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More than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor

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... Conceptual metaphor theory as presented in MWLB (Lakoff and Johnson 1980) and developed by Kövecses (1986Kövecses ( , 2003, Johnson (1987), Lakoff and Turner (1989), Lakoff and Johnson (1999) focuses on metaphor as a mental phenomenon and takes the perspective of an individual speaker sharing their understanding of the world and an individual hearer (re-)constructing this understanding from linguistic and non-linguistic metaphorical cues. Despite the mention of potential cultural differences already in the 1980s, the dimension of cultural variability has come to the fore more strongly later in the European research on metaphor in discourse (cf. ...
... There is also a set of cultural pressures of various natures, such as cultural schemas and cultural frames. In the case of the present study particularly relevant would be the cultural schema of war and the cultural frame of the Great Chain of Being (Lakoff & Turner 1989). Second, language internal pressures are considered, in particular, the competition from other linguistic expressions. ...
... Historyczno-Dynamicznego również różne presje kulturowe, takie jak schematy kulturowe oraz ramy kulturowe. Dla tego studium szczególnie istotne są kulturowe schematy wojny oraz kulturowe schematy Wielkiego Łańcucha Bytów (Lakoff & Turner 1989). Wewnątrzsystemowe presje językowe są również uwzględnione, zwłaszcza konkurencja innych wyrażeń językowych. ...
Article
A Historical Dynamic Approach to Metaphor (HDM) is a new model proposed to account for socio-historical change of conceptual metaphors. Grounded in a view of languages as inherently historical systems, it explores the possibility of studying metaphor in terms of generalized evolutionary theory (Ritt 2004). Evolutionary theory is regarded as a suitable meta-framework for the study of all historical systems, which maintain their identity over time through the transmission of individual instantiations among successive generations. The paper consists of two major parts. The first part presents the proposed model. The second is a small-scale empirical study presenting the possibilities offered by the approach to test hypotheses about the use of metaphors.
... Abstract: This article aims to discuss the specific metaphor MULHER É PIRANHA, which is part of the general metaphor SER HUMANO É ANIMAL, besides the perspective role in its usage in song lyrics in Brazilian Portuguese, under the Conceptual Metaphor Theory. For this purpose, we discuss about metaphor and perspective according to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), followed by the cultural model The Great Chain of Being (LAKOFF; TURNER, 1989). We discuss about animal metaphors and its use, marking the notion of perspective, specially in the treatment given to animal metaphors related to women. ...
... Lakoff e Turner (1989) descrevem um modelo cultural, chamado de Grande Cadeia do Ser (Great Chain of Being), que conceptualiza, de forma hierárquica, os seres do mundo de acordo com as propriedades que possuem. Sendo assim, devido a sua capacidade de racionalizar, humanos estariam no topo desta cadeia, e em seguida viriam os animais, que por sua vez seriam superiores às plantas, e assim estas viriam em seguida, pois seriam superiores 3 aos objetos, sendo estes, então, a base da cadeia (Lakoff;Turner, 1989). É importante pontuar que este modelo não traz o mundo real do jeito que ele é, mas sim como ele deve ser (Cavalcanti, 2015) sob uma determinada perspectiva. ...
... O oposto -atribuir qualidades humanas a animais -também ocorre com frequência: dizemos que "o cachorro é o melhor amigo do homem" porque pensamos no cachorro em termos de lealdade. Contudo, lealdade é um conceito moral, racionalizado, que pertence ao conhecimento de mundo sob a perspectiva humana, mas estamos tão habituados a falar do mundo metaforicamente que nem mais nos damos conta disso (Lakoff;Turner, 1989;Cavalcanti, 2015). ...
Article
Este artigo busca discutir a metáfora específica MULHER É PIRANHA, que faz parte da metáfora genérica SER HUMANO É ANIMAL, além do papel da perspectiva nos seus usos em letras de música em português brasileiro, sob a ótica da Teoria da Metáfora Conceptual (TMC). Para tanto, discorre-se sobre metáfora e perspectiva segundo Lakoff e Johnson (1980), seguido de um modelo cultural da Grande Cadeia do Ser (Lakoff; Turner, 1989). Disserta-se sobre metáforas animais e seus usos, demarcando a noção de perspectiva, especialmente no tratamento dado às metáforas animais relacionadas a mulheres. Faz-se, então, um mapeamento metafórico e ilustra-se os pontos do mapeamento com letras de música populares. Quando a metáfora "piranha" é usada para descrever um homem, ela traz traços positivos, e discorre-se sobre as razões cognitivas para isso por meio da TMC. Conclui-se que a metáfora conceptual MULHER É PIRANHA é modulada pela perspectiva.
... Similarly, Yusuf (1998) explored animal metaphors in Chinese, noting the prominence of dragons as symbols of power and benevolence. These studies underscore the importance of cultural factors in shaping metaphorical thought, yet they largely overlook extinct and mythical animals as metaphorical domains (Lakoff & Turner, 1989). ...
... Extinct animals, such as dinosaurs, are often invoked metaphorically to represent outdatedness, obsolescence, or massive scale (Lakoff & Turner, 1989). Charteris-Black (2004) discussed how the term "dinosaur" is used to critique inefficiency in industries, reflecting a collective understanding of extinction as a metaphor for irrelevance. ...
... Mythical animals, such as dragons, phoenixes, and unicorns, are deeply rooted in cultural narratives and have been used metaphorically to express abstract concepts like wisdom, renewal, and purity (Lakoff & Turner, 1989;Kövecses, 2002). Yusuf (1998) emphasized the role of dragons in Chinese culture, where they symbolize strength, prosperity, and harmony. ...
Article
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This study explores metaphorical representations of extinct and mythical animals across cultures using Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) to reveal universal cognitive patterns and cultural narratives. Analyzing 500 expressions from diverse traditions, it examines how these animals conceptualize resilience, justice, wisdom, and unpredictability. Employing qualitative and comparative methods alongside Kövecses’ (2020) schematicity hierarchy, the research traces metaphors from embodied schemas to mental spaces. Universal metaphors, such as RESILIENCE IS REBIRTH (phoenix), reflect shared cognitive structures, while culturally distinct metaphors, like the Chinese dragon symbolizing wisdom versus Western depictions of greed, highlight ecological and societal influences. Diachronic analysis shows metaphors evolving, such as the phoenix’s shift to symbolize ecological restoration amid sustainability trends. Findings underscore the emotional and cognitive resonance of these metaphors, offering insights into cross-cultural communication, environmental advocacy, and education by illustrating how metaphors bridge tangible imagery with abstract ideas and cultural identity.
