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Book: Food Properties Handbook
Abstract
A food property is a particular measure of the food’s behavior as a matter or its behavior with respect to energy, or its interaction with the human senses, or its efficacy in promoting human health and well-being. An understanding of food properties is essential for scientists and engineers who have to solve the problems in food preservation, processing, storage, marketing, consumption, and even after consumption. Current methods of food processing and preservation require accurate data on food properties; simple, accurate, and low-cost measurement techniques; prediction models based on fundamentals; and links between different properties. The first edition was well received,
secured bestseller from the publisher, and received an award. Appreciation from scientists, academics, and industry professionals around the globe encouraged me to produce an updated version. This edition has been expanded with the addition of some new chapters and by updating the contents of the first edition. The seven chapters in the first edition have now been expanded to 24 chapters. In this edition, the definition of the terminology and measurement techniques are clearly presented. The theory behind the measurement techniques is described with the applications and limitations of the methods. Also, the sources of errors in measurement techniques are compiled. A compilation of the experimental data from the literature is presented in graphical or tabular form, which would be very useful for food engineers and scientists. Models can reduce the numbers of experiments, thereby reducing time and expenses of measurements. The empirical and theoretical prediction models are compiled for different foods with processing conditions. The applications of the properties are also
described, mentioning where and how to use the data and models in food processing.
Chapter 1 provides an overview of food properties including its definition, classification, and predictions. Chapters 2 through 4 present water activity and sorption isotherm including its terminology, measurement techniques, data for different foods, and its prediction models. Chapters 5 through 12 present thermodynamic and structural characteristics including freezing point, glass transition, gelatinization, crystallization, collapse, stickiness, ice content, and state diagram. Chapters 13 through
15 discuss the density, porosity, shrinkage, size, and shape of foods. Chapters 15 through 23 present the thermophysical properties including specific heat, enthalpy, thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, and heat transfer coefficient. Chapter 24 provides the acoustic properties of foods.
This second edition will be an invaluable resource for practicing and research food technologists, engineers, and scientists, and a valuable text for upper-level undergraduate and graduate students in food, agriculture and biological science, and engineering. Writing such a book is a challenge, and any comments to assist in future compilations will be appreciated. Any errors that remain are entirely mine. I am confident that this edition will prove to be interesting, informative, and enlightening.
... conductance, resistance, dielectric properties) and optical characteristics (e.g. reflectance, transmittance, absorbance, contrast) (Rahman, 2009). Understanding the physical characteristics of a certain food is important for both increasing consumer acceptability and designing a correct technological process that is able to perfectly adapt to the specific product, minimising the undesirable changes while maximizing the process efficiency. ...
This study presents specific baseline protocols and actionable recommendations for processing and evaluating insect-derived products for food and feed applications, addressing current gaps in standardization and market integration. Processing methods and the utilization of insect-derived products are two critical aspects intrinsically linked to their market applicability for both food and feed purposes. Therefore, it is imperative to direct research efforts towards these domains, aiming to standardise procedures and products to support broader market adoption. Currently, thermal processing, mechanical fractionation, and enzymatic hydrolysis are among the most common technologies, but differences in temperature, process duration, and input material result in variable products, which might be more suitable for specific applications rather than other. These inconsistencies hamper process standardization as well as stakeholder and market confidence. To address this, the study proposes a set of core variables – including moisture content, processing temperature, and duration – that should be consistently reported in scientific publications to enhance reproducibility and facilitate quality benchmarking. Conversely, the evaluation of insect-derived products as feed ingredients parallels the inclusion of other raw materials into animal diets. Similarities include assessing their nutritional value, digestibility, and compatibility with existing feed formulations. However, the integration of insect-based feed ingredients also necessitates addressing several unique recommendations and considerations that are specific to insects and their derivatives. Notably, the study identifies the need for refined protein quantification techniques (e.g. adjusted N conversion factors) that account for chitin and other non-protein nitrogen sources. Furthermore, insect-derived products are inherently diverse, encompassing a wide range of forms, including dried powders, liquid extracts, whole (live) insects, and processed meals. Each of these product types presents distinct challenges and opportunities in terms of their handling, storage, and integration into feed systems. To guide future application, we outline tailored strategies for each product type, emphasizing the importance of interdisciplinary research spanning animal physiology, behavior, and nutrition. Overall, this work provides a structured framework to advance the standardization, comparability, and integration of insect-derived products across the food and feed sectors.
... According to Rahman (2008) microorganisms begin to grow from a water activity level of 0.600 onwards. Hence, the ingredients and diets with water activity values of less than 0.600 are guaranteed against the growth of fungi, mold and bacteria. ...
