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Trade Mechanisms in Indus-Mesopotamian Interrelations
... This is also the time of intensive long-distance exchange along the Arab-Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. The organisation and extent of this trade has been intensively debated over the past decades (Oppenheim, 1954, Crawford, 1998, Lamberg-Karlovsky, 1972, Kohl, 1979, Edens, 1992, Potts, 1994, Laursen and Steinkeller, 2017. In these discussions, the focus was, however, overwhelmingly on the two large and well-known entities of Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley, which were regarded as driving forces behind the exchange and whose relationship was identified as between two more or less equal centres (e.g., Lamberg-Karlovsky, 1972). ...
... The organisation and extent of this trade has been intensively debated over the past decades (Oppenheim, 1954, Crawford, 1998, Lamberg-Karlovsky, 1972, Kohl, 1979, Edens, 1992, Potts, 1994, Laursen and Steinkeller, 2017. In these discussions, the focus was, however, overwhelmingly on the two large and well-known entities of Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley, which were regarded as driving forces behind the exchange and whose relationship was identified as between two more or less equal centres (e.g., Lamberg-Karlovsky, 1972). The role of the Oman Peninsula in this exchange, situated in an intermediate position between these two, received much less scholarly attention. ...
The Early Bronze Age on the Oman Peninsula was a period of fundamental change in the development of social complexity, the exploitation of new resources such as copper and the general mode of life. It was also a period of long-distance exchange between the Oman Peninsula and the neighbouring regions along the Arab-Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. Within the scope of this paper, the material evidence for long-distance exchange from the two archaeological sites Bat and Al-Khashbah, located in central Oman, will be presented. Both have been intensively investigated over the past years by a team from the University of Tübingen. This is followed by a synopsis of the current state of research on interregional contacts of the Oman Peninsula during the whole of the third millennium BCE, which will provide the background for a re-assessment of its role as intermediary between the great powers of Mesopotamia and the Indus in the trading networks along the Arab-Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman.
... Central place trade occurs when goods are produced or resources are present at central points. These trade mechanisms have been studied in various contexts, including the Indus-Mesopotamian interrelations (Lamberg-Karlovsky 1972). ...
In recent years, global economic dynamics have shifted away from the traditional dominance of the US dollar in international trade. This trend is reflected in China and Myanmar’s bilateral transactions, traditionally conducted in US dollars. However, geopolitical and economic considerations have prompted these nations to explore alternatives, with China actively promoting the internationalization of the Yuan. The decision to adopt the Yuan for bilateral transactions is driven by the desire to reduce dependency on the US dollar, insulating both nations from its fluctuations and fostering a more stable trade environment. The research focuses on the economic implications of Kyat-Yuan transactions in the context of Myanmar-China trade. Utilizing statistical analyses and scenario difference-indifference analysis, the study reveals a positive impact on various economic indicators. The findings suggest that a stable Kyat-Yuan transaction system can serve as a catalyst for enhancing bilateral trade relations. Policymakers are urged to ensure the sustainability of these gains, considering additional adjustments or improvements. In conclusion, the report emphasizes the crucial role of the trade sector in sustaining economic stability and fostering international partnerships amid challenging circumstances.
... In this regard, the study of Potts (1993) on the patterns of trade in the 3rd millennium BC Mesopotamia and Iran mentioned the role of Iran as a mediator in Mesopotamian trade with Hindus. Lamberg-Karlovsky (1972) discussed the political impact of trade in territories and specifically addressed the role of commodities in trade, and Schortman (Kipp & Schortman, 1989) surveyed trade mechanisms in bilateral Indus-Mesopotamia ties; Meyer et al., 2019. 2 Wilmsen, 1972;Earle & Ericson, 1977;Sabloff & Lamberg-Karlovsky, 1975. 3 Pourfaraj, 2015: 234. 4 Renfrew, 1969: 151. 5 On the definitions, see Dogan & Michailidou, 2008: 19-20. 6 Pourfaraj, 2015: 235. ...
Complex nomadic communities have been nurtured for centuries in the Near East with extensive economic and social interactions with sedentary people in agricultural villages as well as with urban centers. The role of the exchange and trade can still be observed today in the dealings of seminomads with itinerant peddlers. Itinerant peddlers (or Pilevar), also known as Tawaf, visited black tents for exchange of goods. In the present study, by adopting an ethnographic approach (face-to-face interview) among the Qashqai nomads of Dashtak in Kazeroun County, we studied the mechanisms of trade, commerce, and exchange of goods and reviewed the role and performance of itinerants in relation to sedentary people and nomads in Qashqai tribe. In this way, we intended to determine the relationship between dynamic and static communities and explore the mechanisms of trade in prehistoric times. According to archaeological evidence and ethnographic research among the nomads of Dashtak in Kazeroun, it can be stated that the itinerant peddlers have played an important role in transactions, exchanges, and trade between nomadic tribes and sedentary people. Such exchanges and transactions between nomads and itinerant peddlers were realized from prehistoric times up to now through barter of goods with goods. Studies and the initial reports from southwest Iran show that itinerant peddlers played a major role in transactions, exchanges, and trade between nomadic and sedentary people.
... When combined, the available archeological and historical data provide us with some indication of the types of goods being exchanged between these far-flung polities via this maritime trading system. 1 It should be noted that the brief sketch of the salient features of the Early Bronze Age trans-Arabian Sea maritime exchange system provided here is not intended to serve as a comprehensive review of the subject. We refer those readers seeking a more exhaustive treatment of the maritime network to During Caspers (1973), Lamberg-Karlovsky (1972), Ratnagar (1981), Laursen and Steinkeller (2017), and references therein. 2 For the sake of completeness, it should be noted that, while Dilmun, Magan, and Meluhha are generally considered major players in this trading system, some scholars (e.g., Laursen and Steinkeller 2017) also include a fourth trading partner in this group -a polity known to the Mesopotamians as Marhaši, which is identified archaeologically with the Jiroft Civilization, and whose territory "roughly corresponds to the Iranian province of Kerman, in particular the Halid Rud river basin" (Laursen and Steinkeller 2017: 3). Marhaši is not discussed further in this paper as any connections it had with polities participating in the Early Bronze Age maritime network were entirely mediated via overland communications. ...
