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Pythagoras and Early Pythagoreanism
... Besides being an extraordinary mathematician and astronomer, he founded a school in Croton, Italy, to teach Science and Philosophy in agreement with the Orphic religious and mystical teachings (Elliott, 1971;Gordon, 1949). It was described as a "medical philosophical school", serving as a location of a religious cult where he advised his followers to have a healthy diet, practice physical exercises, listen to music, and meditate (Vogel, 1966). ...
... Pythagoras recommended a healthy lifestyle that included long walks, jogs, wrestling, disk-throwing, and boxing to restore the state of balance and harmony (Vogel, 1966). ...
It is essential to study the evolution of each science over time because it generates valid conclusions for both the present and the future. The research of the past represents the primary source of documentation and information regarding the perspectives of development in each field. This paper manifests a two-fold purpose. The first is to prove that the science of recovery by movement, though young in many respects, has a millenary existence with the most outstanding scientists contributing to its progress. Moreover, through this paper, I aimed to support a change in the paradigm regarding the place and mission of physical exercise as a theoretical and practical field of study. The second purpose is to point it out as a response to a social need, namely prophylaxis and treatment. Hence, it manifests as a field of the concrete, not of the abstract.
... He established a school at Croton where he taught, following the religious teachings of Orpheus, science and philosophy. Vogel (1966) noted that Pythagoras' school was a philosophical medical Centre, and that he, Pythagoras, was a medical philosopher because he taught and recommended that his followers observed a regimen of diet, exercise, music, and mediation. The exercises included; boxing, running, wrestling, long walks and discus throwing. ...
Ancient physicians such as Herodicus, Hippocrates and Galen recommended exercises as
panacea for healthy living in antiquity. Modern scholars such as Christos and Tipton have
variously demonstrated the importance of exercises and sports in ancient and modern European
societies citing exercises as treatments for some illnesses by the doctor in the Hippocratic
Corpus. This paper examined the importance of exercise in antiquity and modernity, even as
it serves as a catholicon for healthy living, with a view to identifying the values and relevance
of exercise in dealing with illnesses and promoting good health. Sallis and Owen behavioural
epidemiology was adopted as theoretical framework. The historical and comparative
methodologies were adopted as the study examined the historical trajectory and cross-cultural
variations of exercise in antiquity and today’s world. The discourse in this study demonstrated
that exercise has been functional as medicine and for healthy living in antiquity and modernity.
Medical practitioners, exercise physiologists, including laymen understand its importance and
further recommend exercise suitable for people of varying ages. Further studies may be designed to examine low to medium and medium to high intensity exercise and its health
implications.
Key Words: Exercises, Health, Antiquity, Modernity
... He established a school at Croton where he taught, following the religious teachings of Orpheus, science and philosophy. Vogel (1966) noted that Pythagoras' school was a philosophical medical Centre, and that he, Pythagoras, was a medical philosopher because he taught and recommended that his followers observed a regimen of diet, exercise, music, and mediation. The exercises included; boxing, running, wrestling, long walks and discus throwing. ...
Ancient physicians such as Herodicus, Hippocrates and Galen recommended exercises as panacea for healthy living in antiquity. Modern scholars such as Christos and Tipton have variously demonstrated the importance of exercises and sports in ancient and modern European societies citing exercises as treatments for some illnesses by the doctor in the Hippocratic Corpus. This paper examined the importance of exercise in antiquity and modernity, even as it serves as a catholicon for healthy living, with a view to identifying the values and relevance of exercise in dealing with illnesses and promoting good health. Sallis and Owen behavioural epidemiology was adopted as theoretical framework. The historical and comparative methodologies were adopted as the study examined the historical trajectory and cross-cultural variations of exercise in antiquity and today's world. The discourse in this study demonstrated that exercise has been functional as medicine and for healthy living in antiquity and modernity. Medical practitioners, exercise physiologists, including laymen understand its importance and further recommend exercise suitable for people of varying ages. Further studies may be
... The observation that the consumption of fava beans Favism -brief history from the "abstain from beans" of Pythagoras to date causes various disturbances was the first observation of toxic hemolytic anemia and the rule "κυάμων απέχεσθαι", "kyamon apechehesthe" -"be far from the fava beans consumption" constitutes part of Pythagorean consultations. [19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29] This rule constricts a legume that is named Greek fava been (kyamos Hellenikos, vicia fava, Vica faba) that already is cultivated and used in the Mediterranean by the Prehistoric season where at Theophrastus (372 to c.285 BC) 30 the word kyamos (vicia fava) characterizes the plant as well the kemel. Plynios (23 to 79 AD) 31,32 and Dioscurides (40 to 90 AD) 33 separate the Greek fava been from the fava Aegyptia reminding that the Pythagorean rule concerns only the Greek fava been. ...
