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Why Is Avoidance Motivation Problematic, and What Can Be Done About It?
Abstract
Avoidance motivation has been associated with a wide range of negative psychological consequences, such as performance decrements, resource depletion, and reduced well-being, particularly in the long run. Here, we discuss the processes underlying these negative consequences. We put forward a research agenda, suggesting how knowledge of these processes can be translated into strategies that reduce the negative consequences of avoidance motivation. We propose and review initial support for three such strategies: (a) removing stressors, (b) providing structure and focus, and (c) creating opportunities to replenish and reinvigorate.
... Consequently, systems that allow individuals to monitor their performance, or those that provide feedback mechanisms may be of importance to self-regulation Zimmerman 2013) and attainment of goals. However, not all individuals share the same types of goals or attitudes towards goal setting Roskes et al. 2014). ...
... Similarly, a person wanting to lose weight with a proving orientation to goal-setting would want to showcase to others how much weight they have lost and socially validate their accomplishments. (3) Avoidance oriented individuals avoid the setting of goals in order to avoid failure, or dodge negative some negative consequences Roskes et al. 2014;Zimmerman 2013). A sales person afraid of negative self or peer evaluations might hence avoid setting a goal altogether so that they do not experience a negative affect when their behavior falls short of expectations. ...
... Goal-setting orientations Proving as an orientation to goal-setting, relies by definition on social communities in order for one to prove one's competences to others. Individuals with a proving orientation utilize social measures in the evaluations of their goals Roskes et al. 2014). It could thus be expected that individuals with a proving orientation to goals would positively perceive social networking designs and intend to utilize their features. ...
For a long time, information systems have been designed to provide organizational utility, efficiency, and cost reduction. As technological advancement took place, information systems grew to further facilitate personal productivity and entertainment. Out of modern systems, games have an extraordinary reach in modern society. That reach eventually became too significant to ignore without systematic study. While many individuals recognize the value of and need for hard work in life, many—perhaps all—do not wish to live in a universe of pure work or passive engagement with their life’s activities. In that light, scholars began investigating game design as a means to attain enjoyment and motivation in mundane life activities, giving birth to the gamification movement as we know it today.
As a design and research stream, gamification refers to the design of systems, services, and processes to provide “gameful” experiences—psychological experiences, similar to those provided by games—to positively influence engagement with mundane life activities. While the user benefits reported from implementing gamification showcase its potentially positive impact, the understanding of how to design gamification is still in its infancy. Some gamification designs may be suitable to some users or in certain contexts, but the same designs may not have the same results for different users or in different contexts. Furthermore, current methods to design gamification have been developed in isolation, each reinventing the wheel, and hence struggle to provide comprehensive guidance for the gamification design process.
This dissertation employs the goal-setting theory, showcasing how gamification design can suit the preferences of different users. The dissertation additionally investigates contextualized gamification design by employing the deliberation theory and researching design for collective, group engagement such as is seen in the context of civic engagement. Finally, the dissertation contributes a holistic gamification design method that incorporates the design knowledge currently gathered in the gamification fields, as well as lessons learned from the failure of gamification projects. The contributions complement each other and provide a multi-dimensional gamification design knowledge on how gamification should be designed.
While this dissertation has theoretically and practically contributed to the knowledge on gamification design, there is more to be researched before gamification design can come close to being perfect. The journey to gamify is merely commencing. Not only is this pursuit of how to gamify essential to understand a phenomenon and the human behavior around it, but it is also essential to create a gameful reality, one not of pure work but of enjoyment, motivation, persistence and flow.
... Though avoidance motivation is very important for survival, it is known to have negative effects on thriving, and there is considerable empirical work demonstrating the maladaptive outcomes associated with it (e.g. Elliot & Sheldon, 1997Oertig et al., 2013;Roskes, Elliot, & De Dreu, 2014;Roskes, Elliot, Nijstad, & De Dreu, 2013;Ståhl, Van Laar, & Ellemers, 2012;Van Dijk, Seger-Guttmann, & Heller, 2013). Thinking about what could go wrong might after all, increase anxiety, reduce performance, and decrease wellbeing. ...
... Thinking about what could go wrong might after all, increase anxiety, reduce performance, and decrease wellbeing. However, Roskes et al. (2014) suggested that using strategies such as removing stressors, providing structure and focus, and creating opportunities for replenishment could combat these negative effects and enable the use of avoidance motivation when it is necessary or beneficial. In this paper, we suggest that one type of situation where avoidance motivation is beneficial and sometimes necessary are situations with high risk for procrastination. 1 The concepts of prevention and promotion foci from Regulatory Focus Theory (RFT; Higgins, 1997) are not theoretically identical to the concepts of approach/avoidance. ...
... Moreover, in the last decade, research has offered evidence that avoidance motivation has many unwanted side effects, including negative effects on subjective well-being (e.g. Elliot & Sheldon, 1997;Roskes et al., 2014;Van Dijk, Seger-Guttmann, & Heller, 2013) and on performance (Ståhl, Van Laar, & Ellemers, 2012). Thus, it appears that avoidance motivation is good for driving, but bad for thriving. ...
People who procrastinate often pay a heavy price in terms of illness, stress, and poor performance. Because procrastination has harmful consequences, we predicted that avoidance motivation, a self-regulation system that protects people from harm, would also protect them against procrastination. We hypothesised that avoidance motivation reduces procrastination, despite the known destructive effects avoidance motivation has on thriving. In Study 1, students high in chronic-avoidance motivation had the lowest dropout rates from a bonus-granting longitudinal study. In Study 2, avoidance motivation was negatively related to delay in submitting a term paper, when controlling for chronic procrastination, self-efficacy, impulsiveness, and age. In Study 3, an experimental manipulation of avoidance motivation reduced procrastination three times, but only once significantly. In Study 4, manipulations of both avoidance motivation and approach motivation, relative to a control motivation, using a within-subjects design, indicated that the avoidance manipulation reduced procrastination in submitting subsequent reading reports, whereas the approach manipulation did not. We subjected all our results to a meta-analysis that indicated that avoidance motivation had a significant preventive effect on procrastination. We conclude that avoidance motivation can reduce procrastination, and suggest that our avoidance-manipulation techniques could be applied across a variety of organisational and educational settings.
... Consequently, systems that allow individuals to monitor their performance, or those that provide feedback mechanisms may be of importance to self-regulation (Loock et al. 2013;Zimmerman 2013) and attainment of goals. However, not all individuals share the same types of goals or attitudes towards goal setting (Capa et al. 2008;Elliot and Harackiewicz 1994;Freund et al. 2010;Hackel et al. 2016;Locke et al. 1981;Lunenburg 2011;Roskes et al. 2014). ...
... Similarly, a person wanting to lose weight with a proving orientation to goal-setting would want to showcase to others how much weight they have lost and socially validate their accomplishments. (3) Avoidance oriented individuals avoid the setting of goals in order to avoid failure, or dodge negative some negative consequences (Capa et al. 2008;Hackel et al. 2016;Mann et al. 2013;Roskes et al. 2014;Zimmerman 2013). A sales person afraid of negative self or peer evaluations might hence avoid setting a goal altogether so that they do not experience a negative affect when their behavior falls short of expectations. ...
... Goal-setting orientations Proving as an orientation to goal-setting, relies by definition on social communities in order for one to prove one's competences to others. Individuals with a proving orientation utilize social measures in the evaluations of their goals (Capa et al. 2008;Hackel et al. 2016;Hamari and Koivisto 2015a;Locke and Latham 2002;Roskes et al. 2014). It could thus be expected that individuals with a proving orientation to goals would positively perceive social networking designs and intend to utilize their features. ...
Systems and services we employ in our daily life have increasingly been augmented with motivational designs which fall under the classes of (1) gamification, (2) quantified-self and (3) social networking features that aim to help users reach their goals via motivational enforcement. However, users differ in terms of their orientation and focus toward goals and in terms of the attributes of their goals. Therefore, different classes of motivational design may have a differential fit for users. Being able to distinguish the goal profiles of users, motivational design could be better tailored. Therefore, in this study we investigate how different goal foci (outcome and focus), goals orientation (mastery, proving, and avoiding), and goal attributes (specificity and difficulty) are associated with perceived importance of gamification, social networking and quantified-self features. We employ survey data (N=167) from users of HeiaHeia; a popular exercise encouragement app. Results indicate that goal-setting related factors of users and attributes of goals are connected with users’ preference over motivational design classes. In particular, the results reveal that being outcome-focused is associated with positive evaluations of gamification and quantified-self design classes. Users with higher proving-orientation perceived gamification and social networking design classes as more important, users with lower goal avoidance-orientation perceived social networking design as more important, whereas users with higher mastery-orientation perceived quantified-self design more important. Users with difficult goals were less likely to perceive gamification and social networking design important, whereas for users with high goal specificity quantified-self features were important. The findings provide insights for the automatic adaptation of motivational designs to users’ goals. However, more research is naturally needed to further investigate generalizability of the results.
... In addition, an avoidance motivation was found to hamper creativity (Roskes et al., 2012). Roskes, Elliot, and De Dreu (2014) suggest providing structure and focus as strategies for reducing the negative effect of avoidance motivation on creativity. One way of being more focused is by being more oriented toward performance (PGO). ...
... Contrary with what was hypothesized, Creativity was not high in Neurotic people when PGO was high; rather, it was high when LGO was low. It was expected that for Neurotic individuals it will be easier to be creative when they are PGO based on Roskes et al. (2012Roskes et al. ( , 2014, suggesting that it is easier for an individual with avoidance motivation to invest resources and be more creative when a goal is associated with the creative process. Because Neurotic people are motivated to avoid frustrating situations, they may be more avoidance motivated and thus may require a focused goal if they are to be creative. ...
... Since PGO did not moderate the association between Neuroticism and Creativity it may be that PGO does not provide a focused goal or it may be that neurotic individuals tend to be even more stressed facing PGO and it may be that the stress interferes with their performance in the creative task. Although LGO and PGO are different constructs, it may also be that for some individuals, when LGO is low, their PGO is high, the fact that it was found that Neurotic individuals were more creative when their LGO was low, may be because they were also more PGO thus more focused on the task thus more creative, as was hypothesized based on Roskes et al. (2012Roskes et al. ( , 2014. Nevertheless, LGO was found to moderate the association between Neuroticism and Creativity: Emotionally stable individuals are more creative when they are LGO. ...
This study examined the association between the big five personality dimensions and creativity through the moderation of motivational goal orientation. One hundred and ninety students engaged in full-time employment completed questionnaires, which were used to assess the variables of interest. Regression moderation analyses supported some of the expected hypotheses. The associations between the big five dimensions and creativity were moderated by learning motivational goal orientation. Individuals high in extroversion, emotional stability, and low in conscientiousness, are most creative when they are oriented toward learning. In addition, openness fully predicted creativity, without the moderation of goal orientation. The results are discussed in terms of the interactional nature of personality and goal orientation theory.
... Though avoidance motivation is very important for survival, it is known to have negative effects on thriving, and there is considerable empirical work demonstrating the maladaptive outcomes associated with it (e.g. Elliot & Sheldon, 1997Oertig et al., 2013;Roskes, Elliot, & De Dreu, 2014;Roskes, Elliot, Nijstad, & De Dreu, 2013;Ståhl, Van Laar, & Ellemers, 2012;Van Dijk, Seger-Guttmann, & Heller, 2013). Thinking about what could go wrong might after all, increase anxiety, reduce performance, and decrease wellbeing. ...