A variety of philological and archeological evidence indicates that a vast maritime commercial network linking polities in Mesopotamia, the Persian Gulf, and the Indus Valley emerged in the second half of the third millennium BCE (before the common era). Here, we propose that the climate of the western Indian Ocean during the third millennium BCE was an important but heretofore unrecognized influence on the development of this maritime exchange system. Recent reconstructions have revealed a gradual weakening of the Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) during the past 10,000 years. However, during parts of the third and fourth millennia, the data show the trend temporarily reversed and the ISM intensified as , crucially, did the power of eastward-blowing trade winds across the Arabian Sea and the western Indian Ocean. This intensification peaked late in the third millennium, precisely at the time when the aforementioned maritime contacts expanded dramatically. As the ISM system strengthened, so too did the associated summer westerly winds which facilitated maritime trade. We argue that this allowed polities in southern Mesopotamia, to refocus many of their resource procurement efforts from the north and northeast toward the Persian Gulf and points south and east by employing ocean-going sailboats to more efficiently import high-bulk metal ores and to export low-value, high-bulk agricultural and pastoral goods at scale for the first time in their history. We further propose that by ca. 2200 BCE, some coastal Arabian and Indus Valley participants in this trade may have used bulk imports of grain and textiles from Mesopotamia as a way to mitigate the effects of drought at that time.
... From ancient times, the Arabian Peninsula has been the criss-crossing of commercial and pilgrim caravans (Karlovsky, 1972;Al-Farhan, 2008). The northeastern part of the peninsula has several well-known routes that intensified after the advent of the Islamic faith. ...
... The Persian Gulf Area was always a major traffic line between Iran, Mesopotamia and several other regions as far as India, throughout many prehistorical and historical periods. During the Early Bronze Age, the Persian Gulf was the major passage for the exchange of goods between Mesopotamia in the west and the regions of Magan and Meluḫḫa in the east (Lamberg-Karlovsky, 1972;Heimpel, 1987a;1987b;Potts, 1982;2009;2017;Glassner, 1996;Aruz -Wallenfels, 2003;Possehl, 2012;Pittman, 2013). In the Achaemenid, Sasanian and Islamic periods, its significance for international traffic and exchange between East and West, including South-East Iran, was equally high (Reade, 1996;Whitehouse, 1996;Daryaee, 2003;2009;Hauser, 2012;. ...
Abstract
Tepe Qela Gap in Azna: Lurestan, was excavated in 2009 aiming to establish the chronological sequence for the Azna Plain located eastern of Central Zagros, which had been scarcely studied archaeologically until now. Considering the ecological diversity surrounding the plain, Tepe Qela Gap seems to have been an ideal place for the settlement of permanent villages but could also be suitable for nomadic and semi-nomadic people. The archaeozoological study of a large faunal assemblage, approximately 6500 items from this site, has provided evidence on the evolution of the subsistence economy of the site during various periods of occupation. The faunal spectra of Qela Gap from different periods, indicates that domesticated Sheep/Goat and Cattle were the major source of animal resources. Among these domesticates it should be noted that Cattle ratios are important and together with evidences of kill off patterns and osteological pathologies, we can hypothesise that these animals were used not only for food but also as draught animals, most probably, for agricultural activities. This is a feature especially visible during the Bronze Age. The wild species, although not abundant (6%), were also part of the subsistence economy. Remains of wild sheep (Ovis orientalis), red deer (Cervus elaphus) or Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica), boar (Sus scrofa) and gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) have been found and indicate that different ecosystems were exploited. Another important feature of the Qela Gap fauna is the discovery of a horse (Equus caballus) bone within the Neolithic Levels. In parallel to the archaeozoological analysis, the archaeobotanical studies are on-going and will provide a more complete picture of the subsistence economy of the site during the 5000 years of occupation.
... Early researchers were convinced that this civilization owed its origins to influences from Mesopotamia, albeit through an array of intermediaries (Durrani 1964;Dyson 1965;Fairservis 1971: 222-228, 295;Wheeler 1959Wheeler : 184, 1968 via 'a thoroughly 'Indianized' process' (Possehl 1990: 267; see also Childe 1953: 183). However, despite decades of excavations the recovery of artifacts of Mesopotamian origin from Harappan Civilization sites located within the Indus Valley are few (During Caspers 1979;Lamberg-Karlovsky 1972;Piggott 1948;Wheeler 1968). In fact, a better case may be made for Harappan imports into Mesopotamian contexts (Dales 1968;During Caspers 1994a, 1994bGadd 1932;Inizian 1998: 132;Kenoyer 1997: 272-274;Reade 2001: 27). ...