... Yet, as Kövecses (2002) remarks, there are numerous expressions in English which are based upon the more general HUMAN BEHAVIOR IS ANIMAL BEHAVIOR metaphor, 5 which typically highlights the objectionability in the behavior of humans. This conceptual metaphor, however, is part of a hierarchy of concepts, called The Great Chain of Being (Lakoff and Turner 1989), which spells out the relation of human beings to "lower" forms and can be found in many cultures around the world. 6 The system becomes metaphorical if a particular level is used to understand another level. ...
... 6 The system becomes metaphorical if a particular level is used to understand another level. As Lakoff and Turner (1989) point out, in the Great Chain model part of any being's nature is shared with lower beings. For instance, it is due to the Great Chain model we are able to speak of our "bestial instincts" or "animal drives." ...
... 6 Whichever level of the Great Chain is talked about, it is always the highest properties of beings at that level which characterize those beings. The Great Chain is structured accordingly (Lakoff and Turner 1989): Humans: Higher-order attributes and behavior (e.g., thought and character) Animals: Instinctual attributes and behavior Plants: Biological attributes and behavior Complex objects: Structural attributes and functional behavior Natural physical things: Natural physical attributes and natural physical behavior. simple "beast," not required to act and think. ...
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Cognitive Linguistics has not been confined to the explanation of linguistic patterns, but has been expanded to include wider notions such as culture, history, and politics among others (for an overview, see especially Kövecses 2006). These studies have shown that conceptual metaphor analysis can be an effective tool of methodology to understand how we conceptualize – think about – abstract concepts and consequently to gain a better understanding of especially those ideas, theories, and notions which have been subject to much debate. The aim of this paper is to follow in these footsteps and pursue the relationship between cognition and history, by focusing on some of the conceptual metaphors that have structured the way former slaves conceptualized slavery in North America.
... The Conceptual Metaphor Theory, introduced by George Lakoff (1980) and others (e.g. Lakoff 1987;Lakoff & Turner 1989;Lakoff & Johnson 1999;Johnson 2008), has shown that figurative expressions in general, and metaphorical expressions in particular, are pervasive in our everyday language. A new line of research has emerged out of this idea, exploring predominantly metaphor in various types of discourse, ranging from everyday conversation to specialized language. ...
... e.g. Lakoff 1987;Lakoff & Turner 1989;Hintikka 1994;Lakoff & Johnson 1999;Johnson 2008), figurative language in general had been banished to the field of literature. The Conceptual ...
... Dans une perspective cognitive, Lakoff et Turner (1989) expliquent ce transfert de relations par la métaphore conceptuelle dite GENERIC IS SPECIFIC, relevant de the Great Chain Metaphor, système de métaphores fondé sur l'échelle hiérarchique des êtres nommée the Great Chain of Being5. Le mécanisme impliqué ici constitue un mapping (projection de traits) entre le domaine source et le domaine cible, relevant tous deux du niveau specific, l'un exprimant le sens littéral du proverbe même, l'autre celui voulu par le locuteur, et c'est le schème générique qui relie ces deux niveaux spécifiques. ...
... 5 Il comprend quatre composantes : 1) the naive theory of the Nature of Things ; 2) the Great Chain of Being en tant que modèle culturel ; 3) la métaphore conceptuelle GENERIC IS SPECIFIC et 4) the Maxim of Quantity. D'ailleurs, Lakoff et Turner (1989) ont proposé de comprendre le sens figuratif du proverbe à l'aide de ce système, alors que Krikmann (1994) y a vu quelques embarras. Ce présent travail se limite à ce qui concerne les métaphores conceptuelles. ...
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Cet article a pour objectif de mettre en évidence le fait que les langues reflètent différentes représentations du monde et que la diversité linguistique entraîne une diversité de visions, permettant ainsi des comparaisons entre leurs traits communs et distinctifs. Il se concentre sur les langues française et chinoise, utilisant les proverbes comme exemple de cette dualité entre sagesse universelle et particularité locale. Les parémiologues identifient souvent la métaphore comme un critère clé de cette forme d’expression. Si la métaphore est traditionnellement et dans la plupart des cas étudiée comme une figure de style, elle constitue également une expression d’une vision du monde, intégrant à la fois des aspects intellectuels, spirituels et de l’expérience quotidienne. Le concept de métaphore conceptuelle, popularisé dans les années 1980, nécessite une systématicité empirique pour être pertinent, révélant ainsi des stéréotypes socio-anthropologiques. L’hypothèse avancée dans cet article est que ces métaphores conceptuelles, par leur présence dans un type d’énoncé doté d’une ample circulation - les proverbes, peuvent révéler un mode de pensée et un outil d’argumentation propres à une communauté spécifique ou de portée universelle.
... The theoretical framework of this study is based on the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT); this theory was developed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) and was later refined by Lakoff and Turner (1989), Stockwell (2002), and Steen (2002). According to this theory, metaphors are not merely linguistic expressions but are deeply rooted in human cognition, shaping how people perceive and interpret the world. ...
... This cross-linguistic study has examined the relationship between culture and linguistic expressions by analysing metaphors in the idioms and proverbs of two linguistically diverse languages: Chinese and English. The findings align with the conceptual metaphor HUMAN BEINGS ARE ANIMAL proposed by Lakoff and Turner (1989), reinforcing the idea that human traits are often understood through non-human attributes. ...
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Animal metaphors are widely utilised across diverse linguistic landscapes and transcend cultural boundaries. This paper examines the relationship between culture and linguistic expressions by analysing metaphors in the idioms and proverbs of two typologically different languages: Chinese and English. The objective is to explore the variations in the use of the dragon as a conceptual metaphor in these two languages. Data were collected from two online platforms: Chinese-Tools.com and The Free Dictionary. A comparative analysis was performed, structured in several steps: data organisation and categorisation, followed by quantitative and qualitative analyses and concluded with a cross-cultural comparison. This methodology allowed for the identification of similarities and differences in dragon-based metaphorical expressions. A conceptual mapping model was also used to examine the variations between Chinese and English in conceptualising the human domain using dragons as the source domain. The findings reveal that the mapping of dragon characteristics onto human beings varies, encompassing behaviours, appearances, and intellectual competency. Chinese dragon metaphors generally carry positive meanings, while negative meanings are more prominent in English dragon metaphors. This contrast can be attributed to the dragon's representation as an auspicious creature symbolising power and wisdom in Chinese culture, whereas it is associated with malevolence and destruction in English culture. These findings have implications for cross-cultural communication and understanding, especially as the world becomes increasingly interconnected through globalisation. The exchange and adaptation of cultural symbols, including metaphors, have accelerated across linguistic and cultural boundaries.