... Thinking about what could go wrong might after all, increase anxiety, reduce performance, and decrease wellbeing. However, Roskes et al. (2014) suggested that using strategies such as removing stressors, providing structure and focus, and creating opportunities for replenishment could combat these negative effects and enable the use of avoidance motivation when it is necessary or beneficial. In this paper, we suggest that one type of situation where avoidance motivation is beneficial and sometimes necessary are situations with high risk for procrastination. 1 The concepts of prevention and promotion foci from Regulatory Focus Theory (RFT; Higgins, 1997) are not theoretically identical to the concepts of approach/avoidance. ...
... Moreover, in the last decade, research has offered evidence that avoidance motivation has many unwanted side effects, including negative effects on subjective well-being (e.g. Elliot & Sheldon, 1997;Roskes et al., 2014;Van Dijk, Seger-Guttmann, & Heller, 2013) and on performance (Ståhl, Van Laar, & Ellemers, 2012). Thus, it appears that avoidance motivation is good for driving, but bad for thriving. ...
... Researchers and scholars have noted the positive and negative effects of temperament (e.g. Elliot & Thrash, 2002;Roskes, Elliot, & De Dreu, 2014) and control (e.g. Jewell & Kidwell, 2005;Patrick, Skinner, & Connell, 1993) on motivation. ...
... Further, researchers have noted that temperament can affect whether a student has an approach or avoidance motivational perspective (Elliot & Thrash, 2002). Approach motivation occurs when temperament is influenced by positive experiences that bring the student happiness or pleasure; whereas, avoidance motivation may be experienced when students are faced with undesirable events, causing them to take steps to escape participation in tasks that could potentially lead to failure (Elliot & Thrash, 2002;Roskes et al., 2014). Roskes et al. (2014) discussed potential problems that arise when students are faced with situations that elicit avoidance motivational tendencies including anxiety, depression, and underachievement. ...
... Approach motivation occurs when temperament is influenced by positive experiences that bring the student happiness or pleasure; whereas, avoidance motivation may be experienced when students are faced with undesirable events, causing them to take steps to escape participation in tasks that could potentially lead to failure (Elliot & Thrash, 2002;Roskes et al., 2014). Roskes et al. (2014) discussed potential problems that arise when students are faced with situations that elicit avoidance motivational tendencies including anxiety, depression, and underachievement. The authors propose three possible strategies for the classroom that can improve the outlook and performance of students who are avoidance-motivated, giving them a greater sense of control over their academic success. ...
The manifestation of ADHD in girls who are gifted can place strains on motivation and academic performance as they enter their middle school years. The purpose of this collective case study research was to examine the lived experiences of five girls who are gifted with ADHD in order to gain an understanding of the array of coping mechanisms used by this population as they navigate the academic pressures of their secondary school years. The girls in this study participated in a variety of educational settings including public, private, and charter schools. Using the experience sampling method, findings were drawn from the analysis of multiple data sources including experience sampling, document analysis, surveys, and interviews, in areas related to motivation as a result of their feelings toward school, relationships with teachers and family, and strategies used to center and refocus during times of stress.
... Empirical evidence confirms that approach motivation helps to solve insight problems and generating ideas (Friedman and Förster 2002), and approach-related emotions, both positive (e.g., feeling happy) and negative (e.g., feeling angry), are far more conducive to creativity than avoidance-related emotions (both positive, e.g., feeling calm and negative, e.g., feeling sad; Baas et al. 2008). However, as Roskes and her colleagues (Roskes et al. 2014) theorized, avoidance motivation may boost creativity under certain conditions, like the presence of constraints that channel cognitive resources. Providing an individual solving a problem with specific, procedural instructions illustrates how a channelling, yet constrained situation could help solve creative problems for people who are driven by avoidance motivation (see Roskes et al. 2014). ...
... However, as Roskes and her colleagues (Roskes et al. 2014) theorized, avoidance motivation may boost creativity under certain conditions, like the presence of constraints that channel cognitive resources. Providing an individual solving a problem with specific, procedural instructions illustrates how a channelling, yet constrained situation could help solve creative problems for people who are driven by avoidance motivation (see Roskes et al. 2014). ...
... This heightened state can help one navigate threats (like navigating icy highways in winter, when avoiding a car accident helps drivers arrive safely at their destination; or, in the case of COVID-19, in avoiding deadly microbes). But this mindset exacts a cost, and can feel "urgent and all-consuming" [16]. It is little surprise that air traffic controllerswhose job description focuses inherently on avoidanceensuring planes evade mid-air collisionssuffer from a high rate of burn-out [18]. ...
... Avoiding COVID-19 may prompt the avoidance of gyms; an approach goal to offset this loss may be to exercise and maintain a healthy body (a positive object) by walking or jogging outside, or riding a stationary bike inside. People have noted pandemic "fatigue" and burn-out; approach sub-goals may help to "replenish and reinvigorate" [16]. Approach goalslike those abovecan help guide behaviour even as the as the crux of behaviour falls under the auspices of avoidance. ...
Background: Motivation scientists study goals, self-regulatory tools that are used to help people approach or avoid objects of desire or disdain. Purpose: Using these tools, motivation science can offer insights to guide behaviour and help individuals maintain optimal health and well-being during pandemics, including COVID-19. Results: Avoidance goals help guide behaviour away from negative objects like COVID-19, and are necessary in situations where survival is at stake. Formulating the goal of avoiding COVID-19 is therefore recommended during the pandemic. However, avoidance goals have inherent limitations, in that they tax one’s energy and well-being. To minimize these costs, the pursuit of approach sub-goals may be recommended, such as increasing social connection online or exercising outdoors (particularly prior to widespread vaccination). Conclusion: Adhering to the goal of avoiding COVID-19 prevents infection and saves lives when safe and effective vaccines and treatments are lacking. But avoidance goals have known costs that must be acknowledged and addressed. One solution is to pair avoidance goals with approach sub-goals to bolster mental and physical health while adhering to the ultimate goal of avoiding COVID-19, viral variants, and future contagions. Doi: 10.28991/SciMedJ-2021-0304-7 Full Text: PDF
... Compelling evidence suggests that while aiming to avoid failure or adverse outcomes, people become more alerted and focused on details. Moreover, they start to think in a more systematic and analytical manner, as an orientation toward avoidance narrows the attention scope leading to more local (rather than global) perception (Derryberry & Reed, 1998;Förster, Friedman, Ö zelsel, & Denzler, 2006;Roskes, Elliot, & de Dreu, 2014). Combining this evidence, we can expect that various threats can elicit creativity in certain conditions through systematic and analytical processing rather than through remote associations and schema-breaking. ...
... One further aspect that limits findings of our study is that although we tested the hypothesis drawn upon the motivational framework and evidence suggesting that threat and avoidance motivation have an impact on creative thinking (e.g., Higgins, 2000;Roskes et al., 2014), these processes were inferred, rather than directly tested. In other words, how our manipulation affected mood and goal setting was not measured. ...
Stress and threats have been shown to influence our cognition and performance. In a preregistered online experiment (N = 446), we examined whether thinking about the ongoing covid-19 pandemic influences creative (insight problem solving) and analytic thinking. We found no support for our a-priori hypothesized effect (decrease in insight problem solving and no change in analytical thinking), however, several unpredicted results emerged. Exploratory analyses revealed that both types of thinking were harmed, yet only in men. Interestingly, the effect of exposure on thinking about covid-19 was indirect and led to careless task completion – again, only in men. We discuss these intriguing results and propose potential explanations along with future studies directions.
... A necessary precondition is that people with a strong prevention focus invest extra energy and effort to compensate for their inflexibility, and achieve adaptivity to change and creativity through effortful cognitive processes such as systematic search for, and analysis of, potential paths of action (Baas et al., 2011;Roskes et al., 2012). This means that for people high in prevention focus to invest in creativity and adaptivity, clear motivators are needed (Roskes, Elliot, & De Dreu, 2014). For example, compared to employees high in promotion focus, employees high in prevention focus have a greater need to understand that adaptation is necessary and expected from them, before they actually adapt to changes (Petrou, Demerouti, & Häfner, 2015). ...
... Because prevention focus is associated with relatively effortful and resource-consuming goal striving strategies (Evans, 2003;Roskes et al., 2012), the need to regulate negative emotions (Bridgett et al., 2013;Van Dillen & Koole, 2007), and a preference for stability and routine behaviour (Lanaj et al., 2012;Liberman et al., 1999), it should be relatively unpleasant and effortful for people high in prevention focus to engage in non-habitual behaviours and adapting to change. Therefore, it is important to create conditions that help to conserve, effectively focus, and replenish resources (Roskes, 2015;Roskes et al., 2014). Work engagement (i.e., a positive, fulfiling, work-related state of mind characterized by vigour, dedication and absorption; Schaufeli et al., 2002) could be such a favourable state that helps to maintain work motivation and facilitates focused investment in fulfiling work goals. ...
Whereas promotion focus is consistently linked to high adaptivity (i.e., adjustment to changes) andcreativity (i.e., generation of useful and original ideas), prevention focus is commonly associated with lowadaptivity and creativity. The present study uncovers the conditions under which prevention focus mayalso have positive effects on adaptivity and creativity. First, we hypothesize that trait-level promotionfocus positively relates to day-level adaptivity as well as creativity. More importantly, we hypothesize thattrait-level prevention focus positively relates to day-level adaptivity and creativity when day-level goalfulfilment is low (i.e., two-way interactions) and that these effects are stronger when day-level workengagement is high (i.e., three-way interactions). To test our hypotheses, we conducted a daily diarysurvey among 209 employees from different occupational sectors, overfive working days. As expected,trait promotion focus was positively related to adaptivity and creativity. Furthermore, trait preventionfocus positively related to both adaptivity and creativity when day-level goal fulfilment was low andday-level work engagement was high (3-way interactions). None of the two-way interaction effects of traitprevention focus and goal fulfilment was significant. Ourfindings suggest that prevention focus andunfulfilled goals jointly should not only be seen as threats, but also as opportunities for adaptation andcreativity.
... According to Baddeley (2007), this hedonic detector (1) is sensitive to both positive and negative information; (2) is flexible to process multiple targets but also stable in diverse environments; (3) is able to integrate (average) the information and (4) stores it to allow (5) comparison across outcomes and discriminations among options. The hedonic detector may thus interact with attention and serve as a module to select benevolent affective information to fulfil the most fundamental motivational principle of human being: approaching positivity and avoiding negativity (Higgins, 1997;Roskes, Elliot, & De Dreu, 2014). Alternatively, individuals with more WM capacity might simply have more "residual" cognitive resources at a given level of task performance, and therefore they could deploy more of these "residual" cognitive resources (e.g. ...
... Last, these is an assumption that the positive relationship between WM capacity and affective bias for positive over negative emotional contents is adaptive in nature, as it obeys a fundamental motivational principle of humans (Higgins, 1997;Roskes et al., 2014). However, in some scenarios, the opposite may be true. ...
How does the affective nature of task stimuli modulate working memory (WM)? This study investigates whether WM maintains emotional information in a biased manner to meet the motivational principle of approaching positivity and avoiding negativity by retaining more approach-related positive content over avoidance-related negative content. This bias may exist regardless of individual differences in WM functionality, as indexed by WM capacity (overall bias hypothesis). Alternatively, this bias may be contingent on WM capacity (capacity-based hypothesis), in which a better WM system may be more likely to reveal an adaptive bias. In two experiments, participants performed change localization tasks with emotional and non-emotional stimuli to estimate the number of items that they could retain for each of those stimuli. Although participants did not seem to remember one type of emotional content (e.g., happy faces) better than the other type of emotional content (e.g., sad faces), there was a significant correlation between WM capacity and affective bias. Specifically, participants with higher WM capacity for non-emotional stimuli (colors or line-drawing symbols) tended to maintain more happy faces over sad faces. These findings demonstrated the presence of a “built-in” affective bias in WM as a function of its systematic limitations, favoring the capacity-based hypothesis.
