids were evaluated in open field cultivation in Valencia, Spain. Traits studied were: yield, fruit weight, fruit flesh chroma, total phenolics (TP) and ascorbic acid concentration (AAC). We tested the suitability of the means of parents and morphological and genetic (AFLP-based) distances among parents for the prediction of hybrid performance and heterosis in these materials. Morphological distances were based on 35 traits and genetic distances on 65 polymorphic AFLP markers. As expected, local varieties had lower yields than commercial hybrids; however, some experimental hybrids presented yields similar to those of commercial hybrids. In general, experimental hybrids displayed heterosis for yield, with a mean value of 86.2%. Variation existed among varieties for fruit weight, chroma, TP, and AAC, but mean values of heterosis for these fruit traits were not significant. Significant correlations were found between: (i) the mean of parents and yield of their hybrids (r=0.799), (ii) genetic distance between parents and yield of hybrids (r=0.691), and (iii) genetic distance between parents and heterosis for yield (r=0.635). No significant correlations were found between morphological distance and any of the traits studied. Results show that, in open field cultivation, eggplant hybrids obtained using germplasm accessions as parents could be competitive in yield with commercial hybrids and could contribute to increase the diversity of fruit types of current hybrid cultivars. The use of genetic distances could be of utility in selecting parents giving eggplant hybrids heterotic for yield.
Ngadze, E., Icishahayo, D., Coutinho, T. A., and van der Waals, J. E. 2012. Role of polyphenol oxidase, peroxidase, phenylalanine ammonia lyase, chlorogenic acid, and total soluble phenols in resistance of potatoes to soft rot. Plant Dis. 96:186-192. Pectobacterium atrosepticum, P carotovorum subsp. brasiliensis, and Dickeya spp. cause soft rot of potato (Solarium tuberosum) worldwide. Plants respond to bacterial invasion by activating defense responses associated with accumulation of several enzymes and inhibitors, which prevent pathogen infection. This study focused on the role of polyphenol oxidase (PPO), peroxidase (POD), phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), chlorogenic acid, and total soluble phenols in imparting resistance to soft rot pathogens. Seven and II varieties grown by farmers in South Africa and Zimbabwe, respectively, were used in the study. The results showed significantly higher (P<0.001) enzyme activity of PPO and PAL as well as higher concentrations of chlorogenic acid and total soluble phenols in Vanderplank, Pentland Dell, M69/11, Romano, M59/20, and Mondial(Zw). PAL activity increased significantly with time in all varieties, and the highest activity was recorded 8 h after cutting. The resistance of the varieties was correlated with high PPO and PAL enzyme activity as well as increased concentrations of chlorogenic acid and total soluble phenols. PPO, POD, and PAL activities increased significantly in wounded and inoculated tubers. These findings show that PAL, PPO, POD, chlorogenic acid, and total soluble phenols play a role in imparting resistance to potato soft rot infection.
This paper summarises the occurrence in foods and beverages of the cinnamic acids, their associated conjugates and transformation products. Quantitative data are lacking for some commodities known to contain them, but it is clear that for many people coffee will be the major source. The daily dietary intake of total cinnamates may vary substantially from almost zero to perhaps close to 1 g. The data relating to their absorption and metabolism are presented along with a consideration of their possible in vivo effects. Data for true bioavailability are incomplete: in particular it is not clear whether availability differs markedly with the form of the conjugate, and whether as a consequence some dietary sources may be superior to others. (C) 2000 Society of Chemical Industry.
Diabetes has become the most common metabolic disease worldwide. In particular, type 2 diabetes is the most commonly encountered type of diabetes, which is characterised by the inability of the organism to respond to normal levels of circulating insulin, also called insulin resistance. Current antidiabetic therapy is based on synthetic drugs that very often have side effects. For this reason, there is a continuous need to develop new and better pharmaceuticals as alternatives for the management and treatment of the disease. Natural hypoglycaemic compounds may be attractive alternatives to synthetic drugs or reinforcements to currently used treatments. Their huge advantage is that they can be ingested in everyday diet. Recently, more attention is being paid to the study of natural products as potential antidiabetics. This mini review of the current literature is structured into three main sections focused on: (a) plant extracts, (b) plant biomolecules, and (c) other natural molecules that have been used for their antidiabetic effects. Potential molecular mechanisms of action are also discussed.