... Kövecses (2005) notes that through the conceptual metaphors HUMAN BEHAVIOUR IS ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR may be universal cross-culturally, i.e. animal metaphors may be used to describe people in all cultures, their expression in terms of the source domains used (by the particular animal) may vary as a function of the linguistic and cultural background in question. Kövecses (2002) further developed the works of Lakoff and Turner (1989) in the Great Chain Metaphor theory, he remarks; 'much of human behaviour seems to be metaphorically understood in terms of ANIMAL behaviour, that is, animals as metaphors for our fears, aspirations, and desires and our physical and emotional and spiritual connections with the animal' (ibid: 124). This has implications in the PEOPLE ARE ANIMAL conceptual metaphor in which the source domain of animals is mapped into the target domain of humans. ...
... Sameer's (2016) study is a comparison of English and Arabic proverbs on dogs and horses. The study uses elected model gathering approach of Lakoff & Turner (1989), and Hsieh's (2006) approach of semantic molecules. The focus is on a cognitive, social and pragmatic view in order to establish that metaphoric and metonymic -mappings are cognitive mechanism which yield sets of explicature and form the origin of implicature. ...
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This study is a comparative study of dog metaphor in German, Igbo and Chinese. The comparative cognitive analysis of German, Igbo and Chinese animal-related idioms/proverbs was carried out to show how they share common conceptualization, while they reflect different cultural beliefs. Four research questions were used to investigate the animal-related idioms/proverbs in German, Igbo and Chinese. The main aim is to explore the socio-cultural influences upon conceptual domain mapping characterizing the human behaviour is animal behaviour conceptual metaphor upon the metaphoric use of animal-related idioms/proverbs of the three languages and cultures. In order to achieve this aim, we refer to both the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) and its improved version the Cultural Cognitive Theory (CCT). The data was extracted from a number of idioms/proverbs in German, Igbo and Chinese. The idioms/proverbs were collected from books, internet sources, personal communication and intuitive knowledge. Using data including dog idioms/proverbs, we compare conceptual domain mappings. We also, compare the characterization of dog in the idioms/proverbs in order to identify both the positive and negative attributes in the conceptualization involved in the metaphoric use of dog in the idioms/proverbs of the three languages. The findings of the study show amongst other things that culture-specific features shape the metaphoric use of dog in idioms/proverbs of the three languages. Also, the findings from the culture-specificity in the use of dog metaphor reveal both positive and negative human traits in the three languages under study. In addition, the characterization of the animal behaviour and human behaviour result to both desirable/positive and undesirable/negative traits. Finally, the findings reveal some ways humans are correlated with dog attributions in German, Igbo and Chinese. Further researches requiring broader database and theories are recommended herewith to ascertain cross-cultural variation across other languages and cultures. Introduction Animal metaphors have been a great part of our language especially idioms/proverbs. Such idioms/proverbs have had the power to reflect both cognitive and cultural richness. Metaphorical understanding, according to Lakoff and Johnson (1980) occurs through a mapping across conceptual domains, that is, from a concrete source domain to an abstract target domain of experience. Our interaction with animals have given a significant place to them in our metaphorical thinking so that Kovecses (2002) cited in Johnson (2008) considers them as the extremely productive source of domains in our conceptual metaphors. Works on metaphoric interpretation reveal that non-native speakers encounter difficulty in comprehending metaphors (see Boers 2003, Littlemore & Low 2006).The outcome of the understanding of human-in general-and human behaviour-in particular-in terms of animal behaviour has generated the PEOPLE ARE ANIMAL metaphor. Studies reveal that the tendency to use animal to refer to human beings is universal. Notwithstanding, there is a high degree of culture-specificity in the pervasiveness of animal metaphors underlying the idioms/proverbs on the one hand and the type of animal which is used to refer to a certain human trait on the other hand (Deigman 2003, Johnson 2008).. The current study is a comparison of dog metaphor in German, Igbo and Chinese. The comparative cognitive analysis of German, Igbo and Chinese animal-related idioms/proverbs was carried out to show how they share common conceptualization, while they reflect different cultural beliefs. The main aim is to explore the socio-cultural influences upon conceptual domain mapping characterizing the HUMAN BEHAVIOUR IS ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR conceptual metaphor upon the metaphoric use of dog-related proverbs of the three languages and cultures. The dog is found in all the geographical regions of the world and is deemed to be the closest of all domestic animals to the humans. A considerable amount of research has been done on proverbs within the field of study known as Paremiology. Since it appears that no work has been done, to the knowledge of the researcher, in the area of comparative studies of German, Igbo and Chinese dog-related idioms/proverbs, this study is set to fill the academic gap. This is more so as Lakoff and Tuner (1989)
... Following Fahlenbrach (2016, p. 1) according to the Lakoffian-Johnsonian Conceptual Metaphor Theory, referred to as CMT (investigated by Gibbs 1994;Johnson 1987Johnson , 2007Kövecses 2000Kövecses , 2002Lakoff 1987Lakoff , 1993Lakoff and Johnson 1999;Lakoff and Turner 1989;Sweetser 1990;Turner 1996), human beings comprehend abstract, complex ideas such as time, life, death, friendship, or emotions e.g. happiness, sadness, fear in terms of more concrete entities -"embodied schemata and gestalts". ...
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The study investigates the role of cognitive tools of PART–FOR–WHOLE or SOURCE–IN–TARGET conceptual metonymy and image schemas inherent in framing in highlighting characters’ inner states, emotions, intentions and actions. The study analyses each shot containing a close-up/extreme close-up of a body part in Krzysztof Kieślowski's "Three Colours: Blue" (1993). It further validates research conducted by cognitive film linguists like Coëgnarts (2019a, 2019b), and Coëgnarts & Kravanja (2016a, 2016b, 2016c) who claim that framing techniques elicit image schemas that shape the viewer's perception of the onscreen reality. It is argued that conceptual metonymy is employed to highlight characters’ mental states and emotions through body parts and their actions to enable the viewer to identify with the characters’ inner states, which the analysis offered confirms.
... 1. SAMUEL BECKETT, LAS TRES NOVELAS Y SUS TRADUCCIONES Samuel Beckett (1906-1989 cultivó, a lo largo de su vida una amplia variedad de géneros literarios y transliterarios: fue dramaturgo, poeta, novelista, escritor de narrativa breve y guionista para radio y TV. Su obra es, en términos generales, translingüe, con un centro que osciló entre el inglés y el francés, a partir de sus obras de posguerra, escritas en francés y luego autotraducidas. ...