Biological affinities of individuals recovered from unusual burial contexts at Mohenjo-daro were assessed via eight craniometric variables contrasted among 1,508 adult individuals of 29 comparative samples from other parts of the Indus Valley, Iran, west Central Asia, the Russo-Kazakh steppe and East Asia. Levene’s tests reveal that variation in raw measurements among males adheres closely to normality, but this is less the case for females and sex-pooled samples. Levene’s tests further reveal significant heterogeneity of variance across samples. EM estimation of missing size-standardized data by individual nearly eliminates these departures from normality within samples, but significant heterogeneity of variance across samples remains. Multivariate data reduction techniques employed include principal components analysis, neighbor-joining cluster analysis, and canonical variates analysis with individuals and group means serving as operational taxonomic units (OTUs). The most reliable of these techniques, given small sample size, poor preservation, sex dimorphism and heterogeneity of variance across samples is a multidimensionally scaled three-dimensional scatterplot based on Mahalanobis d2 pairwise distances generated by canonical variates analysis with individuals as the operational taxonomic unit and with separate within-group variance. This plot indicates that the so-called ‘massacre victims’ of Mohenjo-daro likely represent the remains of squatter populations from the west who interred their dead in the decrepit remains of this ancient city. No evidence supports the notion that these remains are those of ‘Aryan Invaders’ from the steppes of Central Asia or the hapless Mature Phase or Late Harappan residents of Mohenjo-daro.
... They actually connected Mesopotamia to the Iranian Plateau and the Indus (Parpola, Parpola, & Brunswig 1977). Scholars have argued that this trade, especially with and via Tepe Yahya, directly resulted in the development of Harrapan culture (Lamberg-Karlovsky 1972). ...
... They actually connected Mesopotamia to the Iranian Plateau and the Indus (Parpola, Parpola, & Brunswig 1977). Scholars have argued that this trade, especially with and via Tepe Yahya, directly resulted in the development of Harrapan culture (Lamberg-Karlovsky 1972). ...
The image of a figure holding two wild animals, often called the “Mistress/Master of Animals”, has appeared across many ancient periods and regions, on artifacts from proto-literate Mesopotamia in the Near East to the Aegean Iron Age. This motif has a demonstrable chain of cultural custody that is closely tied to concepts of both divinity and royalty. Rather than following a linear progression of diffusion with consistent interpretation, the Master/Mistress motif is culturally translated by adopting populations to suit the understandings of the individuals within those populations. Though some concepts such as healing remained constant from culture to culture, the symbol was reinterpreted or modified based on the role it played in adopting populations’ cultural schemas. This resulted in the two seemingly separate motifs of the “Master” and “Mistress”. This translation demonstrates the close relationship these early cultures had to one another in spite of their perceived distinctness.
... Algaze, 1993;Cohen, 1969Cohen, , 1971Cusick, 1998;Stein, 2008;Wallerstein, 1974). Different authors have interpreted evidence for the movement of products, raw materials and technologies in various contexts and periods variably as down-the-line exchange (Renfrew, 1975), profit-driven trade (Dalley, 2002;Larsen, 1976Larsen, , 1987Lamberg-Karlovski, 1972), gift exchange via diplomacy (Feldman, 2006, 13-14;Kuhrt, 1995), colonization (Gosden, 2004;Rowlands, 1998, 226;Stein, 2005Stein, , 150, 2008, raiding, or outright military conquest (Oded, 1992;Stein, 2005, 154). In this context, the Old Assyrian trade network established between Assur and central Anatolian polities in the early second millennium BC provides one of the most extensively documented contexts to understand the mechanisms and underlying motivations of pre-modern trade (see Barjamovic, 2008Barjamovic, , 2011Barjamovic et al., 2012;Dercksen, 2001Dercksen, , 2004Larsen, 1976Larsen, , 2015Veenhof, 1972;Veenhof and Eidem, 2008). ...
This paper investigates and offers explanations for the distribution of specific products (ivory and lapis lazuli
artefacts, “Syrian” bottles) and technologies (metrology) that have often been invoked as tracers of long-distance trade contacts and/or political units in Anatolia, northern Levant and northern Mesopotamia during the Early and Middle Bronze Ages. Unlike former studies investigating third and second millennia exchange networks as separate entities, we examine comparatively and systematically a large corpus of published archaeological data by adopting a quantitative and spatial approach. Through this analysis, we propose that a significant degree of similarity in the shape, infrastructure and motivations behind the development and maintenance of these long-distance exchanges existed between the third and early second millennia BC.
... Madjidzadeh provided the first archaeological interpretation about the Halil Basin and consequently hypothesised during the 1970s that the Jiroft areas was the birthplace of the Aratta civilization (Majidzadeh, 1976). Jiroft is also associated with other significant archaeological sites such as Shahr-i Sukhta, Bampur, Shahdad, Tal-e Iblis and Tepe Yahya (Lamberg-Karlovsky, 1972;Lamberg-Karlovsky and Tosi, 1973;Ascalone, 2014). Jiroft and Halil River areas are assumed important cross-cultural bridge between Elam civilization in the west and Indus valley civilization into the east (Madjidzadeh and Pittman, 2008). ...
... Yet Proto-Elamite script fell into disuse after Gutaean barbarian highlanders from beyond the Zagros overran Elam and conquered Sumer and Akkad in the twenty-third century BC, and this leaves us with a gap of centuries which Parpola (1994: 53) attempts to bridge by suggesting that 'the source of inspiration' for the Indus script could have been 'an as yet unknown variety of the Proto-Elarnite script that may have been used somewhere within the Elamite realm'. Texts in Proto-Elarnite script have been found as far east as Sistan near the Mghan border (Lamberg-Karlovsky 1972a, 1972b. McAlpin (1981) believes that Zagrosian broke up into Proto-Elarnite, Proto-Brahui and Proto-Dravidian in the fifth millennium BC, and the evidence which he adduces includes lexical correspondences, shared case endings in nouns, derivational sufExes and other reconstructible common morphological features. ...
... Some artifacts found at larger ports on Gotland can even be traced to East Africa and India (Ferguson, 2009). Lamberg-Karlovsky (1972), however, noted that an exchange of goods between two cultures does not always result in direct contact with one another. As such, there is no clear evidence of direct contact between Scandinavia and these regions but the presence of foreign artifacts demonstrates the global reach of the trade market on Gotland. ...