Purpose and expected outcomes Brief historical perspectives Types of mutations Mutagenic agents Types of tissues used for mutagenesis Factors affecting the success of mutagenesis Mutation breeding of seed-bearing plants Mutation breeding of clonally propagated species Mutations from tissue culture systems Using induced mutants Limitations of mutagenesis as a plant breeding technique Selected significant successes of mutation breeding Molecular techniques for enhancing efficiency of induced mutagenesis Horticultural applications of mutagenesis General effects of mutagenesis Key successes of induced mutagenesis Outcomes assessment
Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) was introduced by the Arabs into Spain. Since then, many local cultivars have arisen. These materials are grouped in four cultivar groups: "round," "semi-long," "long," and "listada de Gandía." We studied the morphological and molecular [amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP)] diversity of a collection of 28 Spanish traditional cultivars of eggplant. Four eggplant accessions from different origins were used as controls and three scarlet eggplant (Solanum aethiopicum L.) accessions as outgroups. Morphology and AFLP markers showed that S. melongena and S. aethiopicum are separate taxonomic entities, and that, compared to controls, Spanish eggplants are very variable, indicating that the Iberian Peninsula can be regarded as a secondary center of diversity. Morphological differences were found among cultivar groups in traits other than those used for the grouping although, in some cases, accessions from different cultivar groups shared a similar general morphology. Eggplant cultivar groups also showed some genetic differences, which are revealed in the gene diversity statistics (G ST = 0.30). Nonetheless, no individual AFLP markers specific and universal to one cultivar group could be found. "Round" cultivars were genetically more diverse than the other cultivar groups. A positive correlation (r = 0.68) was found between morphological and molecular distances. However, correlations between geographical and either morphological or molecular distances were low. Results suggest that evolution of eggplants in Spain has involved frequent hybridizations and a frequent movement and exchange of seeds. Structure of diversity among regions indicates that most of the diversity can be collected in single selected regions. All these results have important implications in eggplant germplasm conservation and breeding.
Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is ranked among the top ten vegetables in terms of oxygen radical absorbance capacity due to its fruit's phenolic constituents. Several potential health promoting effects have been ascribed to plant phenolic phytochemicals. We report here a first evaluation of phenolic acid constituents in eggplant fruit from accessions in the USDA eggplant core subset. The core subset includes 101 accessions of the cultivated eggplant, S. melongena, and 14 accessions representing four related eggplant species, S. aethiopicum L., S. anguivi Lam., S. incanum L., and S. macrocarpon L. Significant differences in phenolic acid content and composition were evident among the five eggplant species and among genotypes within species. Fourteen compounds separated by HPLC, that were present in many but not all accessions, were identified or tentatively identified as hydroxycinnamic acid (HCA) derivatives based on HPLC elution times, UV absorbance spectra, ES-MS mass spectra, and in some cases proton NMR data. These phenolics were grouped into five classes: chlorogenic acid isomers, isochlorogenic acid isomers, hydroxycinnamic acid amide conjugates, unidentified caffeic acid conjugates, and acetylated chlorogenic acid isomers. Among S. melongena accessions, there was a nearly 20-fold range in total HCA content. Total HCA content in S. aethiopicum and S. macrocarpon was low relative to S. melongena. A S. anguivi accession had the highest HCA content among core subset accessions. Chlorogenic acid isomers ranged from 63.4% to 96% of total HCAs in most core accessions. Two atypical accessions, S. anguivi PI319855 and S. incanum PI500922, exhibited strikingly different HCA conjugate profiles, which differed from those of all other core subset accessions by the presence of several unique phenolic compounds. Our findings on eggplant fruit phenolic content provide opportunities to improve eggplant fruit quality and nutritive value.
Phenolic compounds have numerous beneficial effects on human health. In consequence, the development of new varieties with higher content of phenolics is of interest for the improvement of the nutritional quality of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.). However, the oxidation of eggplant phenolics causes browning of the cut surfaces of the fruit and reduces its apparent quality. The authors investigated the relationship among, as well as the variation and heritability of, the content of phenolics, ascorbic acid, and soluble solids; pH; and the degree of browning and color difference of the cut surface of the fruit flesh in a collection of 69 eggplant varieties. These included landraces from different origins, commercial varieties, experimental hybrids, and four accessions of the related S. aethiopicum L. and S. macrocarpon L. species. Analyses of variance revealed significant differences among the materials studied for all traits considered. The concentration of phenolics in S. melongena spanned a threefold range, although the highest (1122 mg·kg-1) and lowest (134 mg·kg-1) concentrations of phenolics were found in S. macrocarpon and S. aethiopicum respectively. Concentrations of ascorbic acid were very low, a mean 27 times lower than those of phenolics, and soluble solids content ranged from 3.60% to 6.60% with a pH that ranged from 5.01 to 5.93. Commercial varieties had, as a mean, a 20% lower concentration of phenolics than landraces, as well as a lower degree of browning and color difference. Positive correlations existed between phenolic concentration and degree of browning (r = 0.388) and color difference (0.477), although only 15.1% and 22.8% of the total variation in degree of browning and color difference, respectively, could be attributed to variation in phenolics. Ascorbic acid, soluble solids content, and pH were not correlated to either degree of browning or color difference. The heritability was moderate for phenolic concentration (0.50) and high for degree of browning (0.71) and color difference (0.82). The information obtained indicates that there are opportunities for the development of new varieties with a high concentration of phenolics and low or moderate browning.
The taxon Solanum insanum L. represents weedy forms of S. melongena L., whereas S. incanum L. is a distinct species.