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El objetivo de este volumen es ofrecer reflexiones sobre los numerosos retos y nuevos escenarios (físicos, tecnológicos y también sociales y culturales) que se les presentan a las actividades profesionales, de investigación, mediación intercultural y enseñanza-aprendizaje de la traducción y la interpretación. Las aportaciones se han agrupado en secciones que dan testimonio de áreas diversas, multidisciplinares, relativas tanto a modalidades como a instrumentos y metodologías, aplicaciones, o perspectivas teóricas e investigadoras de gran consistencia científica y calado práctico o conceptual. Así, este volumen pone a disposición de sus lectores una recopilación de trabajos relacionados con la formación, la evolución y la práctica profesional de la traducción y la interpretación en distintos ámbitos y desde diferentes enfoques.
... Es importante recalcar que, en este contexto, la metáfora se concibe como un fenómeno cognitivo que da forma a la manera en que los humanos percibimos y concebimos el mundo, y que no solo constituye un fenómeno retórico propio de los textos expresivos (cf. Lakoff y Johnson 1998[1980; Lakoff y Turner 1989;Lakoff 1992). ...
Chapter
El objetivo de este volumen es ofrecer reflexiones sobre los numerosos retos y nuevos escenarios (físicos, tecnológicos y también sociales y culturales) que se les presentan a las actividades profesionales, de investigación, mediación intercultural y enseñanza-aprendizaje de la traducción y la interpretación. Las aportaciones se han agrupado en secciones que dan testimonio de áreas diversas, multidisciplinares, relativas tanto a modalidades como a instrumentos y metodologías, aplicaciones, o perspectivas teóricas e investigadoras de gran consistencia científica y calado práctico o conceptual. Así, este volumen pone a disposición de sus lectores una recopilación de trabajos relacionados con la formación, la evolución y la práctica profesional de la traducción y la interpretación en distintos ámbitos y desde diferentes enfoques.
... Indeed, the cognitive conception of metonymy as mode of thought rather than language paves the way to nonverbal manifestations of metonymic thinking. Irrespective of its mode of occurrence, therefore, metonymy is commonly processed in terms of a domain-internal mapping between the source and target entities (Lakoff & Johnson 1980;Lakoff & Turner 1989). Taking it one step further, Kövecses and Radden (1998) elaborated a definition of metonymy in terms of an intra-domain mapping process whereby a source-entity provides a mental access to a target-entity, within the same cognitive domain. ...
... Nümunələrdən də göründüyü kimi, biz insanlar diqqətimizi cəlb edən bütün şəxs, əşya və varlıqların birinci sıra gerçəklik elementini (Ge1) öz ehtiyacımıza uyğun olaraq və öz iradəmiz çərçivəsində özümüz müəyyən edirik. Amma elə həmin gerçəklik elementini müəyyən etdiyimiz anda bizim iradəmizdən asılı olmayaraq beynimizdə bu gerçəklik elementinin yadda qalmasını təmin edən birinci sıra intellekt obrazı (İO1) yaranır [4,[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14]. Və yenə də bizim iradəmizdən asılı olmayaraq birinci sıra gerçəklik elementi ilə birinci sıra intellekt obrazı öz aralarında birləşir. ...
... The philosophical and existential foundation of the animal metaphor is the Great Chain of Being, the hierarchical system of related things and corresponding concepts (Lakoff and Turner 1989;Kövecses and Benczes 2010). Consisting of several levels, with humans at the top and natural physical things at the bottom, this system becomes metaphorical "when a particular level of the chain (human, animal, etc.) is used to understand another level" (Kövecses and Benczes 2010: 154). ...
Article
This study explores the metaphorical portrayal of women as animals in Victorian prose fiction, focusing on four mid-19th-century novels. Its objectives are to unveil the nuances of women's conceptualisation as animals and to investigate gender disparities in the use of animal metaphors among novelists. Employing the Conceptual Metaphor Theory as the theoretical basis, this research examines metaphorical mappings and ontological correspondences between the source domain (ANIMAL) and the target domain (HUMAN BEING), identifying the general conceptual metaphor WOMAN IS AN ANIMAL, along with the constituent submetaphors WOMAN IS A WILD ANIMAL and WOMAN IS A DOMESTIC ANIMAL. The findings highlight a prevalent negative portrayal of females as animals and mirror the societal attitudes towards women during the Victorian era. The frequency counts reveal no significant gender disparities among the authors in their use of animal metaphors or in the derogatory depiction of women.
... However, there are some cases where there is confusion between both domains. Lakoff and Turner (1989) discuss the issue of complex domains and explain that the existence of pairs like MACHINES ARE PEOPLE and PEOPLE ARE MACHINES does not contradict the principle of asymmetrical relationship between source and target domains: ...
... (Brdar-Szabó & Brdar, 2022: 232) In fact, an older definition of metonymy also stemming from cognitive linguistics would suffice to rule out the examples above as cases of metonymy, by precisely requesting the first "vehicle" to be expressed: "the entity that is normally designated by a metonymic expression serves as a reference point affording mental access to the desired target, i.e., the entity actually being referred to" (Langacker, 1987: 385-386). What is also ruled out implicitly by this are the "associations" between the expression and content within a given sign, e.g., between cat and CAT, which are unfortunately also sometimes included under the concept of metonymy (Lakoff & Turner, 1989;Kövecses & Radden, 1998). The definition in Section 3.1 excludes these as well, as it explicitly states that the contiguity relation needs to be between meanings/interpretations, and not between expression (often misleadingly called "form") and meaning. ...
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In cognitive semiotics, metaphor and metonymy are crucially treated as special forms of sign use. In contrast, researchers in cognitive linguistics have extended the scope of metaphor and metonymy far beyond the traditional understanding of these semiotic figures based on, respectively, iconicity and contiguity into purely mental processes. I argue that this has led to unbounded over-extension, and general confusion about what metaphor and metonymy actually are, and thus on how to be able to reliably identify them in language and other semiotic systems like gesture and depiction. There is therefore an urgent need to constrain the concepts of metaphor and metonymy to more reasonable proportions, and in this article I propose such a more constrained approach, using the Motivation & Sedimentation Model (MSM) of meaning-making. For the purpose, I spell out an integrated definition of metaphor and metonymy along traditional lines, but not limiting them to language. I illustrate the applicability of this definition by offering analyses of political cartoons, showing how the two semiotic figures interact in complex ways, sometimes allowing for different interpretations.