Ridanäs was an important Viking Age trading port on the island of Gotland, Sweden, in use during the 7–11th centuries, CE. Excavations at Ridanäs have revealed the presence of two cemeteries containing over 80 individuals. This study uses strontium isotope data derived from tooth enamel to determine the prevalence of non-locals buried at this site. Tooth enamel samples from a total of 60 adults from Ridanäs were analyzed for strontium isotope ratios. In addition, archaeological faunal samples were analyzed to define the local bioavailable strontium isotope baseline range. Individuals were considered local if they fell within two standard deviations of the mean baseline data value. The mean of the local faunal samples was 0.712419 ± 0.0016. Results indicated that 8 of the 60 individuals were non-local to the site of Ridanäs and the island of Gotland. The eight non-locals were likely from areas in northern Sweden or Norway. Although migration was a hallmark of the Viking Age, data from this study indicates that non-local individuals were not buried at this trading port. The lack of non-locals may be due to the fact that foreign traders did not make permanent residency on Gotland, or that the Vikings on Gotland did not allow non-locals to take advantage of their trade economy.
... The fIrst edition of Wheeler's, The Indus Civilization, appeared in 1953 and with revisions to the Mesopotamian chronology these dates had been shifted downward to ca. 2500-1500 B.C. (Wheeler 1953: 84-93). This pre-radiocarbon chronology was now more broadly based on the presence of a wide range of Harappan objects in the west (see Dales 1968, Lamberg-Karlovsky 1972, Ratnagar 1981, Possehl 1996a for general reviews). The most convincing materials are still the stamp seals with Indus script (Wheeler 1953(Wheeler : 1985Chakrabarti 1976, Possehl 1996b, cubical Harappan weights (Ratnagar 1981: 184-86, Possehl 1996b) and etched carnelian beads (During Caspers 1972, Reade 1979. ...
Pedological and palynological data from Eneolithic and Bronze Age settlements in the steppe zone of eastern Ukraine show that the transition from the mild climate of the Atlantic period (6,500–5,500 BP) to the more continental climate of the Subboreal was marked by considerable impoverishment of the floristic composition and by reduction or disappearance of several mesophilic and thermophilic taxa. Within this general background, there were also rhythmic oscillations between wet climate stages marked by expansion of forest-steppe, with dry climate stages marked by expansion of steppes. Five such shifts have occurred between 5,500 and 2,500 BP. The strongest aridification occurred between about 4,100 and 3,500 BP. It is marked by the decrease of humus accumulation, biogenic activity and chemical weathering in the soils, which became rather loess-like and contain deep desiccation fissures. Pollen data show sharp reduction of forest areas, significant xerophytization of steppe vegetation, and drying of flood plain swamps. The forest-steppe landscapes of the Early Subboreal were replaced by Artemisia-Gramineae steppes representing the shift through three phyto- geographic subzones. None of the Holocene climatic fluctuations was as sharp and contrasting when compared with the preceding and following stages. In studied regions, no major paleoenvironmental changes were observed within that interval that could be clearly ascribed to human impact. The Mid-Subboreal aridification is therefore considered to be of natural origin.
The relationship between humans and the marine environment has played a pivotal role in the development of modern societies. The exploitation of marine resources for food and for the collection of raw materials has been an integral part of the development of human communities near coastal areas throughout the world. The circulation of raw materials, such as shells, has allowed the connections between different groups dating from the Pleistocene to be identified. These artefacts are markers tracing the circulation “roads” that resulted in the spread of knowledge and goods between coastal and inland communities. Here we focus in particular on marine shell artefacts used for the production of ornamental objects in Iran from the Neolithic to the Iron Age. The ultimate aim is to synthesise our understanding of the production of these objects and to establish the technological characterisation by studying the Iron Age series from the Ruwar site. This site, which is very distant from the sea, provides new information on the circulation of marine resources in the remote mountainous region of western Iran. The ornamental objects here are composed of shells from the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf, demonstrating that geographical distance did not necessarily prevent contact with neighbouring groups. The shells are an exception testament to either long-distance interactions or, more likely, to extensive networks of indirect trade, with repeated exchanges over short distances, during the Iron Age.
In this volume Enrico Ascalone presents more than 2000 weights, potential weights and other objects – mostly unpublished so far – from 20 Bronze Age sites in Iraq, Iran and India. It includes ca. 750 weights from Susa in south-western Iran and nearly 900 weights from Dholavira, Kutch district, in India. The typology, material, archaeological context and metrology of the objects is discussed. For the first time a large number of weights from the Mature Harappan culture is presented in detail. The investigations were made possible by various partners in the Iran, India and France (Louvre) and were funded by the ERC-2014-CoG 'WEIGHTANDVALUE: Weight metrology and its economic and social impact on Bronze Age Europe, West and South Asia' [Grant no. 648055].
The construction of formal measurement systems underlies the development of science, technology, economy and new ways of understanding and explaining the world. Human societies have developed such systems in different ways, in different places and at different times, and recent archaeological investigations highlight the importance of these activities for fundamental aspects of human life. Measurement systems have provided the structure for addressing key concerns of cosmological belief systems, as well as the means for articulating relationships between the human form, human action, and the world. The Archaeology of Measurement explores the archaeological evidence for the development of measuring activities in numerous ancient societies, as well as the implications of these discoveries for an understanding of their worlds and beliefs. Featuring contributions from a cast of internationally renowned scholars, it analyses the relationships between measurement, economy, architecture, symbolism, time, cosmology, ritual, and religion among prehistoric and early historic societies.