... Excessive reliance on avoidance goals can diminish well being (e.g. [2,3]) and may even undermine goal achievement [4]; however, the processes by which avoidance (vs. approach) goals influence global constructs such as well being are unknown. ...
... approach) goals influence global constructs such as well being are unknown. More detailed information about the neurocognitive processes that underlie how people attend and react to their environment may inform knowledge of how motivation affects these longer-term outcomes [3]. Thus, a critical step towards understanding the importance of motivational orientation is to describe precisely how approach and avoidance motivation differ in their effects on the proximal neurocognitive processes that ultimately mediate the effect of motivation on more distal outcomes (e.g., goal attainment). ...
Dynamic, momentary approach or avoidance motivational states have downstream effects on eventual goal success and overall well being, but there is still uncertainty about how those states affect the proximal neurocognitive processes (e.g., attention) that mediate the longer-term effects. Attentional flexibility, or the ability to switch between different attentional foci, is one such neurocognitive process that influences outcomes in the long run. The present study examined how approach and avoidance motivational states affect the neural processes involved in attentional flexibility using fMRI with the aim of determining whether flexibility operates via different neural mechanisms under these different states. Attentional flexibility was operationalized as subjects' ability to switch between global and local stimulus features. In addition to subjects' motivational state, the task context was manipulated by varying the ratio of global to local trials in a block in light of recent findings about the moderating role of context on motivation-related differences in attentional flexibility. The neural processes involved in attentional flexibility differ under approach versus avoidance states. First, differences in the preparatory activity in key brain regions suggested that subjects' preparedness to switch was influenced by motivational state (anterior insula) and the interaction between motivation and context (superior temporal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule). Additionally, we observed motivation-related differences the anterior cingulate cortex during switching. These results provide initial evidence that motivation-induced behavioral changes may arise via different mechanisms in approach versus avoidance motivational states.
... The net result is impoverished interest in goal-directed activity, which can be task-related, interpersonal or intra-personal. As approach impulses reduce in intensity, avoidant impulses tend to increase with heightened urges to avoid, escape or hide (Hershenberg et al., 2017;Roskes et al., 2014). ...
Background:
Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is an effective treatment for depression but a significant minority of clients do not complete therapy, do not respond to it, or subsequently relapse. Non-responders, and those at risk of relapse, are more likely to have adverse childhood experiences, early-onset depression, co-morbidities, interpersonal problems and heightened risk. This is a heterogeneous group of clients who are currently difficult to treat.
Aim:
The aim was to develop a CBT model of depression that will be effective for difficult-to-treat clients who have not responded to standard CBT.
Method:
The method was to unify theory, evidence and clinical strategies within the field of CBT to develop an integrated CBT model. Single case methods were used to develop the treatment components.
Results:
A self-regulation model of depression has been developed. It proposes that depression is maintained by repeated interactions of self-identity disruption, impaired motivation, disengagement, rumination, intrusive memories and passive life goals. Depression is more difficult to treat when these processes become interlocked. Treatment based on the model builds self-regulation skills and restructures self-identity, rather than target negative beliefs. A bespoke therapy plan is formed out of ten treatment components, based on an individual case formulation.
Conclusions:
A self-regulation model of depression is proposed that integrates theory, evidence and practice within the field of CBT. It has been developed with difficult-to-treat cases as its primary purpose. A case example is described in a concurrent article (Barton et al., 2022) and further empirical tests are on-going.
... À noter que si le désir d'éviter des conséquences négatives peut produire des résultats bénéfiques, ce type de motivation implique de se focaliser sur les risques et les menaces, ce qui peut, à terme, mener à des difficultés, telles que des baisses de performance, de l'épuisement et une diminution du bien-être (Roskes et al., 2014). Par contraste, une métaanalyse a récemment montré que les buts focalisés sur l'approche étaient généralement plus fortement associés avec le sentiment d'auto-efficacité que ceux centrés sur l'évitement (Huang, 2016). ...
La motivation est une composante essentielle de la réussite des trajectoires scolaires et professionnelles. Pourtant, elle e a été très peu étudiée et conceptualisée dans le champ, laissant les psychologues en orientation relativement démuni·e·s pour comprendre les questions qui y sont liées et parvenir à les résoudre lorsque cela s’avère nécessaire. Cet article se base ainsi sur l'équation "motivation = importance x confiance x valence" (Ford, 1992) pour introduire plusieurs stratégies visant à amplifier et soutenir la motivation à entreprendre ou concrétiser des démarches d’orientation selon trois axes : (1) augmenter l’importance des buts de carrière, (2) accroître la confiance de l’individu dans ses chances de les atteindre, et (3) réguler la valence émotionnelle qui y est associée. La discussion s’attache à présenter les enjeux motivationnels liés à des projets de carrière peu réalistes ou qui font suite à un échec. Enfin, la question de la motivation propre des psychologues en orientation est abordée.
... For example, following an avoidance motor action (arm extension), participants demonstrated a reduced ability to solve creative and insightful problems compared to approach motor action (arm flexion; Friedman and Förster, 2001). It is posited that this reduced ability to explore creative solutions under avoidance motivation is due to heightened anxiety and arousal, which impedes flexibility in cognition (Roskes et al., 2012;Roskes et al., 2014). Therefore, we expect that avoidance motivation in the present study would similarly be associated with reduced flexibility in postural behaviour and language compared to approach motivation. ...
A concealable stigmatised identity (CSI) is any identity that can be hidden but, if revealed, can be potentially socially devaluing (e.g., sexual minority). Those living with a CSI have opportunities to disclose their identities to friends and family members or within professional contexts. According to the disclosure processes model, people adopt either approach-oriented or avoidance-oriented goals when self disclosing. The current study sought to identify how antecedent goals and relationship context are embodied in the dynamics of unintentional behaviours during disclosure. Participants simulated a disclosure event to both close other and professional other targets and were primed with either approach or avoidance-motivations. Postural activity and language were analysed using detrended fluctuation analysis and recurrence quantification analysis. Results revealed that the movement dynamics of participants who were motivated by approach goals exhibited more complex and flexible behaviour compared to those who were motivated by avoidance goals. In addition, there was more recurrent word use towards close others compared to professional others. These results support the supposition of the disclosure processes model that approach-avoidance motivation impacts behaviour and sheds light on the functional differences between relationship contexts on a CSI disclosure experience.
... Thus, the goal of avoiding failure was associated with an elevated stress response that can only be maladaptive for the successful completion of cognitive tasks. This finding agrees with previous results in that performanceavoidance goals induce negative affect, undermine motivation, and deplete energy resources (Roskes et al., 2014). Oertig et al. (2013) located the maladaptiveness of performanceavoidance goals to an ill-placed end state in which the emphasis is to move away from a target with no direction or goal. ...
The purpose of the present study was to test the hypothesis that goal orientation is associated with divergent forms of emotional reactivity under frustration. Goal orientations were assessed using bifurcations of performance goals described earlier. Physiological stress levels were measured via a blood volume pulse analysis after individuals were subjected to a computerized Stroop task using a malfunctioning mouse to induce enhanced frustration. The results indicated that performance-avoidance goals were associated with the highest levels of emotional reactivity, with normative outcome goals being significantly more detrimental than ability goals. We concluded that the motivation to avoid failure or to outperform others is the most detrimental determinant of stress and needs to be avoided by all means. Instead, it is suggested that educators emphasize performance using personal best outcomes or by valuing engagement, deep processing and task completion.
... Avoidance motivation has been associated with many negative psychological consequences, such as performance decrements, resource depletion, and reduced well-being, particularly in the long run.Knowledge of these processes can be translated into strategies that reduce the negative consequences of avoidance motivation. It was proposed and reviewed initial support for such strategies as removing stressors, providing structure and focus, and creating opportunities to replenish and reinvigorate (Roskes, Elliot,&De Dreu, 2017). ...
... One way in which this could manifest is that awareness of negative stereotypes surrounding speaking with non-native accents may prompt speakers to seek to avoid situations in which they can be negatively judged. Past research indicates that such active avoidance is related to resource depletion and suggests this depletion occurs because the evoked alertness and vigilance drains one's energy and cognitive resources over time (e.g., Roskes et al., 2014;Ståhl et al., 2012). Alternatively, there is also evidence that social rejection, which is likely a greater concern if one believes one will be negatively stereotyped by others at work, is associated with greater selfregulation failure (Baumeister et al., 2007). ...
Speaking with a non‐native English accent at work is a prevalent global phenomenon. Yet, our understanding of the impact of having a non‐native accent at work is limited, in part because research on accents has been multidisciplinary, fragmented, and difficult for scholars to access and synthesize. To advance research on accents in the workplace, we provide an interdisciplinary and integrative review of research on non‐native accents drawing from the communications, social psychology, and organizational sciences literatures. First, we briefly review the dominant approaches taken in each literature. Second, we organize and integrate extant research findings using a 2 X 2 framework that incorporates the two main theoretical perspectives used to explain the effects of accents – stereotypes and processing fluency – and the two primary categories of workplace outcomes examined – interpersonal (i.e., others’ evaluations of speakers with non‐native accents, such as hiring recommendations) and intrapersonal (i.e., non‐native accented speakers’ own evaluations and experiences, such as sense of belonging). To facilitate future research, we end by articulating a research agenda including theoretical and methodological expansions related to the study of accents, identifying critical moderators, adopting an intersectional approach, and studying group‐level and potential positive effects of speaking with non‐native accents.
... The other three themes were less predictable from our knowledge of the intervention. Overcoming avoidance and rumination (generally, rather than to memories specifically) is promising given that approach behaviours are linked to recovery from depression and targeted in more traditional psychological approaches to depression [32][33][34]. A key element often identified in recovery is improved social connection [35,36] and a major focus of relapse prevention is being able to seek help, so it is positive that young people felt that the intervention had improved their relationships, communication, and ability to be open. ...
We have evaluated a novel early intervention for adolescent depression (age 16–18) in a feasibility randomised controlled trial. This nested process evaluation aimed to understand how this complex intervention worked. We sought to understand participants’ views and experiences of receiving and interacting with the intervention to evaluate whether the underpinning theoretical basis of the intervention is justified and whether it contributes to valued outcomes for participants. Twelve participants were invited to take part in semi-structured interviews. Framework analysis was employed to identify important aspects of adolescents’ experiences. The active ingredients identified by participants were consistent with and extended our understanding of the theoretical basis of the intervention. Four principle themes were identified: understanding how memory works and being able to remember memories in more detail; processing negative experiences and letting go; imagining positive future events; and understanding and being kinder to myself. The outcomes of the intervention were valued by participants. Six principle themes were identified: improving mood and well-being; reducing impact of negative memories; motivation and goal-directed behaviour; overcoming avoidance and rumination; relationships, communication and being open; and self-understanding and acceptance. A simplified logic model is also proposed to connect the intervention components, active ingredients, and valued outcomes. The findings provide an in-depth understanding of how participants interacted with the intervention and what they derived from it. For example, the findings establish processing negative experiences as a core intervention component, extend it to include letting go of these memories, and highlight that reducing the impact of negative memories is valued by participants. This richer understanding guides further intervention development and future implementation.