... Image metaphors, often called "one-shot" metaphors because they are unique and non-systematic, were first mentioned by Lakoff and Turner (1989) in their analysis of A. Breton's line "My wife ... whose waist is an hourglass". They are called image metaphors because they map images, in this case the image of an hourglass is mapped onto the image of a woman's waist. ...
Article
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My purpose in this paper is to demonstrate that metaphor should be viewed as a gradable conceptual phenomenon, and to elucidate further the notion of minimal metaphoric mapping between subordinate level concepts dominated by the same basic level category, which I called “syntaphor” in my previous studies. Since the concepts involved in metaphor represent different conceptual distances, metaphor appears to be gradable, starting from the lowest level of syntaphors through the level of close metaphors, to the level of distant and maximally distant metaphors, which have been the focus of interest in most cognitive studies of metaphor so far. In Section 1 I describe briefly an approach to metaphor from the point of view of the theory of categorization, whereby metaphor is defined in terms of mappings between concepts rather than domains. Section 2 presents the notion and four degrees of conceptual distance between the concepts involved in metaphor based on the subordinate, basic and superordinate levels of categorization. In Section 3 four kinds of metaphor are distinguished depending on three degrees of conceptual distance between the source and the target concepts: distant metaphors, close metaphors and syntaphors. The role of syntaphors is further discussed in polysemy and novel metaphors. Some of the crucial aspects of syntaphors are highlighted when they are compared with image metaphors. The most important implications of the study for the theory of metaphor are presented in Conclusions.
... The theme of my article commands an interdisciplinary approach, involving research on metaphor and its creative stylistic use in political discourse, in conjunction with applied scholarship in the field of politics. I have drawn theoretical conclusions, applying the key tenets of both cognitive linguistics about the significance of the inextricable interrelation between thought and language on the one hand [Gibbs 2008;Lakoff and Johnson 1980;Lakoff and Turner 1989], and insights from a cognitive stylistic perspective on the other. Cognitive stylistics forms an integral part of cognitive linguistics, exploring figurative language and figurative meaning construction in discourse. ...
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This paper is an interdisciplinary study of British political discourse. It attempts to examine how British greatness emerged and developed over the centuries. Changes in the official use of British terminology are highlighted as a reflection of dwindling historical greatness: the British Empire > The British Commonwealth (1931); The British Commonwealth > The Commonwealth (1949); Great Britain > Britain (UK for short). The idea of British greatness flourished during the Brexit period (2016–2020). Special attention is paid to stylistic changes in Brexit discourses, reflecting political events and developments. My analysis discloses the role of frequent creative use of phraseological units, e. g., a leap in the dark, to eat one’s cake and have it, to kick the can down the road etc. It offers insight into sustained creative use of metaphor as a reflection of painful and tortuous processes. I rely on findings of cognitive linguistics on thought and language [Gibbs 1999: 16–23].This paper aims to explore the notion of British greatness, its origin and development over centuries, and the role it has played in Brexit-related events and processes. The study focuses on the interplay of history, politics and language, illustrating how figurative expressions are ingrained in a nation’s cultural fabric and linguistic landscape.
... Kinder (2017, 2018) conducted a machine-learning analysis of a collection of literary metaphors, which was collected and normed by Katz et al. (1988), and their investigation revealed specific qualities that distinguish literary metaphors from experimentally created ones. These distinctive features encompass high surprisal (a statistical measure of word unexpectedness), dissimilarity between the source and target concepts, the combination of concrete words with complex grammar and lexical diversity, as well as an additional level of difficulty in comprehending the metaphorical meaning (also discussed in Holyoak 2019; Lakoff and Turner 1989;Stamenković, Ichien, and Holyoak 2020). These collective properties imply that apt literary metaphors exhibit a notable degree of cognitive complexity. ...
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Metaphor has long been used by scholars to make concepts more comprehensible. However, this use of figurative language has never been investigated in relation to the way students with dyslexia learn from academic texts. This study aims to assess the impact of metaphors on overall academic text comprehension in university students with and without dyslexia. Excerpts from scientific articles containing metaphors were adapted to be presented in two comparable conditions: metaphorical and literal. Legibility indexes were controlled for to guarantee the same difficulty between conditions. Twenty‐eight students with dyslexia and thirty students without dyslexia underwent a multiple‐choice comprehension task for two texts, one for each condition, and provided evaluations of text perception. A standardised assessment of general reading comprehension and cognitive abilities, such as reading speed, reading accuracy, and working memory was conducted. Data revealed that, when reading ability was controlled for, students with dyslexia presented significantly lower comprehension scores only in texts containing metaphors, despite comparable perceived complexity and increased interest in metaphorical texts. These findings suggest that metaphors used in educational discourse may not be entirely inclusive, as they seem to impose additional cognitive demands on students with dyslexia.
... För att använda modernare metaforik jämför Teilhard den fysikaliska och organiska världens ondska med "une plus ou moins épaisse traînée de fumée" som en framåtrusande raket ofrånkomligen lämnar efter sig(Teilhard de Chardin 1963:268).24 Enligt kognitivister(Lakoff & Turner 1989) tenderar poetiska metaforer att främmandegöra den omedelbara sinneserfarenheten. Teorin har relevans för öppningsscenens sjukdomsgestaltningar med reservation för att främmandegöringsprocessen här i påfallande grad styrs av sinsemellan konkurrerande sjukdomsteologiska intertexter. ...
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This article has two aims. Firstly, it makes an attempt to shed new light on the representation of sickness in Birgitta Trotzig’s (1929–2011) writings. Secondly, the article, by using its analyses of Trotzig, tries to draw some theoretical conclusions concerning the possibilities of applying a theology of pathology in literary studies. While earlier scholars have interpreted Trotzig’s depiction of sickness by means of secular intertexts, the starting point of this article is Trotzig’s adopting of Christian anthropology as her untranscendable hermeneutic horizon. Thus, it is argued, sickness in her writings should primarily be related to theological contexts. By close reading of a representative text passage, the opening scene of Trotzig’s best known novel Dykungens dotter (The Marsh King’s Daughter, 1985), the article explores which contexts within Christian theology of sickness that would be specially fertile for an interpretation of her sickness discourse. The analyses reveal four theological notions of sickness as intertextually present in Trotzig’s narration: Augustine’s concupiscence, Sören Kierkegaard’s dispair, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin’s decomposition, and Eugen Drewermann’s neurosis. The main theoretical conclusions of the analyses are: (a) that the theological notions of sickness to a high degree differ from a ”natural” experience as well as from the biblical sources, (b) that these notions can contradict each other and generate conceptual conflicts, and (c) that the notions therefore, when applied in literary studies, demand strong hermeneutic control.