The construction of formal measurement systems underlies the development of science, technology, economy and new ways of understanding and explaining the world. Human societies have developed such systems in different ways, in different places and at different times, and recent archaeological investigations highlight the importance of these activities for fundamental aspects of human life. Measurement systems have provided the structure for addressing key concerns of cosmological belief systems, as well as the means for articulating relationships between the human form, human action, and the world. The Archaeology of Measurement explores the archaeological evidence for the development of measuring activities in numerous ancient societies, as well as the implications of these discoveries for an understanding of their worlds and beliefs. Featuring contributions from a cast of internationally renowned scholars, it analyses the relationships between measurement, economy, architecture, symbolism, time, cosmology, ritual, and religion among prehistoric and early historic societies.
‘Measuring the World and Beyond’ was the official title of the conference that led to this book. In my response to the papers that became the chapters of this book and the discussion, I would like to focus on the phrase ‘and Beyond’ as a point of entry into the broader issue explored by this particular symposium and the project as a whole – the roots of spirituality. The archaeological insights gathered from data analysis around the globe shed new light on the extent to which the construction of modes of measurement in early cultures functioned as a new means of recognizing and engaging with the material world. How is this related to that which we experience as ‘beyond’ the world, ‘beyond’ measurement?
From a philosophical and theological point of view, it is not simply the emergence of the capacity for mensuration that makes early human cultures interesting but also, and even especially, the growing self-awareness among human beings of their lack of capacity in this regard. That is, the human construction of measurement may be a manifestation both of an evolutionary and an adaptive skill for controlling the environment and of an awakening to the recognition of the limits of adaptation mechanisms for manipulating the cosmos. Alongside the discovery of the susceptibility of the world to measurement arose the discovery of the concept of the immeasurable, which invites questions about spirituality and religious awareness.
The construction of formal measurement systems underlies the development of science, technology, economy and new ways of understanding and explaining the world. Human societies have developed such systems in different ways, in different places and at different times, and recent archaeological investigations highlight the importance of these activities for fundamental aspects of human life. Measurement systems have provided the structure for addressing key concerns of cosmological belief systems, as well as the means for articulating relationships between the human form, human action, and the world. The Archaeology of Measurement explores the archaeological evidence for the development of measuring activities in numerous ancient societies, as well as the implications of these discoveries for an understanding of their worlds and beliefs. Featuring contributions from a cast of internationally renowned scholars, it analyses the relationships between measurement, economy, architecture, symbolism, time, cosmology, ritual, and religion among prehistoric and early historic societies.
The construction of formal measurement systems underlies the development of science, technology, economy and new ways of understanding and explaining the world. Human societies have developed such systems in different ways, in different places and at different times, and recent archaeological investigations highlight the importance of these activities for fundamental aspects of human life. Measurement systems have provided the structure for addressing key concerns of cosmological belief systems, as well as the means for articulating relationships between the human form, human action, and the world. The Archaeology of Measurement explores the archaeological evidence for the development of measuring activities in numerous ancient societies, as well as the implications of these discoveries for an understanding of their worlds and beliefs. Featuring contributions from a cast of internationally renowned scholars, it analyses the relationships between measurement, economy, architecture, symbolism, time, cosmology, ritual, and religion among prehistoric and early historic societies.
The construction of formal measurement systems underlies the development of science, technology, economy and new ways of understanding and explaining the world. Human societies have developed such systems in different ways, in different places and at different times, and recent archaeological investigations highlight the importance of these activities for fundamental aspects of human life. Measurement systems have provided the structure for addressing key concerns of cosmological belief systems, as well as the means for articulating relationships between the human form, human action, and the world. The Archaeology of Measurement explores the archaeological evidence for the development of measuring activities in numerous ancient societies, as well as the implications of these discoveries for an understanding of their worlds and beliefs. Featuring contributions from a cast of internationally renowned scholars, it analyses the relationships between measurement, economy, architecture, symbolism, time, cosmology, ritual, and religion among prehistoric and early historic societies.
The construction of formal measurement systems underlies the development of science, technology, economy and new ways of understanding and explaining the world. Human societies have developed such systems in different ways, in different places and at different times, and recent archaeological investigations highlight the importance of these activities for fundamental aspects of human life. Measurement systems have provided the structure for addressing key concerns of cosmological belief systems, as well as the means for articulating relationships between the human form, human action, and the world. The Archaeology of Measurement explores the archaeological evidence for the development of measuring activities in numerous ancient societies, as well as the implications of these discoveries for an understanding of their worlds and beliefs. Featuring contributions from a cast of internationally renowned scholars, it analyses the relationships between measurement, economy, architecture, symbolism, time, cosmology, ritual, and religion among prehistoric and early historic societies.
The construction of formal measurement systems underlies the development of science, technology, economy and new ways of understanding and explaining the world. Human societies have developed such systems in different ways, in different places and at different times, and recent archaeological investigations highlight the importance of these activities for fundamental aspects of human life. Measurement systems have provided the structure for addressing key concerns of cosmological belief systems, as well as the means for articulating relationships between the human form, human action, and the world. The Archaeology of Measurement explores the archaeological evidence for the development of measuring activities in numerous ancient societies, as well as the implications of these discoveries for an understanding of their worlds and beliefs. Featuring contributions from a cast of internationally renowned scholars, it analyses the relationships between measurement, economy, architecture, symbolism, time, cosmology, ritual, and religion among prehistoric and early historic societies.
The construction of formal measurement systems underlies the development of science, technology, economy and new ways of understanding and explaining the world. Human societies have developed such systems in different ways, in different places and at different times, and recent archaeological investigations highlight the importance of these activities for fundamental aspects of human life. Measurement systems have provided the structure for addressing key concerns of cosmological belief systems, as well as the means for articulating relationships between the human form, human action, and the world. The Archaeology of Measurement explores the archaeological evidence for the development of measuring activities in numerous ancient societies, as well as the implications of these discoveries for an understanding of their worlds and beliefs. Featuring contributions from a cast of internationally renowned scholars, it analyses the relationships between measurement, economy, architecture, symbolism, time, cosmology, ritual, and religion among prehistoric and early historic societies.