... Self-control theory notes that when consumers are in pursuit of avoidance goals, they employ psychological resources, resulting in the depletion of those resources (Oertig et al., 2013;Roskes et al., 2014). We argue that when consumers are highly engaged in moral brand avoidance, they use up some of their resources, leading, naturally, to a state of depleted resources; however, building on selfcontrol theory, we also posit that a state of subjective well-being could help consumers replenish lost resources, thereby increasing their potential to achieve brand avoidance goals. ...
Negative consumer–brand interactions often result in consumer subversion, in which consumers actively reject or avoid brands. To date, the role of positive emotional states, such as subjective well‐being, in brand avoidance remains a crucial oversight in the literature seeking to address consumer subversion. In this study, comprising three studies, we examine why and when subjective well‐being influences brand avoidance. Drawing on self‐control theory and the literature related to anti‐consumption, we argue and demonstrate in Study 1 (N = 330) that subjective well‐being enhances consumers' ability to avoid brands that transgress moral and ethical norms. Study 2 (N = 251) reveals the underlying psychological process by which subjective well‐being engenders greater self‐control in consumers who, as a response, exhibit brand avoidance behavior. Study 3 (N = 243) indicates that anti‐consumption attitude serves as the boundary condition; it specifically demonstrates that a macro‐oriented anti‐consumption attitude accentuates the influence of subjective well‐being on brand avoidance, whereas a micro‐oriented anti‐consumption attitude does not have any effect. Our research contributes to the consumer subversion literature by evaluating the influence of subjective well‐being on moral brand avoidance. This study offers key insights for marketing managers entering markets containing consumers with high or low subjective well‐being.
... For example, depression has been linked to analytical thinking focused on negative discrepancies in one's life (i.e., unattained goals, missed opportunities; Watkins & Teasdale, 2001). Other studies have shown a relation between thinking about negative outcomes and an increased focus on details that resembles analytic thinking (Derryberry & Reed, 1998;Förster et al., 2006;Roskes et al., 2014). Cultures and individuals characterized by more analytic thinking are also more susceptible to negative emotions and negative consequences from rumination, with a recent review arguing that an analytic perspective promotes brooding and negative perseverative self-focus (De Vaus et al., 2018). ...
The world of cosmetic surgery offers a variety of procedures designed to “enhance” specific body parts. While some consumers are adamantly against such procedures, others seem inherently drawn to them. What type of consumer is most likely to undergo cosmetic procedures? The current research examines whether individual differences in holistic and analytic thinking affect preferences for cosmetic procedures. Across 5 behavioral and eye-tracking studies, we find that analytic thinking increases openness to cosmetic procedures. Analytic thinking leads to a hyper-focusing effect that drives dissatisfaction with certain body parts, which increases the likelihood of endorsing and undergoing procedures to alter that particular body part. Marketing and consumer-related implications for these effects are provided.
... First, social avoidance -especially avoidance of potential punishments-is often coupled with excessive attention to one's behavior and oneself (Elliot, 2013), and excessive self-focus has been found to amplify dehumanization (e.g., Locke, 2009;Wang & Krumhuber, 2017;. Second, although avoidance motivation is often triggered by threats (e.g., Cavallo et al., 2010), avoidance motivation could in turn make individuals hypersensitive to threats (Roskes et al., 2014). Studies have consistently shown that threats from either a perceived target (e.g., group membership; Maoz & McCauley, 2008) or brought about by one's state of mind (e.g., mortality salience; Goldenberg et al., 2009) can result in dehumanization. ...
Research on antecedents of dehumanization has exclusively focused on intra- and inter-personal factors. In the current research, we examined whether cultural tightness (i.e., strengths of social norms and punishments of deviant behaviors), a macro-cultural factor, could result in dehumanization in the United States. Six studies employing mixed methods were conducted. Using ecological data, we showed that tightness could predict dehumanization both cross-sectionally (i.e., across 50 states, Study 1) and longitudinally (i.e., 1800–2000 CE, Study 2). A quasi-experiment using employees from a tight corporate culture (i.e., finance) versus a loose one (i.e., high-tech) replicated the finding (Study 3). Controlled experiments using different manipulation methods for cultural tightness further demonstrated a direct causal relationship from tightness to dehumanization (Studies 4–6). In addition, such a relation was mediated by an avoidance motivation (Studies 5 and 6). Implications were discussed.
... To prevent losses to their self-esteem, these persons are more intensely concerned with avoiding the negative consequences of failure than persons with high self-esteem (self-protection; e.g., Baumeister et al., 1989;Heatherton & Ambady, 1993;Tice, 1991). Avoidance leads to a lower probability of success (Roskes, Elliot, & De Dreu, 2014) which may, in turn, increase doubts about one's competencies and further avoidance behavior. Thus, over time, low global self-esteem may lead to a stable tendency to doubt one's competencies and to be concerned about the consequences of making mistakes. ...
Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality trait whose facets differentially relate to indicators of psychological functioning, such as global self-esteem. There has been some theoretical disagreement whether perfectionism affects global self-esteem, or vice versa. This question merits renewed attention due to increasing efforts to prevent the development of maladaptive perfectionism facets in adolescents. Additionally, recent research has indicated a role of self-esteem for predicting personality development. This study aimed to clarify the longitudinal relations of multidimensional perfectionism and global self-esteem. A sample of 707 early adolescents participated in two measurement points two years apart. Global self-esteem positively predicted personal standards, negatively predicted doubts about actions, and did not predict concern over mistakes beyond baseline. Perfectionism facets did not longitudinally predict global self-esteem. These findings provide the first evidence for a role of global self-esteem in perfectionism development. Addressing early adolescents’ self-esteem may aid in preventing the development of maladaptive perfectionism facets.
... Manakala, emosi negatif pula didapati menjadi punca kepada motivasi penolakan (avoidance motivation) yang menyebabkan penurunan minat pelajar terhadap aktiviti di dalam kelas dan seterusnya memberikan kesan terhadap pencapaian akademik mereka (Ganotice et al., 2016). Motivasi penolakan (avoidance motivation) telah dikaitkan dengan pelbagai kesan negatif terhadap psikologi pelajar seperti penurunan prestasi, terutamanya dalam jangka masa panjang (Marieke, Elliot, & De Dreu, 2014). ...
The talking-head animation is an instructional approach that can be utilized to represent teachers or pedagogical agents in the digital learning medium. However, talking-head animation can potentially become a source of distraction in learning due to insufficient design of the talking-head characters. Therefore, this article will discuss and suggest a conceptual framework as a guidance for studies related to such problems. This conceptual framework is constructed based on the theories, principles and relevant literature reviews. This article also outlines future research suggestions to further strengthen the conceptual framework that has been developed.
... Interestingly, Elliot (2006) states that while approach motivation refers to thriving, avoidance motivation refers to surviving. In this concept, a recent study shows that although avoidance motivation is associated with negative consequences, it can be helpful to survive in some critical situations (Roskes, Elliot & De Dreu, 2014). For example, a graduate student may be motivated to prevent an undesirable possibility, which is the possibility of not being able to finish his/her degree. ...
This quantitative study investigated different motivational orientations (e.g. intrinsic/extrinsic and approach/avoidance) held by counseling graduate students in relation to their level of education (e.g. master's and doctoral), and in relation to non-counseling graduate students. Using two well-validated measures of
... This finding is consistent with related studies. For example, Roskes, Elliot, and De Dreu (2014) found that approach goals had overwhelming superiority over avoidance goals in task performance but involved less resource depletion. Werner and Milyavskaya (2019) proposed that want-to (vs. ...
Although studies have shown better self-regulation for participants in promotion versus prevention-focused states, there remains debate as to whether better regulatory performance requires more cognitive resources. In this study, participants performed a colour-word Stroop task in different motivational states and reported their cognitive effort in Experiment 1, and engaged in a subsequent spatial-word Stroop task to measure their ego depletion in Experiment 2. Results showed that participants in promotion focus neither reported more cognitive effort in Experiment 1 nor suffered worse ego depletion in Experiment 2 than participants in prevention focus. Additionally, the two experiments consistently showed better self-regulation in promotion than prevention focus with no difference in interference effects. This study suggested that self-regulation execution was more effective in promotion than prevention-focused states without greater cognitive resource expenditure, and that increased capacity for conflict identification rather than conflict resolution could account for our findings.
... For students who find themselves in challenging circumstances, and when L2 acquisition is a high-stakes endeavor, teachers can frame learning in ways that highlight opportunities, and can model support in a manner that emphasizes development rather than deficit (Ortega, 2018). Roskes, Elliot, and De Dreu (2014) identified three specific strategies that teachers can use in assisting students reliant on avoidance regulation. Because avoidance-focused people tend to perform better on tasks when they can focus their full attention, it is important to create a classroom environment free from stress factors and distractors. ...
Learning a language is a long‐term undertaking. In this endeavor, motivation is served by patterns of regulation that steer and control behavior. Regulation can be focused on possibilities and opportunities (an approach pattern), or the implications of failure (an avoidance pattern). Responding to calls for work with a focus on regulation (Papi et al., 2019), and with the aim of developing insights into second‐language perseverance, this study explores the regulation profiles of highly motivated adult learners of Swedish. Using the directed motivational currents construct as a template, analyses of interview data from 18 participants revealed distinct patterns of approach‐ and avoidance‐focused regulation. While approach orientations were associated with enjoyment and well‐being, avoidance orientations were associated with worry and stress. The effects of regulatory orientations on motivational sustainability are discussed, and implications for theory and practice are considered.
... However, it would seem from the data presented in this chapter, that decision-making theories such as Prospect Theory can coincide with motivation theories in explaining behaviour, particularly since choice and motivation can both be affected by the evaluation of gains and losses (i.e., rewards and risks). Reducing loss as a reason behind the decision to avoid risks relates better with the avoidance reaction as demonstrated by the participants, than the psychological construct of avoidance which normally refers to a state of being or regulatory function (Roskes, Elliot, & de Dreu, 2014). ...
This thesis examines the motivation to engage with entrepreneurship amongst undergraduate music students. Even though entrepreneurship education has been established as beneficial for helping music students prepare for their futures, there are still many challenges involved in encouraging them to engage with it. It is relatively unknown how music students become motivated or demotivated by entrepreneurship. Therefore, this project has set out to gain a better understanding of this phenomenon in the hopes of informing better practice that can encourage and enhance the entrepreneurial development of music students. The project consists of a main qualitative study supplemented by a quantitative study. The qualitative study was conducted with a group of 16 undergraduate music students at a UK university. Each participant was interviewed three times across the span of one calendar year using the semi-structured design. The quantitative study used the questionnaire method which was deployed once to capture a cross-sectional view. A total of 125 respondents took the questionnaire. Both studies attempted to map out the factors that may influence the development of entrepreneurial motivation from different perspectives. The results were triangulated for validity. The findings suggest that music students are motivated to engage with entrepreneurship if they: (1) perceive it to be compatible with their identity; (2) feel confident or assured that they can manage the task; and (3) are certain that it will be a rewarding or fulfilling experience. It is proposed that all three perceptions must be present for the students to become motivated. New suggestions for improving practice recommends that rather than emphasising entrepreneurship as a tool that is only useful for career preparation, it can have more appeal and value if presented as an opportunity for students to find their purpose and to learn to cope better with failure.
... Even if wellbeing and symptoms are to some extent measuring the same underlying construct, it is still beneficial to measure them separately. Goal setting theory argues objectives are more likely to be achieved if they are couched in approach rather than avoidance terms (Elliot et al. 1997;Roskes et al. 2014). Reducing levels of depression and anxiety is an avoidance goal, whereas enhancing levels of wellbeing is an approach goal. ...