... La metonimia conceptual, procedimiento al que el presente estudio ofrece especial atención, consiste en una proyección diferente, pues pone en relación dos entidades conceptuales que se encuentran dentro del mismo dominio. La naturaleza de la relación metonímica ha sido descrita por numerosos estudiosos (Lakoff y Turner, 1989;Kövecses y Radden, 1998;Peirsman y Geeraerts, 2006;Barcelona, 2011). ...
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El artículo contiene un estudio basado en corpus de algunas de las principales conceptualizaciones de las partes del cuerpo externas cara, cabeza, boca y mano, y su manifestación lingüística en español. El objetivo es, por un lado, exponer algunos de los diferentes conceptos asociados a las palabras correspondientes a ellas y, por otro, describir el importante papel que realiza la metonimia conceptual en su motivación. En la descripción de las metonimias se han aplicado tres criterios diferentes: jerarquización, relación entre metonimia y metáfora, y relación con otras metonimias (Barcelona, 2011; Blanco-Carrión et al., 2018). Los dos últimos permiten diferenciar procesos en los que la metonimia interviene de manera exclusiva o en interacciones con otras proyecciones metonímicas (cadenas metonímicas) y/o metafóricas. Los resultados revelan los dominios meta hacia los que estas partes corporales se proyectan, entre los que destacan los relacionados con la funcionalidad y la actividad de estas.
... It is generally known that creativity is pervasive in language use (Lakoff & Johnson, 2003[1980Lakoff & Turner, 1989;Carter, 2004;Pope, 2005, pp. xvi-xviii). ...
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This chapter attempts to provide insights into actual language use in multimodal discourse. Observation and analysis focus on multimodal creative use of stylistic patterns: extended metaphor, metonymy, visual pun, allusion, hyperbole, personification. The study also brings out the role of semiotic elements and the significance of background information comprehension and interpretation of multimodal discourse. My aim is to explore multimodality as a tool, applicable in creative figurative thought instantiations. Multimodal discourse reveals the capacity of the human brain to express figurative thought in various semiotic modes. As our brain is inherently multimodal, it is able to cognise figurative meaning in both verbal and non-verbal representation: visual, audial, body language, sound, color.
... В изследването ще се фокусирам върху изходната структура на ФЕ с компонент название на животно, в чието непреосмислено значение в изходната структура се означава интеракция между човек и животно и(ли) се изразява отношение на човека към съответното животно. Изходната хипотеза е, че в съответствие с теорията за The Great Chain of Being (Lakoff, Turner 1989), материалът ще предостави много примери, в които животните се възприемат най-вече чрез ползите им за хората. Също така предполагам, че ще се откроят и примерите с предимно или подчертано негативно отношение на човек към животните. ...
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Abstract: This paper analyzes the phraseological units which consist of a noun that denotes an animal (or body part of an animal), and which basic structure represents an interaction between a man and an animal. However, in this text the phraseological material is approached from a linguocultural point of view and, depending on the meaning of the structural base, 8 thematic groups are distinguished. This approach is motivated by the understanding that culturally significant information can be carried by all components of the structural base of the phraseological units that reveal the attitude of man towards animals. Keywords: Croatian language, Serbian language, phraseology, cultural linguistics
... The theoretical concept of the image schema was advanced by both linguists and developmental psychologists, namely Cienki (1997), Gibbs et al. (1994), Gibbs (2005), Johnson (1987Johnson ( , 2005Johnson ( , 2007, Lakoff (1987Lakoff ( , 1990, Lakoff and Turner (1989), Mandler (1992Mandler ( , 2004Mandler ( , 2012, Mandler and Cánovas (2014), Oakley (2007) and others. An image schema is a structure based on our immediate sensorimotor and perceptual experience coming from the interaction with the outside world, primarily on the basis of spatial relations such as in-out, near-far, up-down, but also on object manipulation, movement through space, etc. ...
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This paper approaches the connection between musical constructs and visuo-haptic experience through the lens of the cognitive-linguistic notion of the “image schema.” The proposal is that the subconscious inference of spatial and haptic schematic constructs in music, such as vertical movement, will motivate their equally common occurrence in the language about that music, irrespective of the fact that this language never describes the musical structure in a one-to-one fashion. We have looked for five schemas in the scores for the first ten piano sonatas by Ludwig van Beethoven and three famous analytical and pedagogical texts about them: force, indicating changes in musical dynamics and referential invocation of power-related terms in the books; path, identifying vertical movement in the music and suggestions of upward- or downward motion in the texts; link, suggesting the presence or absence of musical slurs and references to attachment or detachment in the language; balance, indicating the loss and regain of consonance in the harmony and invocation of lost and recovered stability in the verbal semantics; and containment, allocating the nonharmonic tones that “belong” to their resolving notes in the scores and referring to physical or metaphorical enclosed areas in the texts. Results of the corpus analysis suggest the following conclusions: musical schemas outnumber linguistic ones sevenfold; moderate schema strengths are typical of both language and music; predominant valences are shared by language and music in three schemas out of five; hierarchies of five schemas by strength differ, though the strongest schemas are mostly shared. Yet the central finding is that the correlations between each schema pair for music and language, by scalarity and valence, are total. This implies that (1) schemas operate as semantic building blocks irrespective of the external “symbolical form” in which they are realized and (2) scalarized image schema complexes perceived in one cognitive mode may motivate the emergence of a corresponding number of the same complexes in another.
... In the cognitive study of animal idioms, most researchers focus on the study of animal metaphor. Lakoff and Turner (1989) proposed the existence of the great chain metaphor and thought that it is a mechanism on which animal metaphors depend. The theory, which can be viewed as a cognitive or cultural model, is constructed from the www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/sll ...
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This paper conducted a study of animal metaphors in English and Chinese idioms from the perspective of conceptual metaphor for the following reasons. Firstly, it summarizes the primary metaphors and its classifications by collecting and sorting out a large number of English and Chinese animal idioms and interpreting the representative animal “dog”. Secondly, it summarizes the similarities and differences of conceptual metaphors in English and Chinese animal idioms, and discusses the causes of these similarities and differences, hoping to help readers understand the nature and characteristics of idioms from a new perspective. It is found that the common characteristics and the similar physiological and psychological basis between human and animal lead to the similarities, while geographical environment, religious belief, dietary habits, literary works and legend, historical background and social customs lead to the differences in conceptual metaphors in English and Chinese animal idioms.