The construction of formal measurement systems underlies the development of science, technology, economy and new ways of understanding and explaining the world. Human societies have developed such systems in different ways, in different places and at different times, and recent archaeological investigations highlight the importance of these activities for fundamental aspects of human life. Measurement systems have provided the structure for addressing key concerns of cosmological belief systems, as well as the means for articulating relationships between the human form, human action, and the world. The Archaeology of Measurement explores the archaeological evidence for the development of measuring activities in numerous ancient societies, as well as the implications of these discoveries for an understanding of their worlds and beliefs. Featuring contributions from a cast of internationally renowned scholars, it analyses the relationships between measurement, economy, architecture, symbolism, time, cosmology, ritual, and religion among prehistoric and early historic societies.
The construction of formal measurement systems underlies the development of science, technology, economy and new ways of understanding and explaining the world. Human societies have developed such systems in different ways, in different places and at different times, and recent archaeological investigations highlight the importance of these activities for fundamental aspects of human life. Measurement systems have provided the structure for addressing key concerns of cosmological belief systems, as well as the means for articulating relationships between the human form, human action, and the world. The Archaeology of Measurement explores the archaeological evidence for the development of measuring activities in numerous ancient societies, as well as the implications of these discoveries for an understanding of their worlds and beliefs. Featuring contributions from a cast of internationally renowned scholars, it analyses the relationships between measurement, economy, architecture, symbolism, time, cosmology, ritual, and religion among prehistoric and early historic societies.
The construction of formal measurement systems underlies the development of science, technology, economy and new ways of understanding and explaining the world. Human societies have developed such systems in different ways, in different places and at different times, and recent archaeological investigations highlight the importance of these activities for fundamental aspects of human life. Measurement systems have provided the structure for addressing key concerns of cosmological belief systems, as well as the means for articulating relationships between the human form, human action, and the world. The Archaeology of Measurement explores the archaeological evidence for the development of measuring activities in numerous ancient societies, as well as the implications of these discoveries for an understanding of their worlds and beliefs. Featuring contributions from a cast of internationally renowned scholars, it analyses the relationships between measurement, economy, architecture, symbolism, time, cosmology, ritual, and religion among prehistoric and early historic societies.
The construction of formal measurement systems underlies the development of science, technology, economy and new ways of understanding and explaining the world. Human societies have developed such systems in different ways, in different places and at different times, and recent archaeological investigations highlight the importance of these activities for fundamental aspects of human life. Measurement systems have provided the structure for addressing key concerns of cosmological belief systems, as well as the means for articulating relationships between the human form, human action, and the world. The Archaeology of Measurement explores the archaeological evidence for the development of measuring activities in numerous ancient societies, as well as the implications of these discoveries for an understanding of their worlds and beliefs. Featuring contributions from a cast of internationally renowned scholars, it analyses the relationships between measurement, economy, architecture, symbolism, time, cosmology, ritual, and religion among prehistoric and early historic societies.
The construction of formal measurement systems underlies the development of science, technology, economy and new ways of understanding and explaining the world. Human societies have developed such systems in different ways, in different places and at different times, and recent archaeological investigations highlight the importance of these activities for fundamental aspects of human life. Measurement systems have provided the structure for addressing key concerns of cosmological belief systems, as well as the means for articulating relationships between the human form, human action, and the world. The Archaeology of Measurement explores the archaeological evidence for the development of measuring activities in numerous ancient societies, as well as the implications of these discoveries for an understanding of their worlds and beliefs. Featuring contributions from a cast of internationally renowned scholars, it analyses the relationships between measurement, economy, architecture, symbolism, time, cosmology, ritual, and religion among prehistoric and early historic societies.
The construction of formal measurement systems underlies the development of science, technology, economy and new ways of understanding and explaining the world. Human societies have developed such systems in different ways, in different places and at different times, and recent archaeological investigations highlight the importance of these activities for fundamental aspects of human life. Measurement systems have provided the structure for addressing key concerns of cosmological belief systems, as well as the means for articulating relationships between the human form, human action, and the world. The Archaeology of Measurement explores the archaeological evidence for the development of measuring activities in numerous ancient societies, as well as the implications of these discoveries for an understanding of their worlds and beliefs. Featuring contributions from a cast of internationally renowned scholars, it analyses the relationships between measurement, economy, architecture, symbolism, time, cosmology, ritual, and religion among prehistoric and early historic societies.