The primary focus of classic cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) for depression and anxiety is on decreasing symptoms of psychopathology. However, there is increasing recognition that it is also important to enhance wellbeing during therapy. This study investigates the extent to which classic CBT for anxiety and depression leads to symptom relief versus wellbeing enhancement, analysing routine outcomes in patients receiving CBT in high intensity Improving Access to Psychological Therapy (IAPT) Services in the UK. At intake, there were marked symptoms of anxiety and depression (a majority of participants scoring in the severe range) and deficits in wellbeing (a majority of participants classified as languishing, relative to general population normative data). CBT was more effective at reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression than repairing wellbeing. As a result, at the end of treatment, a greater proportion of participants met recovery criteria for anxiety and depression than had moved from languishing into average or flourishing levels of wellbeing. Given the importance of wellbeing to client definitions of recovery, the present results suggest a greater emphasis should be placed on enhancing wellbeing in classic CBT.
... Nonetheless, this emphasis could provide an explanation for Negativity Prevention's divergence from other avoidance scales. Although avoidance motivation is generally thought to be ineffective, research suggests that the allocation of focused attention can render it successful (see Roskes, Elliot, & De Dreu, 2014). The convergence of Negativity Prevention with Conscientiousness, Industriousness, and Intellect suggests that it involves focused attention. ...
What do people want? Few questions are more fundamental to psychological science than this. Yet, existing taxonomies disagree on both the number and content of goals. We thus adopted a lexical approach and investigated the structure of goal-relevant words from the natural English lexicon. Through an intensive rating process, 1,060 goal-relevant English words were first located. In Studies 1-2, two relatively large and diverse samples (total n = 1,026) rated their commitment to approaching or avoiding these goals. Principal component analyses yielded 4 replicable components: Prominence, Inclusiveness, Negativity prevention, and Tradition (the PINT Taxonomy). Study 3-7 (total n = 1,396) supported the 4-factor structure of an abbreviated scale and found systematic differences in their relationships with past goal-content measures, the Big 5 traits, affect, and need satisfaction. This investigation thus provides a data-driven taxonomy of higher-order goal-content and opens up a wide variety of fascinating lines for future research.
... As noted previously, we recognize that the prospect of punishments can motivate students. However, as a motivator, punishment can have negative consequences if it leads to excessive vigilance, energy depletion, negative affect, or other emotions that otherwise reduce the quality of performance (Roskes, Elliot, & De Dreu, 2014). It may even inadvertently encourage students to become better at cheating, especially if they perceive the punishment to be arbitrary, unfair, or excessive. ...
Positive ethics is a perspective that encourages psychologists to see professional ethics as an effort to adhere to overarching ethical principles that are integrated with personal values, as opposed to efforts that focus primarily on avoiding punishment for violating the ethics codes, rules, and regulations. This article reviews the foundations of positive ethics, argues for the benefits of adopting a positive approach in ethics education, and considers recent findings from psychological science that support the value of a positive perspective by improving moral sensitivity, setting high standards for conduct, and increasing motivation to act ethically.
... Regulatory fit theory proposes that goal framing works best when it "fits" with a person's regulatory orientation (Higgins 1997). However, other research indicates that framing goals as approach or promotion goals tends to be associated with greater wellbeing than construing goals from an avoidance or prevention framework (Coats et al. 1996;Elliot et al. 2006;Roskes et al. 2014). For simplicity sake we did not include regulatory orientation into Study 2, and we recognize that more work is needed to ascertain the relative strengths and weaknesses of goal framing in the context of the same temptation. ...
Our aim was to develop a taxonomy of commonly experienced goals and temptations. We expected to find evidence of interpersonal self-control challenges and avoidance temptations (e.g., avoid a difficult conversation), as these are anecdotally frequent but under represented in the psychological literature. In Study 1, we used qualitative coding to develop a taxonomy, after asking people to describe a goal and a competing temptation in four recent personal situations involving self-control failure. From these narrative descriptions, we identified categories of goals and temptations and then coded each scenario. We then verified the frequency of these goal and temptation categories (Study 2). Findings revealed many instances of interpersonal self-control challenges and some evidence of avoidance temptations, as well as the common phenomenon of being tempted to “not do the goal.” We discuss the variability in how people describe their goals in terms of approach and avoidance framing with the intention of outlining avenues for future research on commonly experienced self-control scenarios.
... Avoidance goal regulation involves acting to distance oneself from something undesired; whereas approach goal regulation involves acting to obtain something desired. Although the ability to avoid undesired outcomes is crucial for survival (Roskes et al. 2014), avoidance goals have received far less empirical and theoretical attention than approach goals within the self-regulation literature. For example, approach goal regulation has been represented in dynamic, formal models based on the negative feedback loop architecture found in control theory (Powers 1973;Scherbaum and Vancouver 2010;Vancouver et al. 2005Vancouver et al. , 2010Vancouver et al. , 2014Vancouver and Scherbaum 2008). ...
An avoidance goal is an undesired state from which a person seeks to distance themselves. Though important for understanding behavior, avoidance goals have received less attention than approach goals. In this paper, we present a dynamic, formal model that provides a framework for describing and predicting the dynamics of avoidance goal regulation. We conduct a series of simulations to examine the dynamic pattern of behavior that emerges from the model when an avoidance goal is pursued in isolation and when an approach goal is also present. Two versions of the model were examined. In the first, the avoidance goal is regulated by a positive feedback loop. In the second, the avoidance goal is regulated by a negative feedback loop. We find that the positive feedback model produces a pattern of runaway behavior, even in a scenario where an approach goal is also present. By contrast, the negative feedback loop model produces a stable pattern of behavior that is more consistent with existing theory. The findings provide an important step toward theoretical parsimony by demonstrating that avoidance goal regulation, like approach goal regulation, can be understood using a negative feedback control system framework. We discuss new insights provided by this model and its potential to spark empirical research.
... While approach motivation focuses on achieving competence and orients behavior toward positive/desirable stimuli, avoidance motivation is directed toward avoiding incompetence and guides behavior so as to avoid negative/ undesirable stimuli (Elliot, 2008). In this sense, approach-regulated behavior would allow individuals to prosper and develop to their full potential by approaching a stimulus that is evaluated positively, while avoidance-regulated behavior would be associated with survival by allowing individuals to stay away from a negatively evaluated stimulus (Elliot, 2008;Roskes, Elliot, & De Dreu, 2014). ...
There is abundant evidence to suggest that students’ achievement goals (AGs) predict their motivation and performance. While it has been proposed that psychological need satisfaction (PNS) may affect AG, empirical support remains limited during the transition to secondary school. This prospective study addresses this gap by examining the link between students’ PNS and AGs through their academic and social adaptation during this transition. A large stratified sample of 626 students completed a series of measures before and after the transition to secondary school. The results revealed that satisfaction of students’ needs for autonomy and competence predicted the adoption of mastery goals through their academic adaptation. The satisfaction of needs for autonomy and relatedness also predicted lower adoption of performance-avoidance goals via their social adaptation. These findings highlight the importance of PNS in shaping adaptation and AG during the transition to secondary school. Practical implications for parents and teachers are discussed.
... For example, the findings point to an interesting role that fear of failure may be playing in students' use of the adaptive learning strategy of managing environment and behaviors strategy, but only among students in the high performance-approach and avoidance goals profile. This is an interesting finding that requires further replication and theoretical and empirical exploration, as it goes against the common premise in the literature that fear of failure, particularly as an antecedent to avoidance-oriented motivational orientations, is a maladaptive psychological characteristic (Roskes, Elliot & De Dreu, 2014). ...
Research has found students’ epistemic beliefs to predict their achievement goal orientations. Much of this research emerged from the dimensional approach of epistemic beliefs, which hypothesized a relationship between particular independent dimensions of epistemic beliefs with different achievement goals. Research in this approach has primarily applied a variable-centered approach to investigating these relations. The authors adopt an alternative conceptualization of epistemic beliefs, which considers epistemic beliefs and achievement goals as orthogonal to each other, and which favors a profile-centered approach to researching their relations. They hypothesized that while a variable-centered analysis would identify relations between epistemic beliefs and achievement goal orientations, a profile-centered analysis would demonstrate the independence of these psychological constructs. In 3 studies with high school students (Ns = 256, 149, 250) the authors demonstrate that epistemic beliefs and achievement goals form different personal profiles that are differentially related to learning strategies.
... For instance, exciting stimuli may not be enticing to curmudgeons because they are not excitable people and, in fact, may hold relatively negative attitudes toward positive emotional states altogether (Harmon-Jones, Harmon-Jones, Amodio, & Gable, 2011). The affective reward for defensive or cautious approach often is relief (e.g., Roskes, Elliot, & De Dreu, 2014;Smillie & Jackson, 2005), which is associated with threat sensitivity and reward responsiveness (Carver, 2009). Lastly, curmudgeons disliked only a small number more positive DAM items (~1 item) than non-curmudgeons and, thus, are not extremely curmudgeonly. ...
Curmudgeon personality is characterized by critical evaluation tendencies wherein both negative- and positive-normed stimuli are viewed negatively (negative dispositional attitudes). Curmudgeons are theorized to attune to emotional qualities of stimuli in general but give greater weight to negative aspects in stimulus valuation, a byproduct of their avoidance temperament. As predicted, curmudgeons freely formed high rates of both positive- and negative-emotion words (emotion-quality bias) in a word-fragment-completion task (Rusting & Larsen, 1998). This was independent of trait negative affect, which was associated with high rates of negative-emotion words only (negative-quality bias). Furthermore, the relationship between curmudgeon personality and emotion-word formation was mediated by behavioral inhibition sensitivity. Curmudgeons “see” positive- and negative-emotion qualities, and evidently in same attitude object, but they weight qualities to avoid higher than qualities to approach.
... As noted previously, we recognize that the prospect of punishments can motivate students. However, as a motivator, punishment can have negative consequences if it leads to excessive vigilance, energy depletion, negative affect, or other emotions that otherwise reduce the quality of performance (Roskes, Elliot, & De Dreu, 2014). It may even inadvertently encourage students to become better at cheating, especially if they perceive the punishment to be arbitrary, unfair, or excessive. ...
Psychology has a history of approaching ethics from a rule-based perspective. The APA Ethics Code was developed by focusing on problematic behaviors, and ethics training is often concerned with helping psychologists protect themselves from ethics complaints and lawsuits. Recently, many scholars have been focusing on positive approaches to ethics. Positive ethics shifts the emphasis from following rules and avoiding discipline to encouraging psychologists to aspire to their highest ethical ideals. Such a positive focus might help psychologists consider ethical issues in a broader context that could contribute to better decision making and better integration of professional rules with personal principles and values. Positive ethics might also contribute to a greater degree of openness so that psychologists feel freer to seek the assistance of others. We discuss several major trends in the literature under the themes of self-awareness, professional awareness, and global awareness. Self-awareness includes understanding our own values and motives. Being more reflective about our values may help us develop ethical sensitivity-the ability to recognize ethical dimensions in our work even when no dilemmas or conflicts exist. Self-awareness also includes taking care of ourselves in all areas of our lives, and developing virtues- character traits that allow us to fulfill both personal and professional moral motivations. Our second theme, professional awareness, includes ethical acculturation, which refers to integrating our personal and professional moralities throughout our professional development. We need to understand the moral traditions that underlie our ethical reasoning. We can also prevent many ethical problems and dilemmas by anticipating them, obtaining consultation, and engaging in continuing education. Our third theme-global awareness-includes multicultural sensitivity, political sensitivity, and civic virtue.