... This leads to the questions of whether there are special structures of poetical metaphoricity and how the perception of diegetic representations differs from how we conceptualize emotions in life. On that topic, see Lakoff and Turner 1989. not only are emotional attributions to animals an anthropomorphization of the figurative side of the allegory, they also influence its interpretation [ §3.4]. ...
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This article, which continues ideas developed in the context of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft: Graduiertenkolleg 1876—215342465 (GRK1876), examines how animals are used in medieval texts to (re)present, shape, and develop the literary representation of emotions. On the basis of selected examples, it shows how diverse the literary functions of animal imagery can be and how many different poetic and aesthetic strategies can be found for staging animals, connecting them with human characters and the recipientsof the tale. In this way, animals can serve as objects of cultural self-reflection and as models for philosophical orientation. bySandra HofertFriedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nurembergsandra.hofert@fau.de
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The present article is an attempt to study and classify object metaphors in 26th (from the beginning of Sura Ahghaf) to 30th parts of the Quran with the aim of determining most important target domains of object metaphors and their cognitive justification and also their frequencies in above-mentioned parts of Quran. Metaphorical concepts have been arranged into four groups; namely human relationships with God, himself, nature and other people. Based on the four above introduced groups, target concepts of each kind of relationship, their related mappings and their frequencies in the context of each verse/ chapter have been recognized and analyzed. Considering object as one of the image schemas, roots in Santibáñez (2002) which is the basis of analysis in the present research as well. Object image schemas play a direct and basic role in forming Event Structure metaphor in the Qur'an. Causation, states and motion events are three important aspects of Event Structure metaphor and object image schema has the main role in conceptualizing these three aspects. 17 target concepts with the total frequency of 34 cases have been recognized and analyzed in this investigation. Torment, Ayeh, occurrence of Resurrection, evil, actions, calmness, and time were the most used concepts in the last five parts in the Holy Qur'an which are metaphorically conceptualized through object schema.
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Victimization narratives are a significant factor in the Gaza war. Israel, with all military power, shows itself as a victim in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Fake Stories, whether intentionally created or inadvertently spread, can significantly impact international public opinion. It affects policy decisions, influences public support, and contributes to the perpetuation of the conflict. The researcher employs a cognitive model in a mixed method to analyze ten Israeli narratives that were presented in media reports, TV stations, and social platforms during the period from 6 June 2017 to 15 February 2024. Recognizing the cognitive semantics of victimization narratives helps observers determine reporters' goals and reduces potential adverse effects. The use of qualitative and quantitative analysis has found that the Israeli victimization narrative has specific aspects of cognitive semantics following Lakoff & Johnson's conceptual metaphor theory (1980), Kövecses (2020). It also has found that Israel gained different goals throughout the victimization narratives; the most frequent goals are to shape public opinion, attain emotional response, justify the war against Gaza, Enhance Jewish identity, marginalize Palestine, and prejudice Hamas
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The paper addresses the controversial nature of presenting the concept of death in children´s literature. Young children seem to understand death at a relatively young age. However, there have been controversies related to how this topic should be addressed in children´s literature. While some take a stand that children should be shielded as much as possible, others believe we have to present a true and honest image of death in literature. Oscar Wilde´s modern fanciful tales provide a fertile ground for studying the concept of death. His fairy tales often do not have a happy ending, and in many of his stories, protagonists die unjustly, which gives children a more realistic picture of death. The concept of death in the story The Selfish Giant has been analysed via the Theory of Conceptual Metaphors, as proposed by Mark Johnson and George Lakoff and other scientists from a cognitivist background. The proposed metaphors are founded on spatial image schemas as well as primary metaphors, as elaborated by Lakoff and Johnson. Death in Wilde´s stories is portrayed in subtle tones and in accordance with the philosophy of life cycles, as well as the Judeo-Christian tradition. Moreover, Wilde´s poetic language makes the fairy tale a worthy and enjoyable read for young children.
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En este artículo se propone una clasificación no discreta para establecer la estrecha relación que existe entre las colocaciones adjetivales del tipo lágrimas de cocodrilo y personaje estrella y las locuciones nominales del tipo media naranja y príncipe azul. Este continuum está basado en la opacidad semántica de las construcciones. Se desarrolla brevemente una tipología de las locuciones nominales, distinguiendo entre las que tienen función nominal y las que tienen función predicativa. La descripción de los diferentes tipos de locuciones nominales permite reconocer las estructuras más relevantes para este trabajo, que son aquellas locuciones nominales que se caracterizan por designar y predicar simultáneamente (media naranja, ‘pareja perfecta’), por ello, sus paráfrasis semánticas exigen, como mínimo, un sustantivo y un adjetivo. Se clasifica este tipo de construcciones bajo la etiqueta locuciones nominales complejas.
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This study is a language based analysis of COVID-19 related discourse on social media, particularly the Face book. The analysis centers on the linguistic mode of communication. Investigation of selected data fundamentally focuses on how various users of Face book deploy language to negotiate meaning, seek affinity, index superiority and assert ideology. Using M.A.K. Holliday‘s Systematic Functional Grammar Model, the study aims to analyze language use in social media COVID-19 reportage and also examine and unearth how the social media goings on, cultural dynamics and perception help in generating and constructing text. Holliday‘s SFG model has purposively been chosen for this analysis because of its extensive consideration of form, functions and context in the realization of meaning at the multidimensional level. The study discovers, among other things, that the deployment of simple sentences in communicating COVID-19 preventive measures is very necessary as it enhances the free flow of communication and proper understanding of the message to the targeted readers. It also recommends, among other things, that social media discourse should always appear in straight –to – the – point language for ease of communicating the intended message to the targeted readers.
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The article attempts to outline the approaches and theories proposed by a number of scholars regarding proverbs and sayings as linguistic units. The role of metaphor is emphasized in differentiating between these two units. As a defining feature of proverb, metaphor leads to a general meaning with the help of cognition. Proverbs and sayings imply a panchronic manifestation, indicating past experiences, defining the present context, and expressing the future. These language units are viewed as a combination of the universal, the national and the individual as they express universal truth and linguocultural identity. From the perspective of contemporary linguistics, proverbs and sayings are studied at the level of utterance within the framework of discourse analysis.
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It examines how mountain climate conditions shape unique cultural characteristics and how these characteristics are reflected in political discourse. The study analyzes the linguistic and rhetorical tools used by politicians to address the identity, traditions, and social attitudes of mountain regions. A comparative analysis is conducted using political speeches, media texts, and official documents, highlighting common and specific traits across different cultures. The findings reveal how environmental conditions influence the formation of cultural values, which in turn are reflected in political rhetoric.