p>This dissertation describes a course of research undertaken by the present writer at the Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Arts, Southampton University, the goal of which was to shed further lights on technological aspects of Mesolithic and Neolithic ceramics in the central Sudan. Since Arkell's work in 1940's and early 1950's, the picture of the Mesolithic and Neolithic ceramics in the central Sudan (apart from small-scale attempts of T.R. Hays [1971], H. Nordstrom [1972], T.R. Hays and F. Hassan] [1974], D.F. Williams [1982] De Paepe [1986] and M. Chlodnicki [1989]) has remained inconspicuous. The origin(s) of these ceramic assemblages as well as the cultural mechanisms articulating the various human groups inhabiting the central Sudan during the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods are not obvious. The technological aspects of ceramics have not been fully investigated and utilized. Nonetheless, some conclusions have been put forward and sometimes accepted as working hypotheses. Releasing itself from the emphasis on the traditional artifactual comparative analyses, the present work attempts to bring the physico-scientific approach-in a wider scale-to the study of the Mesolithic and Neolithic ceramics in the central Sudan by applying a series of the most recent techniques of petrological, chemical (Goethite Norm calculations), X-ray diffraction, thermal (DLT) and computer analyses to the selected data (cf. chapters 3-8). (X-ray-fluorescence spectrometry), petrochemical Ample samples have been chosen in the light of the beset objectives in an attempt to attain satisfactory conclusions. Looking at the Mesolithic and Neolithic ceramics in the central Sudan from a broader perspective, in order to enhance our knowledge about the unexplored aspects of this field of research, to fill the gaps and eliminate the weak sides of the previous small-scale endeavours, the present programme, which is rather wider in scope, has been designed to clarify the situation. As a result of the fabric analyses carried out in the present work, technological differences were observed and even some ceramic groups were distinguished in the chronological developments (see supra and chapters 3-11). Moreover, using a hypothetical model (cf. chapter 9) and utilizing the results of the physico-scientific analyses, the present research has shed new lights on the nature of the Mesolithic and Neolithic ceramic distribution in the central Sudan at both intraregional and interregional levels.</p
Exchange between the Aegean and Mesopotamia during the Early Bronze Age is well documented; so is contemporary exchange between Mesopotamia and the Indus. Precious stone, shells, metals, and other raw materials illustrate these early connections, and slightly later textual sources reinforce these relationships. Early imagery and its development, translation, and adaptation further support ideas of mid-to-late fourth millennium BC far-reaching exchange. By examining the types and movement of ape and monkey iconography from the Early Bronze Age Indus, through Mesopotamia, and to the Aegean, one may associate simian iconography with a class of exotic, elite imports to the Aegean, particularly Crete. In contrast to previous scholarship, this discussion acknowledges the Aegean’s close relationship with Egypt while allowing for iconographic and perhaps ideological adoptions and translations via both closer-range exchange with Mesopotamia and the Near East and indirect long-distance exchange with regions as far east as the Indus River Valley.
Pottery assemblages from the site of Al‐Khidr on Failaka Island, Kuwait, were analysed in order to reconstruct the chemical composition of Bronze Age wares and to build a mineralogical database of Bronze Age pottery dated from Failaka Periods 1–3B (2000–1650 BCE). A total of 145 ceramic sherds from Al‐Khidr, as well as reference groups, were analysed by non‐destructive portable X‐ray fluorescence (pXRF) spectrometry. Preliminarily petrographic thin‐section analysis was applied to four samples to reconstruct possible clay paste recipes and to identify raw materials. The results indicate that geochemical analyses can successfully distinguish subgroups within a typological category of ceramic assemblages. The results identified two subgroups within the Al‐Khidr typological category: the Dilmun Barbar tradition and the Mesopotamian tradition. Future comparative compositional studies can be conducted to explore other aspects of craft specialisation, such as ceramic technological choices and possibly the influence of sociopolitical units.
During the late fourth millennium B.C some changes took place in many archaeological sites of south eastern Iran that affected the different aspects of life in the region. By expanding of local cultures in the late 4 th millennium B.C, at the same time we are witnessing the presence of proto Elamite cultural materials near some key sites and consequently remarkable increasing in trade exchanges with distant areas. In fact, some evidence of foreign merchants with Banesh/proto Elamite elements that has specialization on storing goods, commodity management and trade in long distances. These evidence have been documented by archaeological excavations near Shahdad, Konar Sandal and Shahr i Sokhta. All these sites are the big cities in the first centuries of third millennium B.C. It seems that in spite of expansion of Aliabad culture in Kerman, Baluchestan, Makran and near Sistan since 3700 B.C to 3300 B.C that consequently followed by local cultures in each area from 3300 to 3000 B.C, the main factor for starting and developing of urbanization in south east of Iran is connected to presence of proto Elamite culture and building the exchange centers or Bazar in the areas with good potential for the natural resource. These areas became the urban centers in the beginning of third millennium B.C. In fact, the art of those merchants was learning to local people that how to control their valuable resource and crafts for exchange and interaction with the other people.
A persistent hypothesis in the archaeology of complex societies posits that the acquisition of raw materials for craft production underpins the emergence of first the division of labor, then the emergence of social stratification, and finally, the development of political institutions and ultimately state formation. In cases where such raw materials — especially those needed for the fashioning of status symbols — are not available locally, self-aggrandizing leaders and aspiring elites will seek to create or otherwise manipulate long distance flows of such materials to either acquire the status symbols or to furnish the craft industries which they control. While this theory has for decades been the subject of debate and revision according to theoretical and methodological fashions, its premises have nevertheless achieved a level of disciplinary common-sense. So much so in fact, that interregional trade is seen by many scholars as an unquestionably key variable in polity formation, especially in the case of so-called “secondary” polity-formation. A case study based on the Gorgan Plain in northeastern Iran focusing on the chronological interval between the Late Chalcolithic and the Late Bronze Age (ca. 3200-1600 BCE) shows that the necessity and chronological priority of increases in interregional trade cannot be taken for granted in the process of polity formation. Indeed, cases where the order of operations is reversed are not only possible but do in fact exist. Through an examination of the historiography of macro-historical narratives of the relationship between interregional trade and Bronze Age political geography in Iran, the synthesis of underutilized survey and excavation data, the conduct of a virtual site survey using Google Earth, and the computation of spatial-organizational models, I show that the period in which the Gorgan Plain was most involved in interregional trade actually follows a period of polity formation, and is instead correlated with what all previous scholars have considered to be a phase of polity disintegration and collapse.