... essa ordenação matemática confere as determinações em todos os seres e é todo--poderosa (mega dýnatai) tanto entre os deuses como entre os homens. Vogel (1966), é, ao mesmo tempo, órfico e pitagórico. A extensão da noção de philía do plano das relações práticas para o plano cósmico, e vice -versa, é uma herança pitagórica (id. ...
... Let us now consider the third argument. The Hungarian historian of mathematics A. Szabo [1978], who is supported by some other scholars [Burkert 1972,425; Philip 1966, 2001, considers that the mathematics of the sixth to early fifth centuries evolved empirically and that the deductive method was borrowed from the logic of the Eleatic school. ...
In this article, two questions are posed: Just how reliable is the evidence concerning Pythagoras's mathematical studies, and can we reconstruct his contribution to mathematics? All known fragments of evidence by fourth-century B.C. authors on Pythagoras's mathematical investigations are examined, and it is shown that all the discoveries they mentioned belong to the sixth century B.C. The opinion that the Pythagoreans ascribed their own discoveries to Pythagoras is refuted, and it is shown that we are able to establish logically his contribution to mathematics.ZusammenfassungDer Aufsatz behandelt die Frage, ob es sichere Zeugnisse über Pythagoras' mathematische Beschäftigungen gibt und ob wir auf dieser Grundlage seinen Beitrag zur Mathematik rekonstruieren können. Im Aufsatz werden Zeugnisse der Autoren aus dem 4 Jh. v.u.Z. über Pythagoras' mathematische Forschungen gesammelt, und es wird gezeigt, daß alle seine Entdeckungen wirklich dem Ende des 6 Jh. v.u.Z. angehören. Im Aufsatz wird die ältere Meinung abgelehnt, daß die Pythagoreer ihre Entdeckungen dem Pythagoras zugeschrieben haben, und es wird gezeigt, daß wir in der Lage sind, seinen Beitrag zur Mathematik abzugrenzen.
... That is, property is dominance and power which, for good or ill, serve the security and success of the self. In the sixth century B.C., Pythagoras advocated a pantheistic, egalitarian theology which held that all creation has a common god-head and that the individual self is a materialistic illusion (DeVogel, 1966; Heninger, 1974 ). Accordingly, Pythagoras banned private property because it is socially divisive, leads to stratification, and hinders transcendence . ...
Simmons' (1937) data base of 109 variables measured on 71 societies was reanalyzed. Reliability comparisons were made with Murdock's (1967)Ethnographic Atlas. Eliminated were 3 of Simmons' cultures because of duplicated sampling within culture clusters, 12 variables because of missing data, 7 variables because of invariance, and 1 variable for doubtful reliability. A conservative analysis (p < .0001) showed private property in land and chattel to correlate with 21 variables falling into 3 clusters, interpretively labelled (1) the social ecology of agriculture, (2) social and material stratification, and (3) social security. Subject to the limitations of archived data and to the indeterminancy of correlational analysis, these findings support arguments that private property arose in agricultural society, but not theories that property is a partriarchal, antifemale institution. Speculations based on psychological literature suggest that private property empowers the defense of the self.
At first sight it is indeed ironic that the so-called Hippocratic Oath, which is the most renowned medical ethical document and the one most popularly associated with Hippocrates’ name, is now judged by very few scholars to be authored by Hippocrates. What’s more, it is especially doubtful that the Oath accurately reflects the ethical values and medical practices which the Hippocratic authors favored and typically followed in their practice of medicine. In what follows, I shall undertake to argue for these two basic conclusions. My plan will be met in two steps. First, I shall critically discuss two important contemporary positions on the date, origin, and purpose of the Oath. Then I shall argue that the Oath represents essentially an esoteric ethical code which is partly, though not exclusively, of Pythagorean origin.
Abstract: In the dialogue that shows the last philosophical speech of Socrates,
Plato examines the theme of death: Socrates explores the tradition of Mysteries
to find images that may justify his unusual attitude towards death. The very
definition of death presupposes the existence and survival of the soul. Without
defining the soul, Plato reconfigures the axioms based on the heterogeneity
of the Mysteries. This reconfiguration of ancient beliefs results in the causal
transmigration that moulds the hypothesis of Forms. The composition of the
final myth is the results on a long dialectical pursue which re-establishes the
discursive reason of images qualified as a “noble risk” (‘καλὸς’, Phd. 114d6).