Este estudio tenía como objetivo determinar las isotermas de absorción de los ingredientes y la dieta de las aves. Las muestras se encapsularon en cápsulas y se deshidrataron por secado en horno en un desecador durante más de 24 horas. Las muestras se transfirieron al desecador que contiene agua en la base y se colocaron en el horno, retirándose una muestra de cada material a intervalos incrementales. La muestra se pesó y para la determinación de la actividad del agua y la materia seca. Los datos de humedad y actividad del agua fueron evaluados por ocho modelos matemáticos. El modelo matemático del GAB ajustó los datos experimentales para constituir la isoterma de cada material. Se encontraron isotermas de sorción de tipo II, excepto para el BHT: valores demostrados que no encajaban en la determinación de la isotermia. El comportamiento higroscópico de los ingredientes fue: L-treonina, piedra caliza, BHT, DL-metionina, L-valina, L-triptófano, fosfato, caolín, suplemento vitamínico, sal, desactivador de micotoxinas, dieta del gallo en pellets, dieta del gallo en pellets, dieta de la capa de puré, dieta de capas peletizadas, maíz, bacitracina-zinc, suplemento vitamínico mineral, fitasa, salvado de arroz, salvado de trigo, suplemento mineral, salvado de soja, coccidiostático, L-lisina HCl y cloruro de colina. Los ingredientes y las dietas tienen diferentes comportamientos higroscópicos: pueden llevar a un deterioro y a una baja precisión en los valores nutricionales de la dieta, ya que la formulación se basa en su estado.
... True density (TD) was measured by using the sand displacement method [41]. The porosity was determined according to Jouki and Prasad [42], Dabbaghi et al. [43], and Yehia et al. [24]. ...
One of the major challenges for crop breeding scientists is climate change. Their task is to develop new crop varieties that can withstand this phenomenon. For this study, a new Egyptian paddy variety called Giza 183, which is designed to adapt to mitigate the effects of climate change, was chosen. We focused on examining the physical and engineering properties of this variety in order to design strategies for storage, handling, transportation, drying, parboiling, and processing equipment in rice mills. The goal was to minimize post-harvest losses during the milling process, thereby maximizing high-quality yields while reducing losses. The physical properties of the rice grains, such as the length, width, and thickness, were measured at an average moisture content of 13.7% ± 0.25% (wet basis). The results reveal that the mean values of length, width, and thickness averaged 7.50 mm, 3.18 mm, and 2.19 mm, respectively. Additionally, the geometric mean diameter, the equivalent mean diameter, surface area, arithmetic mean diameter, and volume were approximately 3.74 mm, 2.38 mm, 37.37 mm², 4.29 mm, and 28.23 mm³, respectively. The mean of sphericity was 49.9%, and the grain shape (length/width) was 2.19. The true density was measured at 1218.28 kgm⁻³, while the bulk density was 572.17 kgm⁻³. The porosity was found to be 53.03%. Furthermore, the milling production rates for brown rice, hull, white rice, and broken rice were determined to be 76.83%, 23.15%, 67.97%, and 17.36%, respectively. The average weight of one thousand grains was 25.49 g. A linear regression model for describing the mass of rough rice grain was investigated. The mass was estimated with the single variable of the grain aspect ratio (width/length) with a determination coefficient of 0.9908. Information gained from the current study will be useful in designing post-harvest processing and storage structures in rice processing industries.
... True density (TD) was measured by using the sand displacement method [41]. The porosity was determined according to Jouki and Prasad [42], Dabbaghi et al. [43], and Yehia et al. [24]. ...
One of the major challenges for crop breeding scientists is climate change. Their task is to develop new crop varieties that can withstand this phenomenon. For this study, a new Egyptian paddy variety called Giza 183, which is designed to adapt to mitigate the effects of climate change, was chosen. We focused on examining the physical and engineering properties of this variety in order to design strategies for storage, handling, transportation, drying, parboiling, and processing equipment in rice mills. The goal was to minimize post-harvest losses during the milling process, thereby maximizing high-quality yields while reducing losses. The physical properties of the rice grains, such as the length, width, and thickness, were measured at an average moisture content of 13.7% ± 0.25% (wet basis). The results reveal that the mean values of length, width, and thickness averaged 7.50 mm, 3.18 mm, and 2.19 mm, respectively. Additionally, the geometric mean diameter, the equivalent mean diameter, surface area, arithmetic mean diameter, and volume were approximately 3.74 mm, 2.38 mm, 37.37 mm 2 , 4.29 mm, and 28.23 mm 3 , respectively. The mean of sphericity was 49.9%, and the grain shape (length/width) was 2.19. The true density was measured at 1218.28 kgm −3 , while the bulk density was 572.17 kgm −3. The porosity was found to be 53.03%. Furthermore, the milling production rates for brown rice, hull, white rice, and broken rice were determined to be 76.83%, 23.15%, 67.97%, and 17.36%, respectively. The average weight of one thousand grains was 25.49 g. A linear regression model for describing the mass of rough rice grain was investigated. The mass was estimated with the single variable of the grain aspect ratio (width/length) with a determination coefficient of 0.9908. Information gained from the current study will be useful in designing post-harvest processing and storage structures in rice processing industries.