Indus Civilization economic strategies have traditionally been reconstructed from a land-based focus. However, marine, estuarine and river fishing was, and remains, an important aspect of South Asian food procurement and foodways. While great strides have been taken in understanding the types of fish exploited and the methods used to catch these fish, the initial stages in creating a fishing strategy, the choice of materials used to create fishing technologies, remain abstracted due to preservation problems. Through careful analogy with modern plant remains this paper explores the types of fiber that may have been exploited by Indus fisherfolk. Comparisons between the range of plants exploited by Indus peoples and the functionality of these taxa suggest that there was a diversity of materials available. Bast fibers would likely have been most suited to net production, and numerous taxa can be seen in the Indus archaeobotanical and athracological assemblages. Combined with textiles, fiber impressions, artefactual and motif evidence, both within and contemporary to the Indus Civilization it can be suggested that Indus fisherfolks were familiar with bast fiber creation technologies, net and line making.
The present paper intends to analyse ancient local society, as a result of migration and cultural communication between various ethnic groups throughout the eastern part of the Iranian Plateau. Based on the results of excavations in the cemetery of Shahr-i Sokhta, offerings, tools and skeletons were examined. The alignment and positioning of the buried bodies changed over the centuries as a consequence of people with different ethnic backgrounds migrating to the site along the commercial routes connecting Central Asia in the north with Baluchistan and the coastal regions of the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, as well as between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley. The study suggests at least five different geographical origins of Shahr-i Sokhta's inhabitants in the third millennium.
The first earliest Tablets have been found by French excavations in Susa in the nineteenth century. The deciphered of Writing System of Tablets is at Beginning, but they bring light on the archaic Bookkeeping system and some writing evidences of Iranian Proto-writing Period. Archaeologies have been found the proto-writing tablets from other urban center of Iran such as, Choga-Mich, Geser, Malyan, Yahya, Shahre Sokhte, Godin, Sialk, Goli Darwish, Ozbaki and Sofalin. The archaeological levels cover Susa 2 and 3 in Khuzistan, Banesh in Fars and New Plateau in Iranian Plateau Zone. Apart from Iran and Mesopotamia proto-writing tablets have been found from Syrian and Turkey. The Tablets from Syrian and Turkey belong to only Late Uruk or pre Proto-Elamite phase. The present paper represents an attempt to the emergence of proto-writing in ancient Iran. The term “Proto-writing” refers high Culture period, with two pre and proto-Elamit Phases, dating roughly to the ca. 5300–4800 B.P. The tablets from this Period are the earliest writing documents in ancient Iran. The most of the ancient Iranian proto-writing Tablets are administrative documents recording. The administrative tablets record varying quantities of goods or measure of the collection and distribution, for example herding of animal and grain by sign or sign combination. The second attempts a clear relationship between the proto-Elamite and proto-cuneiform scripts. The tablet format is a good indication of chronological development of writing in this Period. At the same time of Proto-Writing or high culture period, have been found Tablets from Mesopotamia, dating to the final stage of Uruk and Jamdat-Nasr Periods.
For every designed object or product, engineers, smiths, and artisans keep in mind societal norms and taboos such as sustainable materials, tasteful morphology, tactile sensations, aesthetic concerns, health and safety, and cost that will largely determine if the object is desired or rejected by the consumer. Metal objects in prehistoric, ancient, and historical eras were conceived, designed, and produced within specific cultural contexts that dictated their usefulness and marketability, much as they are today. The design process is inextricably and intrinsically linked to culture, political economy, and ecology. An understanding of the cultural forces that have guided design constraints and ancient innovations is provided below for today’s innovators and engineers to be considered as a conceptual framework that interfaces society and materials. For anthropologists and historians, the study of technology is greatly aided by incorporating design theory and its outcomes. The following chapter synthesizes the fundamental material properties of human-selected alloys as both incremental and synchronic products of societal tastes, using a cross-cultural comparative approach to analyze the role of metals in the New and Old Worlds with a behavioral emphasis on materiality, surplus, and sociopolitical hierarchy. The result is, in part, a comprehensive archaeometallurgy reference guide structured as an anthropological design narrative compiling cultural, historical, and metallurgical information and case studies on non-ferrous alloys, ferrous alloys, precious metals, smelting and casting practices, surface and finishing treatments, and the ecological impacts of mining and metallurgy on the environment and human health.
From the mid-20th century onwards, consolidated study of the merchant archives from the Old Assyrian trading colony at Kaneš (Kültepe) has not only transformed our understanding of the social, economic and political dynamics of the Bronze Age Near East, but also overturned many preconceived notions of what constitutes pre-modern trade. Despite this disciplinary impact and archaeological investigations at Kültepe and elsewhere, our understanding of this phenomenon has remained largely text-based and therefore of limited analytical scope, both spatially and contextually. This book re-assesses the Old-Assyrian trade network in Upper Mesopotamia and Central Anatolia during the Middle Bronze Age (c. 1970 – 1700 BC) by combining in some analytical detail the archaeology (e.g. material culture, settlement data, etc.) of the region both on its own terms and via a range of spatial approaches. The author offers a comparative and spatial perspective on exchange networks and economic strategies, continuity and discontinuity of specific trade circuits and routes, and the evolution of political landscapes throughout the Near East in the Middle Bronze Age.
The construction of formal measurement systems underlies the development of science, technology, economy and new ways of understanding and explaining the world. Human societies have developed such systems in different ways, in different places and at different times, and recent archaeological investigations highlight the importance of these activities for fundamental aspects of human life. Measurement systems have provided the structure for addressing key concerns of cosmological belief systems, as well as the means for articulating relationships between the human form, human action, and the world. The Archaeology of Measurement explores the archaeological evidence for the development of measuring activities in numerous ancient societies, as well as the implications of these discoveries for an understanding of their worlds and beliefs. Featuring contributions from a cast of internationally renowned scholars, it analyses the relationships between measurement, economy, architecture, symbolism, time, cosmology, ritual, and religion among prehistoric and early historic societies.