Despite extensive research on gender differences in spatial cognition, the potential roles of affective and situational factors in accounting for these differences remain relatively understudied. Here, we discuss the impacts of spatial anxiety and motivation in mental rotation and navigation tasks, particularly their roles in explaining the gender performance gaps. We highlight the distinction between approach and avoidance motivation, as well as interactions between anxiety and motivation. Attention, working memory, and response strategy are discussed as mechanisms by which anxiety and motivation may affect performance on spatial tasks. Implications for a broader approach that also considers other psychological variables, such as confidence, are discussed.
Income inequality is commonly posited to elevate concerns about social status that undermine psychological health, but the empirical evidence is inconsistent. Here we propose that these inconsistencies conceal opposing processes: Income inequality prompts perceived competitiveness, which can both negatively predict psychological health via avoidance motivation and positively predict psychological health via approach motivation. First, we conducted a two‐year longitudinal study (1,700+ participants from 500+ county identifiers) and provided support for our opposing processes model. Second, we conducted three pre‐preregistered studies using an experimental‐causal‐chain design. We sequentially showed that induced income inequality increased perceived competitiveness (Study 2a; 444 participants), induced perceived competitiveness increased avoidance and approach motivation (Study 2b; 1,018 participants), and induced avoidance/approach motivation decreased/increased psychological health (Study 2c; 562 participants). These findings suggest that scholars should shift from studying the main effects of income inequality on psychological health to studying the psychological processes involved in the inequality‐health relation.
An unresolved question in visionary leadership research is, why must visions be high in imagery to cause affective reactions and be motivationally effective? Research in motivation psychology has shown that pictorial cues arouse implicit motives. Thus, pictorial cues from vision-induced imagery should arouse a follower’s implicit motives just like a real image. Hence, our fundamental proposition is that follower implicit motives and follower approach motivation serially mediate the relationship between leader vision and followers’ vision pursuit. We also examine the case of negative leader visions, with the central propositions that a negative leader vision arouses a follower’s implicit fear motives and that the follower’s implicit fear motives and follower avoidance motivation serially mediate the relationship between negative leader vision and the follower’s fear-related behaviors. Lastly, we assert that multiple implicit follower motives aroused by a multithematic leader vision exert additive as well as interaction effects on the follower’s vision pursuit.
Motivation wields a tangible impact on students' academic functioning. Among the theoretical frameworks used to explain students' motivation to learn, Eccles et al.'s expectancy-value theory (1983) is one of the most influential. It has been used to investigate students' competence- and value-related beliefs and how they are associated with academic-related choices, learning behaviors, and achievement. In the learning context, cost has mostly been discussed under the expectancy-value framework as a sub-dimension of task value and conceptualized as reflecting the negative aspects of task engagement. The issue of cost has recently attracted growing interest among scholars, providing a way to explain the dynamics of student motivation. However, cost is still underexplored in the empirical literature. In the present study, we assessed adolescent students' perceived cost (i.e., effort cost, opportunity cost, ego cost, and emotional cost) of studying math and examined its unique relations with academic motivation and achievement. Across a series of three studies, we found that cost is empirically distinct from the utility, attainment, and interest components of task value and is closely related to students' maladaptive academic outcomes. In particular, cost showed unique associations with adolescent students' test anxiety, disorganization, adoption of avoidance goals, avoidance intentions, and academic achievement. The present study's findings highlight the importance of including cost as a unique construct alongside value to more fully capture students' motivational dynamics in school.
Two core features of depression are elevations in negative valence system (NVS) functioning and reductions in positive valence system (PVS) functioning. Existing psychological treatments have focused on the NVS and neglected the PVS, which may contribute to sub-optimal outcomes. The present mixed methods multiple randomised baseline case series preliminarily evaluates Augmented Depression Therapy (ADepT), a novel depression treatment targeting PVS and NVS disturbance, that aims both to reduce depression and enhance wellbeing. Eleven clinically depressed participants were recruited. Intensive time series analyses showed that 7/11 participants improved on both wellbeing and depression. Reliable and clinically significant improvement was observed for 9/11 participants on at least one of these outcomes (and also across a range of other PVS and NVS outcomes). Group level analyses showed significant pre to post change on all outcomes. Benchmarking analyses indicated these effect sizes were at least comparable (and for some PVS outcomes superior) to existing treatments. Gains were largely sustained over one-year follow-up. Qualitative interviews indicated ADepT was feasible and acceptable. These findings provide preliminary support for ADepT as a novel depression treatment. Further evaluation, directly comparing ADepT to existing treatments using randomised controlled trial designs, is now required.
The purpose of the present study was to compare and contrast goal orientations with regard to stress experienced under conditions of pressure. Participants were 54 college students who participated in the study in response to extra credit. The experimental manipulation involved solving a tangram puzzle within a specific, short time under pressure and under four goal conditions: mastery, performance-outcome, performance-ability, and performance-avoidance normative. Incidents of vasoconstriction defined by low levels in blood volume pulse were expressed as exceeding a 0.5 standard deviation from the grand mean as per Cohen’s conventions of a medium effect size. After fitting a cox regression model to the data, results indicated significant differences in the estimation of survival curves as a function of goal orientations with the pursuit of normative performance goals (outcome) and performance avoidance goals being associated with the most heightened incidents of stress. It is concluded that the fear that inspires people to avoid failure and an emphasis on performing under normative pressures are associated with heightened anxiety and self-regulation failure.
Conflict can profoundly affect individuals and their groups. Oftentimes, conflict involves a clash between one side seeking change and increased gains through victory, and the other side defending the status quo and protecting against loss and defeat. However, theory and empirical research largely neglected these conflicts between attackers and defenders, and the strategic, social, and psychological consequences of attack and defense remain poorly understood. To fill this void, we model (i) the clashing of attack and defense as games of strategy, reveal that (ii) attack benefits from mismatching its target's level of defense, whereas defense benefits from matching the attacker's competitiveness, suggest that (iii) attack recruits neuro-endocrine pathways underlying behavioral activation and overconfidence, whereas defense invokes neural networks for behavioral inhibition, vigilant scanning and hostile attributions, and show that (iv) people invest less in attack than defense and attack often fails. Finally, we propose that (v) in intergroup conflict out-group attack needs institutional arrangements that motivate and coordinate collective action, whereas in-group defense benefits from endogenously emerging in-group identification. We discuss how games of attack and defense may have shaped human capacities for pro-sociality and aggression, and how third parties can regulate such conflicts, and reduce its waste.
Through the pursuit of goals people take charge of their own lives. Unsurprisingly, personal goals also have important implications for subjective well-being. The current chapter reviews the conditions under which and the processes through which goal pursuit fosters or hinders the experience of subjective well-being. It provides answers to questions like: Does pursuing goals make people happy? And is the pursuit of all kinds of goals conducive of happiness or what is the role of goal content for happiness? Does it matter whether individuals try to avoid bad outcomes or try to approach good outcomes through their goals? Does it make people happier to pursue concrete goals and to focus on the process or to pursue abstract goals and have the desired outcome in mind? Should individuals always stick to their goals or can it be useful to disengage? And finally: Does what we know about goals and well-being hold universally across all cultures?
Ein zentraler Entwicklungsstrang der Motivationspsychologie besteht aus so genannten Erwartungs- x Wert-Ansätzen: Man ist motiviert, wenn einem die Zielerreichung wertvoll erscheint und man erwartet, das Ziel erreichen zu können. Die einzelnen Theorien unterscheiden sich bzgl. der Annahmen, wie Wert und Erwartung zustande kommen; aus allen können aber gleichermaßen wertvolle Implikationen für die Praxis abgeleitet werden, wie man Schülern Lernen „wert“-voller erscheinen lassen kann bzw. ihre Überzeugung bestärken kann, dieses wertvolle Ziel dann auch zu erreichen. Die Motivationspsychologie weist ferner auf wichtige Grundbedürfnisse hin, wie Autonomie oder Zugehörigkeit, und zeigt, dass Motivieren eine Berücksichtigung dieser Bedürfnisse erfordert.
Grounded in achievement goal theory (Nicholls, 1989), the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of different aspects of situational achievement goal emphases and competitive outcome on achievement striving (effort and objective performance) and indices of psychological well-being (interest and vitality). Participants were 104 undergraduate students (M age = 20.38) randomly assigned to 4 experimental contrasts: task or ego-involving goal instructions were crossed with feedback that the participants had won or lost 2 consecutive 8-min cycling trials. Overall, results showed support for the dichotomous achievement goal framework in which under ego involvement, low perceptions of ability have a negative effect on achievement striving and well-being.
Although you may not specialize in forensic work, justice-involved clients often end up in traditional outpatient settings. The purpose of this brief article is to provide an overview of the most empirically supported principles for working with justice-involved clients, and highlight aspects of the Risk-Need-Responsivity
model that may be less familiar to practitioners, but are nonetheless essential for being successful with this client group.
Studies on color psychology have demonstrated that the color red impairs cognitive performance in achievement situations. This study extends this line of research to the context of learning. One hundred and ninety students of a secondary school were instructed to memorize a short text (encoding phase). Subsequently, they were administered a knowledge test and a measure of cognitive load (retrieval phase). The experimental design manipulated the color (red versus gray) of the stimulus material during the encoding and the retrieval phase. For boys, repeated color exposure affected test performance more strongly than color presentation during a single phase. In contrast, for girls, a single color manipulation impaired knowledge retrieval, whereas repeated exposure to red had no effect. Descriptive analyses identified similar effects for cognitive load.
According to the resource model of self-control, overriding one's predominant response tendencies consumes and temporarily depletes a limited inner resource. Over 100 experiments have lent support to this model of ego depletion by observing that acts of self-control at Time 1 reduce performance on subsequent, seemingly unrelated self-control tasks at Time 2. The time is now ripe, therefore, not only to broaden the scope of the model but to start gaining a precise, mechanistic account of it. Accordingly, in the current article, the authors probe the particular cognitive, affective, and motivational mechanics of self-control and its depletion, asking, "What is ego depletion?" This study proposes a process model of depletion, suggesting that exerting self-control at Time 1 causes temporary shifts in both motivation and attention that undermine self-control at Time 2. The article highlights evidence in support of this model but also highlights where evidence is lacking, thus providing a blueprint for future research. Though the process model of depletion may sacrifice the elegance of the resource metaphor, it paints a more precise picture of ego depletion and suggests several nuanced predictions for future research.
© The Author(s) 2012.
Several literatures converge on the idea that approach and positive affect related to goal pursuit are managed by one self-regulatory system and that avoidance (or withdrawal) and negative affect related to threats are managed by a second self-regulatory system. After briefly reviewing these literatures, the authors consider the relation of these themes to the broader domain of personality. In particular, they map individual differences in the responsivity of the approach system onto the personality dimension of extraversion and map individual differences in the responsivity of the withdrawal system onto the dimension of neuroticism. This mapping requires a slight refocusing of current conceptions of extraversion and neuroticism. However, such a refocusing brings a gain as well as a cost: In particular, it would embed these dimensions more explicitly in a process-oriented conceptualization of action control.
Four experiments were designed to test the hypothesis that performance is particularly undermined by time pressure when people are avoidance motivated. The results supported this hypothesis across three different types of tasks, including those well suited and those ill suited to the type of information processing evoked by avoidance motivation. We did not find evidence that stress-related emotions were responsible for the observed effect. Avoidance motivation is certainly necessary and valuable in the self-regulation of everyday behavior. However, our results suggest that given its nature and implications, it seems best that avoidance motivation is avoided in situations that involve (time) pressure.