... The water activity (a w ) estimation was based on bibliographic sources as 0.996 ± 0.03 (Rahman, 1995;Wang & Brennan, 1991). The previous a w value compared to values found in the literature for mushrooms 0.984 ± 0.01 (Mahajan et al., 2008), for strawberries 0.984 ± 0.003 (Sousa-Gallagher et al., 2013), for pomegranate arils 0.984 ± 0.01 (Caleb et al., 2013), for pears 0.924 ± 0.05 (Xanthopoulos et al., 2017) indicate that potato tubers are prone to water loss if the relative humidity in the storage is not close to this a w value. ...
... The effective density ( ) of potato slices was calculated by (Rahman 2009 ...
This research intended to investigate the transport phenomena that occur during microwave freeze‐drying (MFD) of potato slices using drying kinetics and finite element analysis (FEA). The impacts of microwave power levels and potato slice thickness on drying rate constant (DR) and average moisture diffusion (DAVG) were analyzed using MFD kinetics and were then incorporated in the simulation. It was found that the DR and DAVG were in the range of 301.3 × 10⁻³–775.4 × 10⁻³ min⁻¹ and 1.045 × 10⁻¹⁰–3.336 × 10⁻¹⁰ m²/s, respectively. In the sublimation phase, the DR and DAVG were higher than those in the desorption phase. The DR and DAVG increased as the microwave power level increased but decreased as the thickness increased. The FEA of temperature and moisture distribution within the potato slices demonstrated the outward transfer of heat and mass from the center to the exterior and closely matched the experimental data with an error margin of within 5%, leading to the proposed schematic shrinkage model corresponding to the MFD simulation.
This study aimed to evaluate the effect of different concentrations of Tween 20 on various physical properties of agar gel as a model material. The effects of other sources of agar-agar powder on the gel properties were also evaluated. The pure gels were prepared with agar powders obtained from two suppliers. Also, agar gels with Tween 20 in the 0.10 to 0.70% range were produced. The measurement of density, water activity, maximal force at fracture and gelling temperature, and the agar gels’ rheological properties, showed that the gels prepared with different agar powders had similar properties. The syneresis and stability indexes, gas hold-up, mechanical and acoustic attributes, and structure of foamed gels with Tween 20 were measured. The addition of Tween 20 in amounts ranging from 0.10 to 0.35% contributed to a gradual decrease in the stability and mechanical parameters of the gels. Using a concentration of 0.7%, Tween was able to obtain foamed gels with a uniform structure and small pore size, but low hardness and gumminess. Application of a lower concentration of Tween of 0.1% produced more rigid gels with limited gel syneresis. Adding Tween 20 at the appropriate level can be a factor in obtaining gels with a tailored structure and texture.
The study aimed to dehydrate beet microgreen foams using cast‐tape drying and freeze‐drying to obtain powder and characterize them in terms of physicochemical properties and betalain. Foam formulations were analyzed: F1 = 78.3% water + 13% microgreens + 6.5% Emustab + 2.2% pre‐gelatinized starch; F2 = 78.3% water + 13% microgreens + 4.4% pre‐gelatinized starch + 4.3% Emustab. The formulated foams were dried using cast‐tape drying (CTD) (70°C and 2 mm spreading thickness) and freeze‐dried (FD). The drying time for CTD was 12 min for CTDF1 and 24 min for CTDF2 (moisture of 0.1 g/g). The FD time was 14 h for FDF1 and 18 h for FDF2 (moisture of 0.02 g/g). The water activity and moisture content of the powder obtained by CTD were lower than that of the FD powder for both formulations, and the protein content in F2 (4%–4.6%) was lower than in F1 (5.2%–6.3%). The foam allows for the rapid drying of beet microgreens by CTD due to the high drying rate and moderate temperature. The CTDF2 powder has lower moisture and activity water, violet/red coloration, good flowability, and low cohesiveness compared to the other samples. Freeze‐drying shows higher betalain retention (FDF1). Microgreens in powdered form constitute viable protein sources to be incorporated into plant‐based products, while betalain allows using this powder as a natural dye. These potential applications demand further investigation, aiming at a potential introduction as a new product in the market.
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