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RESUMO: Este estudo analisa as metáforas conceptuais utilizadas por psicanalistas ao falar sobre depressão em vídeos no YouTube. A pesquisa identifica as principais metáforas e infere os modelos subjacentes de conceptualização dessa doença mental. O corpus inclui quatro vídeos em português, totalizando 71 minutos. As expressões metafóricas foram detectadas, quantificadas e classificadas, e as metáforas conceptuais correspondentes foram categorizadas por domínios de destino. As conclusões revelam padrões de conceptualização da depressão através das metáforas, destacando a depressão como um agente externo com capacidades volitivas, uma inimiga em metáforas de luta, com o paciente em posição inferior, e, em geral, o uso de metáforas que desvalorizam o empoderamento dos afetados.Palavras-chave: Metáfora Conceptual. Análise do Discurso. Depressão, Psicanálise.
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The interaction between body and culture is one of the significant topics in cognitive semantics. The present interdisciplinary research, focusing on the embodiment factor, tries to examine the existing conceptualizations in both Persian and English, via a cognitive approach based on the physiological characteristics of the respiratory system and skin in holistic medicine. Therefore, referring to the special position of the lungs in Greek/Iranian holistic medicine as the receiver of respiratory pneuma, in traditional Chinese medicine as the place of the corporal soul, and in Indian medicine (Ayurveda) as an organ adjacent to the heart chakra, the authors try to investigate the ‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬ ‫ــ‬ ‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬ 1. Vol.8, No. 15 spring and summer 2024 Research Article 80 biological motivation of the metonymy-based metaphors related to the respiratory system. Despite the slight differences in the metaphorical expressions, the findings of this research show an extraordinary convergence in the conceptualizations and the metaphorical narration of the function of the lung and the organ related to it, i.e. the skin, in which speech is a precious soul/object, inspiration is a blowing soul and love is breathing in the air of a beloved. Also, the skin is a protective armor and a vessel for the soul. In short, the data analysis shows that knowing the various biological characteristics of organs and their functions based on holistic philosophy and medicine is a suitable platform for identifying the biological origin of embodied metonymies, which can be a justification for making relatively identical metaphors in the two languages due to the universality of the body's physiology.
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De kulturella föreställningar som omger läkares förskrivning av psykofarmaka är metaforiskt strukturerade. Metaforerna i läkemedelsbolagens reklam är en av de faktorer som kan öka förståelsen för den stigande förskrivningen av antidepressiva medel. Analysen av psykofarmakareklam i den ledande tidskriften i Danmark, Finland, Norge och Sverige under 1995 visar att tre diskurser präglar reklamen; eskapism, fångenskap och reduktionism. Eskapism tillskriver läkaren förmåga att befria patienten från vardagliga problem. Fångenskap erbjuder läkaren visuella symboler för psykiska symptom. Reduktionism reducerar socialt betingade problem till biologiska fenomen som bör underställas kemisk behandling. Reklamen vänder sig till läkares osäkerhet och erbjuder dem bekräftelse i deras behandlingsval.
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Becoming Animal (2010) by David Abram represents a significant contribution to eco-phenomenological literature. The work describes how, by focusing on the aspect of becoming animal, i.e., tuning our senses to the pulse of the Earth, we can become fully human. The main point of the present paper is to explore the figurative language so abundantly used by the author to determine how it can play a part in opening our senses and helping us to engage with extra-linguistic reality. One recurring theme in the work is interbeing and the fluidity among all participants, a premise which influenced the selection of transmodern concepts as one of my analytical approaches. My examination of figuration is supported by conceptual metaphor theory enriched by the embodied phenomenology of Maurice Merleau-Ponty and his descriptions of how the body plays a crucial role in the creation of metaphorical expressions. The exploration of imagery reveals that metaphor exhibits not only transmodern movement across signs and extra-linguistic reality but is liquid in itself, featuring the potential for free, spirited reversibility, as well as oscillation between metaphorical analogy and literal meaning.
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This article explores the application of a cognitive linguistic approach in teaching Vietnamese idioms to foreign learners, emphasizing the role of conceptual metaphors. The study demonstrates how understanding the underlying metaphorical structures can enhance learners' comprehension, retention, and application of idioms in practical contexts. By employing various cognitive-based teaching strategies, learners develop the ability to recognize and use idioms more flexibly and accurately. After applying this approach, the findings reveal significant improvements in learners’ interest, synthesis thinking, and strategic use of language. The research underscores the potential for extending cognitive methods to other areas of language teaching for comprehensive skill development.
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Stylistics‘ primary interest is to examine literary texts from a linguistic angle. It highlights the formal characteristics in a text following certain models and procedures trying to generate meanings. The present study is stylistic since it throws light on the lexico- semantic features in James Joyce‘s novels Ulysses and A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. The overall aim behind this inquiry is to identify and highlight the main lexico- semantic features and to interpret their different connotations. The researcher makes use of Leech and Short‘s Model of analysis which is a checklist comprising a set of linguistic categories arranged according to the levels of language be them phonological, morphological, syntactic or lexico-semantic. The study is a manifold: it endeavours to examine two levels of analysis. The lexical level encompasses studying vocabulary, its complexity, its formality and its specificity, besides, the varying parts of speech which are nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs. In parallel, it investigates the semantic features represented in the various figures of speech, particularly tropes. On the other hand, it is a trial to unveil the motives that lead Joyce to use these lexico-semantic features referring to the textual and contextual interpretations. Meticulous and laborious analysis of selected passages from both novels following accurately the Leech and Short Model revealed Joyce‘s varied applications of general lexicon imbued with informality such as the use of colloquialism as embodied notably in slang and the deployment of the major parts of speech that construct unique meanings in the text and evoke novel‘s themes. Analyzing the semantic level showed Joyce‘s employment of tropes such as metaphor, allusion and irony along with neologism. Key-words: stylistics, Modernism, lexico-semantic features, colloquialism, tropes,
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In American literature, there is a wide variety of poetry books and poems devoted to the theme of gardens. This is related to the fact that the concept of garden is firmly rooted in Christian culture as a metaphor for the Garden of Eden. The concept of garden has different characteristics in American culture but these characteristics are not adequately studied and need to be clarified. In this essay, a contextual analysis of English-language poems is performed, and characteristics of the concept of garden in American contemporary poetry are determined and compared. This research clarifies cultural specificity of the concept of garden and shows that it is implemented as a metaphor of a domestic private paradise and creativity and as an ontological metaphor of the life circle. Meanwhile, contextual analysis of poems in English shows how representatives of different schools of poetry conceptualize the cultural phenomenon of the garden in similar ways.
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