Several literatures converge on the idea that approach and avoidance/withdrawal behaviors are managed by two partially distinct
self-regulatory system. The functions of these systems also appear to be embodied in discrepancy-reducing and -enlarging feedback
loops, respectively. This article describes how the feedback construct has been used to address these two classes of action
and the affective experiences that relate to them. Further discussion centers on the development of measures of individual
differences in approach and avoidance tendencies, and how these measures can be (and have been) used as research tools, to
investigate whether other phenomena have their roots in approach or avoidance.
Compared with approach motivation, avoidance motivation has often been related to reduced creativity because it evokes a relatively inflexible processing style. This finding seems inconsistent with the dual pathway to creativity model, which poses that both flexible and persistent processing styles can result in creative output. Reconciling these inconsistencies, the authors hypothesized that avoidance-motivated individuals are not unable to be creative, but they have to compensate for their inflexible processing style by effortful and controlled processing. Results of 5 experiments revealed that when individuals are avoidance motivated, they can be as creative as when they are approach motivated, but only when creativity is functional for goal achievement, motivating them to exert the extra effort (Experiments 1-4). The authors found that approach motivation was associated with cognitive flexibility and avoidance motivation with cognitive persistence (Experiment 1), that creative tasks are perceived to be more difficult by avoidance- than by approach-motivated individuals, and that avoidance-motivated individuals felt more depleted after creative performance (Experiment 2a, 2b, and 3). Finally, creative performance of avoidance-motivated individuals suffered more from a load on working memory (Study 4). The present results suggest that for people focusing on avoiding negative outcomes, creative performance is difficult and depleting, and they only pay these high cognitive costs when creativity helps achieving their goals.
The authors examine whether and how observing anger influences thinking processes and problem-solving ability. In 3 studies, the authors show that participants who listened to an angry customer were more successful in solving analytic problems, but less successful in solving creative problems compared with participants who listened to an emotionally neutral customer. In Studies 2 and 3, the authors further show that observing anger communicated through sarcasm enhances complex thinking and solving of creative problems. Prevention orientation is argued to be the latent variable that mediated the effect of observing anger on complex thinking. The present findings help reconcile inconsistent findings in previous research, promote theory about the effects of observing anger and sarcasm, and contribute to understanding the effects of anger in the workplace.
Some students put off studying until the last minute, fool around the night before a test, and otherwise reduce effort so that if their subsequent performance is low, these circumstances will be seen as the cause rather than lack of ability. These strategies are called self-handicapping because they often undermine performance. In this paper, we begin with a definition of academic self-handicapping. Next, we review our research in which we used achievement goal theory as a framework for examining academic handicapping among elementary and middle school students. We discuss the implications of the recent conceptualization of approach and avoidance components of performance goals for handicapping. We conclude with a consideration of some potentially fruitful future directions for research on academic self-handicapping, focusing particularly on individual differences in handicapping, contextual influences, and the methods used to study handicapping. Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/44449/1/10648_2004_Article_292340.pdf
Existing research reports inconsistent findings with regard to the effect of color on cognitive task performances. Some research suggests that blue or green leads to better performances than red; other studies record the opposite. Current work reconciles this discrepancy. We demonstrate that red (versus blue) color induces primarily an avoidance (versus approach) motivation (study 1, n = 69) and that red enhances performance on a detail-oriented task, whereas blue enhances performance on a creative task (studies 2 and 3, n = 208 and 118). Further, we replicate these results in the domains of product design (study 4, n = 42) and persuasive message evaluation (study 5, n = 161) and show that these effects occur outside of individuals' consciousness (study 6, n = 68). We also provide process evidence suggesting that the activation of alternative motivations mediates the effect of color on cognitive task performances.
In two studies, the regulatory function of approach-avoidance cues in activating cognitive control processes was investigated. It was hypothesized that avoidance motor actions, relative to approach motor actions, increase the recruitment of cognitive resources, resulting in better performance on tasks that draw on these capacities. In Study 1, error rates on a verbal response mode version of the Stroop task were analyzed. On inconsistent Stroop trials, participants in the avoidance condition made significantly fewer errors than those in the approach condition. In Study 2, performance differences on a task switching paradigm were investigated. Crucially, approach and avoidance motor actions were manipulated within-subjects by alternating between approach and avoidance motor actions on 4 blocks of trials. Temporal switching costs were significantly lower while performing an avoidance, compared to an approach motor action. These results support our hypothesis that avoidance cues, relative to approach cues, lead to improved performance on cognitive control tasks.
Goals with a promotion focus versus a prevention focus are distinguished. Chronic ideal goals (hopes and aspirations) have a promotion focus, whereas ought goals (duties and responsibilities) have a prevention focus. The hypothesis that emotional responses to goal attainment vary as a function of promotion versus prevention goal strength (conceptualized as goal accessibility) was tested in correlational studies relating chronic goal attainment (self-congruencies or self-discrepancies) to emotional frequency and intensity (Studies 1-3) and in an experimental study relating immediate goal attainment (i.e., success or failure) to emotional intensity (Study 4). All studies found that goal attainment yielded greater cheerfulness-dejection responses when promotion focus was stronger and greater quiescence-agitation responses when prevention focus was stronger.
Choice, active response, self-regulation, and other volition may all draw on a common inner resource. In Experiment 1, people who forced themselves to eat radishes instead of tempting chocolates subsequently quit faster on unsolvable puzzles than people who had not had to exert self-control over eating. In Experiment 2, making a meaningful personal choice to perform attitude-relevant behavior caused a similar decrement in persistence. In Experiment 3, suppressing emotion led to a subsequent drop in performance of solvable anagrams. In Experiment 4, an initial task requiring high self-regulation made people more passive (i.e., more prone to favor the passive-response option). These results suggest that the self's capacity for active volition is limited and that a range of seemingly different, unrelated acts share a common resource.
The dot probe task [J Abnorm Psychol 95 (1986) 15] is an often-used paradigm to investigate selective attention to threat. A facilitated response to probes that appear at the same location of threat information in comparison with responses to probes at the opposite location of threat information is interpreted as vigilance for threat. We argue that the findings in the dot probe paradigm are ambiguous evidence for the vigilance to threat hypothesis. Results can also be interpreted as a difficulty to disengage from threat. In this study, 44 undergraduates performed a pictorial version of the probe detection task. Taking into account the reaction times on neutral trials, we found no evidence for a facilitated detection of threatening information. It was found that the dot probe effects are at least partially due to disengagement effects. The implications of these results for the understanding of attentional bias in normal and anxious individuals are discussed.
The present paper reports three new experiments suggesting that the valence of a face cue can influence attentional effects in a cueing paradigm. Moreover, heightened trait anxiety resulted in increased attentional dwell-time on emotional facial stimuli, relative to neutral faces. Experiment 1 presented a cueing task, in which the cue was either an "angry", "happy", or "neutral" facial expression. Targets could appear either in the same location as the face (valid trials) or in a different location to the face (invalid trials). Participants did not show significant variations across the different cue types (angry, happy, neutral) in responding to a target on valid trials. However, the valence of the face did affect response times on invalid trials. Specifically, participants took longer to respond to a target when the face cue was "angry" or "happy" relative to neutral. In Experiment 2, the cue-target stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) was increased and an overall inhibition of return (IOR) effect was found (i.e., slower responses on valid trials). However, the "angry" face cue eliminated the IOR effect for both high and low trait anxious groups. In Experiment 3, threat-related and jumbled facial stimuli reduced the magnitude of IOR for high, but not for low, trait-anxious participants.These results suggest that: (i) attentional bias in anxiety may reflect a difficulty in disengaging from threat-related and emotional stimuli, and (ii) threat-related and ambiguous cues can influence the magnitude of the IOR effect.
A model of risk regulation is proposed to explain how low and high self-esteem people balance the tension between self-protection and connectedness goals in romantic relationships. This model assumes that interpersonal risk automatically activates connectedness and self-protection goals. The activation of these competing goals then triggers an executive control system that resolves this goal conflict. One correlational study and 8 experiments manipulating risk, goal strength, and executive strength and then measuring implicit and explicit goal activation and execution strongly supported the model. For people high in self-esteem, risk triggers a control system that directs them toward the situations of dependence within their relationship that can fulfill connectedness goals. For people low in self-esteem, however, the activation of connectedness goals triggers a control system that prioritizes self-protection goals and directs them away from situations where they need to trust or depend on their partner.
This book presents a thorough overview of a model of human functioning based on the idea that behavior is goal-directed and regulated by feedback control processes. It describes feedback processes and their application to behavior, considers goals and the idea that goals are organized hierarchically, examines affect as deriving from a different kind of feedback process, and analyzes how success expectancies influence whether people keep trying to attain goals or disengage. Later sections consider a series of emerging themes, including dynamic systems as a model for shifting among goals, catastrophe theory as a model for persistence, and the question of whether behavior is controlled or instead 'emerges'. Three chapters consider the implications of these various ideas for understanding maladaptive behavior, and the closing chapter asks whether goals are a necessity of life. Throughout, theory is presented in the context of diverse issues that link the theory to other literatures.
Threatening situations, in which people fear negative outcomes or failure, evoke avoidance motivation. Avoidance motivation, in turn, evokes a focused, systematic and effortful way of information processing that has often been linked to reduced creativity. This harmful effect of avoidance motivation on creativity can be problematic in financially turbulent times when people fear for their jobs and financial security. However, particularly in such threatening times, creativity may be crucial to innovate, adapt to changing demands and stay ahead of competitors. Here, I propose a theoretical framework describing how different types of constraints in the workplace affect creative performance under approach and avoidance motivation. Specifically, under avoidance motivation, constraints that consume or occupy cognitive resources should undermine creativity, but constraints that channel cognitive resources should facilitate creativity. Understanding the impact of different types of constraints on creative performance is needed to develop strategies for maximizing creativity in the workplace.
Although creativity is often seen as requiring spontaneity and flexibility, recent work suggests that there is creative potential in a structured and systematic approach as well. In a series of four experiments, we show that when Personal Need for Structure (PNS) is high, either chronic (Study 1) or situationally induced (Study 2), creative performance benefits from high task structure. Further, in line with earlier work on cognitive fixation effects, we show that when high task structure contains an example of noncreative task execution, creative performance is impaired, regardless of individuals' PNS. Nevertheless, participants high in PNS react relatively favorably to high task structure (Study 3) and are more likely to adopt a structured task approach when given the choice (Study 4). In sum, our results show that task structure can both stimulate and inhibit creative performance, particularly for people high in need for structure. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Previous research has produced contradictory findings about the impact of challenge stressors on individual and team creativity. Based on the challenge–hindrance stressors framework (LePine, Podsakoff, & LePine, 2005) and on regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1997), we argue that the effect of challenge stressors on creativity is moderated by regulatory focus. We hypothesize that while promotion focus strengthens a positive relationship between challenge stressors and creativity, prevention focus reinforces a negative relationship. Experimental data showed that high demands led to better results in a creative insight task for individuals with a strong trait promotion focus, and that high demands combined with an induced promotion focus led to better results across both creative generation and insight tasks. These results were replicated in a field R&D sample. Furthermore, we found that team promotion focus moderated the effect of challenge stressors on team creativity. The results offer both theoretical insights and suggest practical implications.
The present research comprises two studies designed to investigate both antecedents and consequences of pursuing avoidance (relative to approach) personal goals over the course of a semester-long period. Results revealed that neuroticism was positively related to the adoption of avoidance personal strivings (Study 1), and participants with low perceptions of their life skills were more likely to adopt avoidance personal projects (Study 2). Avoidance regulation proved deleterious to both retrospective and longitudinal subjective well-being (SWB), as participants with a greater proportion of avoidance goals reported lower SWB over the course of the semester and evidenced a decrease in SWB from the beginning to the end of the semester. Ancillary analyses attested to the robustness of these results across a variety of alternative predictor variables. Path analyses validated perceived progress as a mediator of the direct relationships observed.
OBJECTIVE: Research on the strength model of self-regulation is burgeoning, but little empirical work has focused on the link between distinct types of daily goal pursuit and the depletion of self-regulatory resources. The authors conducted two studies on the link between avoidance goals and resource depletion.
METHOD: Study 1 (283 [228 female] Caucasians, ages 18-51) investigated the concurrent and longitudinal relations between avoidance goals and resource depletion over a 1-month period. Study 2 (132 [93 female] Caucasians, ages 18-49) investigated the concurrent and longitudinal relations between avoidance goals and resource depletion over a 1-month period and explored resource depletion as a mediator of the avoidance goal to subjective well-being relation.
RESULTS: Studies 1 and 2 documented both a concurrent and a longitudinal negative relationship between avoidance goals and self-regulatory resources, and Study 2 additionally showed that self-regulatory resources mediate the negative link between avoidance goals and subjective well-being. Ancillary analyses demonstrated that the results observed in the two studies were independent of neuroticism.
CONCLUSIONS: These findings advance knowledge in both the resource depletion and avoidance goal literatures, and bolster the view that avoidance goal pursuit over time represents a self-regulatory vulnerability.
A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation was proposed and tested in a college classroom with 178 undergraduates. Mastery, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goals were assessed and their antecedents and consequences examined. Results indicated that mastery goals were grounded in achievement motivation and high competence expectancies; performance-avoidance goals, in fear of failure and low competence expectancies; and performance-approach goals, in achievement motivation, fear of failure, and high competence expectancies. Mastery goals facilitated intrinsic motivation, performance-approach goals enhanced graded performance, and performance-avoidance goals proved inimical to both intrinsic motivation and graded performance. The proposed model represents an integration of classic and contemporary approaches to the study of achievement motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
It was proposed that individuals' responses to information regarding their relative position in a performance distribution would depend on how they frame the information. To the degree that they focus selectively on the positive features of the feedback (i.e., the number of others who performed worse than them) rather than the negative features (i.e., the number of others who performed better than them) they should report higher ability levels and more positive affective reactions. In Study I, Ss received feedback indicating that they occupied a particular percentile standing in either a large or small distribution. Individuals with negative orientations (depressives and pessimists) reported lower ability levels as a function of increases in comparison group size, whereas individuals with positive orientations (nondepressives and optimists) reported higher ability levels. Presumably, these effects occurred because negatively oriented persons focused on the negative features of the feedback and positively oriented persons focused on the positive features of the feedback. The results of Study 2 support this explanation. Implications for the social comparison literature are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This chapter focuses on the motivational and attentional components of personality. It discusses some potential links between biological and cognitive approaches. Cognitive science models specify the information-processing functions of separable systems related to attention, perception, and memory. The models and methods developed within cognitive science prove particularly helpful in facilitating such integration. The chapter provides an overview of biological approaches to personality. It examines the construct of attention within cognitive science and reviews various studies relating motivational and attentional processes to the dimension of trait anxiety. It also explores various ways in which such motivated-attentional processes may contribute to more complex personality processes involving appraisals, attributions, and representational development. The value of a componential approach to approach to human personality is discussed in the chapter. This approach views personality in terms of distinct motivational processes, component attentional operations, and different types of cognitive processes.
daily variations may be understood in terms of the degree to which three basic needs, autonomy, competence, and related-ness, are satisfied in daily activity. Hierarchical linear models were used to examine this hypothesis across 2 weeks of daily activ-ity and well-being reports controlling for trait-level individual differences. Results strongly supported the hypothesis. The authors also examined the social activities that contribute to sat-isfaction of relatedness needs. The best predictors were meaning-ful talk and feeling understood and appreciated by interaction partners. Finally, the authors found systematic day-of-the-week variations in emotional well-being and need satisfaction. These results are discussed in terms of the importance of daily activities and the need to consider both trait and day-level determinants of well-being.
This article reports a meta-analytic test of a two-dimensional work Stressor framework with respect to Stressors' relationships with strains, motivation, and performance. Hindrance Stressors had a negative direct effect on performance, as well as negative indirect effects on performance through strains and motivation. Challenge Stressors had a positive direct effect on performance, as well as offsetting indirect effects on performance through strains (negative) and motivation (positive). Results suggest research and practice could benefit by distinguishing among challenge and hindrance Stressors.
This research investigates how creativity is influenced by externally imposed structure (how structured the task is), internal, cognitively produced, structure (how structured the individuals' cognitive style is), and the interaction between these two factors. Reviewing past literature, we find a contradiction. Studies that focused on the situational perspective found that externally imposed structure increases creativity. In contrast, studies that focused on the individual found that systematic (structured) cognitive style decreases creativity. In two empirical studies we investigated this seeming contradiction. We focused on two aspects of externally imposed structure: The construction of the task (Study 1) and the instructions provided (Study 2). The findings of both studies revealed that creativity was higher under structured conditions. We also show that intuitive individuals are more creative than systematic individuals, but mainly under free conditions, where structure is not externally imposed. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Approach motivation is the energization of behavior by, or the direction of behavior toward, positive stimuli (objects, events,
possibilities), whereas avoidance motivation is the energization of behavior by, or the direction of behavior away from, negative
stimuli (objects, events, possibilities). In this article, I provide a brief overview of this distinction between approach
and avoidance motivation. In addition, I provide a brief overview of a model of motivation in which this approach-avoidance
distinction plays an integral role—the hierarchical model of approach-avoidance motivation.
This study tested whether internal nonaffective processing cues independently influence two major varieties of creative cognition: insight problem solving and creative generation. In Experiments 1 and 2, bodily cues associated with positive or negative hedonic states were manipulated by means of arm flexor or extensor contraction, respectively, and the effects of these internal cues on creative insight and generation were observed. In line with our cognitive tuning approach, it was predicted that the “riskier,” more explorative processing style elicited by arm flexion, relative to the more risk-averse, perseverant processing style elicited by arm extension, would facilitate performance on both tasks. These predictions were strongly supported. In addition, Experiments 3 and 4 provided the first direct evidence that the effects of these internal processing cues on creativity are mediated by a memory search-based mechanism. Reported effects were independent of mood, task enjoyment, and the effortfulness of the motor actions.
Previous research has demonstrated that stereotype threat induces a prevention focus and impairs central executive functions. The present research examines how these 2 consequences of stereotype threat are related. The authors argue that the prevention focus is responsible for the effects of stereotype threat on executive functions and cognitive performance. However, because the prevention focus is adapted to deal with threatening situations, the authors propose that it also leads to some beneficial responses to stereotype threat. Specifically, because stereotype threat signals a high risk of failure, a prevention focus initiates immediate recruitment of cognitive control resources. The authors further argue that this response initially facilitates cognitive performance but that the additional cognitive demands associated with working under threat lead to cognitive depletion over time. Study 1 demonstrates that stereotype threat (vs. control) facilitates immediate cognitive control capacity during a stereotype-relevant task. Study 2 experimentally demonstrates the process by showing that stereotype threat (vs. control) facilitates cognitive control as a default, as well as when a prevention focus has been experimentally induced, but not when a promotion focus has been induced. Study 3 shows that stereotype threat facilitates initial math performance under a prevention focus, whereas no effect is found under a promotion focus. Consistent with previous research, however, stereotype threat impaired math performance over time under a prevention focus, but not under a promotion focus.
Self-determination theory (SDT) maintains that an understanding of human motivation requires a consideration of innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. We discuss the SDT concept of needs as it relates to previous need theories, emphasizing that needs specify the necessary conditions for psychological growth, integrity, and well-being. This concept of needs leads to the hypotheses that different regulatory processes underlying goal pursuits are differentially associated with effective functioning and well-being and also that different goal contents have different relations to the quality of behavior and mental health, specifically because different regulatory processes and different goal contents are associated with differing degrees of need satisfaction. Social contexts and individual differences that support satisfaction of the basic needs facilitate natural growth processes including intrinsically motivated behavior and integration of extrinsic motivations, whereas those that forestall autonomy, competence, or relatedness are associated with poorer motivation, performance, and well-being. We also discuss the relation of the psychological needs to cultural values, evolutionary processes, and other contemporary motivation theories.
Work characteristics such as time pressure and job control can be experienced as a challenge that is positively associated with performance-related behaviors. Using experience-sampling data from 149 employees, we examined the relationships between these work characteristics and creativity and proactive behavior on a daily level. Results from multilevel analyses indicate that time pressure and job control are perceived as challenging, and that challenge appraisal in turn is related to daily creativity and proactive behavior. Furthermore, cross-level mediation analyses revealed that daily work characteristics act as the mechanism underlying the relationships between chronic work characteristics and challenge appraisal. This study supports the view of time pressure as a challenge-related stressor that leads to favorable outcomes. Copyright copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Journal of Organizational Behavior is the property of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Promotion-focused states generally boost creativity because they associate with enhanced activation and cognitive flexibility. With regard to prevention-focused states, research evidence is less consistent, with some findings suggesting prevention-focused states promote creativity and other findings pointing to no or even negative effects. We proposed and tested the hypothesis that whether prevention-focused states boost creativity depends on regulatory closure (whether a goal is fulfilled or not). We predicted that prevention-focused states that activate the individual (unfulfilled prevention goals, fear) would lead to similar levels of creativity as promotion-focused states but that prevention-focused states that deactivate (closed prevention goals, relief) would lead to lower levels of creativity. Moreover, we predicted that this effect would be mediated by feelings of activation. Predictions were tested in 3 studies on creative insights and 1 on original ideation. Results supported predictions. Implications for self-regulation, motivation, mood, and creativity are discussed.
Three studies demonstrated that avoidance personal goals are positively related to physical symptom reports. These results were obtained (a) using both longitudinal and retrospective methodologies and (b) controlling for neuroticism and other alternative predictor variables. In 2 of the studies, a process model was validated in which perceived competence and perceived controlledness were shown to mediate the observed relationship between avoidance goals and symptomatology. Specifically, avoidance goals predicted perceived competence and perceived controlledness, and these variables in turn predicted longitudinal and retrospective symptom reports. Ancillary results help clarify the unique roles of neuroticism and avoidance goals as predictors of physical symptomatology.
Two studies examined motivational influences on and correlates of defensive pessimism and self-handicapping and investigated the relationship between these two cognitive strategies and performance attainment. The findings indicated that defensive pessimism and self-handicapping have similar motivational profiles, with the primary difference being that self-handicapping represents the absence of approach motivation in the achievement domain, as well as the presence of avoidance motivation. Self-handicapping, but not defensive pessimism, was shown to undermine performance-attainment, and performance-avoidance goals were validated as mediators of this negative relationship. Issues regarding the functional nature of the two cognitive strategies are discussed.
The intent of this paper is the presentation of an associative interpretation of the process of creative thinking. The explanation is not directed to any specific field of application such as art or science but attempts to delineate processes that underlie all creative thought. The discussion will take the following form, (a) First, we will define creative thinking in associative terms and indicate three ways in which creative solutions may be achieved—serendipity, similarity, and mediation, (b) This definition will allow us to deduce those individual difference variables which will facilitate creative performance, (c) Consideration of the definition of the creative process has suggested an operational statement of the definition in the form of a test. The test will be briefly described along with some preliminary research results. (d) The paper will conclude with a discussion of predictions regarding the influence of certain experimentally manipulable variables upon the creative process. Creative individuals and the processes by which they manifest their creativity have excited a good deal of