The aim of this analysis is thus to identify the itinerary by which the ‘noble
risk’ of palingenesis constructs the axiom and the causal principle of Forms
as the explanation of truth and the nature of all beings.
Keywords: Causality, Forms, Participation, Palingenesis.
2000 by University of Hawai‘i Press thousand years or more old, was being challenged by a great flowering of philosophical systems. Opposing schools debated the nature of reality: some devised theories of the atom, and saw matter as the basis of the universe; others sought refuge in mysticism; still others rejected the concept of absolute truth and saw everything in relative terms. Taking a firm stand amid the welter of such ideas, Socrates and the Buddha developed a philosophy of the ‘‘Middle Way’’ and devoted their lives to teaching their vision of the Truth to all who would listen. Yet neither wrote down a word of it; in both cases we are dependent on texts composed by gifted disciples after their masters’ passing. Most strikingly, these texts are recorded as dialogues, a form which allows for more dramatic presentation of character and theme, but perhaps also indicates something essential: for Socrates, the necessity for dynamic interaction with other minds as an approach to the Truth, and for the Buddha, the necessity to adapt his teaching...
In 2000, the author started observing legs considered to be attractive. The goal was to have an ideal aesthetic model and compare the disparity between this model and a patient's reality. This could prove helpful during leg sculpturing to get closer to this ideal. Postoperatively, the result could then be compared to the ideal curves of the model legs and any remaining deviations from the ideal curves could be pointed out and eventually corrected in a second session. The lack of anthropometric studies of legs from the knee to the ankle led the author to select and study attractive legs to find out the common denominators of their beauty.
The study consisted in analyzing the features that make legs look attractive. The legs of models in magazines were scanned and inserted into a PowerPoint program. The legs of live models, Barbie dolls, and athletes were photographed. Artistic drawings by Leonardo da Vinci were reviewed and Greek sculptures studied. Sculptures from the National Archaeological Museum of Athens were photographed and included in the PowerPoint program.
This study shows that the first criterion for beautiful legs is the straightness of the leg column. Not a single attractive leg was found to deviate from the vertical, and each was in absolute continuity with the thigh. The second criterion is the similarity of curve distribution and progression from knee to ankle. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE V: This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors at www.springer.com/00266.
Favism (fabismus, favismo, fabism) is a reaction to ingested fava plant; beans, pods and, most likely, foliage as well, or to inhalation of fava pollen. It is a hereditary abnormality of the red cell enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), resulting in its sudden destruction (haemolytic anaemia and jaundice) following the intake of fava beans and other legumes as well as various drugs. Favism is common in Mediterranean, Africa and southern Asia. More than 400 genetic variants are recognized genetically. Fava beans intake originated in the Near East in late Neolithic times, and after they are cultivated in ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome. Fava beans are mentioned several times in Homer Iliad (8th to 9th BC). The Greeks apparently associated the little black spot on the hilum with death and although the beans were sometimes offered in sacrifices to Apollo, the priest were strictly forbidden to eat or even to mention its name. Unlike the Egyptians and Greeks, the Romans had the fava beans in high esteem among legumes. The beans that mentioned Pythagoras are fava beans (vicia fava, Vica faba vulgaris), which botanically are a large seeded vetch. They are well-adapted to the Mediterranean region because is very hardy to cold, grows vigorously during the cool wet months of winter, and present for centuries an unique and invaluable part of diet of the Mediterranean’s basin living people. Its history is rife with superstition, prohibition, magic and fear.
In spite of the common belief that Chinese natural philosophy and medicine have a unique frame of reference completely foreign to the West, this article argues that they in fact have significant cognitive and epistemic similarities with certain esoteric health beliefs of pre-Christian Europe. From the standpoint of Cognitive Science, Chinese Medicine appears as a proto-scientific system of health observances and practices based on a symptomological classification of disease using two elementary dynamical-processes pattern categorization schemas: a hierarchical and combinatorial inhibiting-activating model (Yin-Yang), and a non-hierarchical and associative five-parameter semantic network (5-Elements/Agents). The concept-map of the five-parameter model amounts to a pentagram, a commonly found geomantic and spell casting sigil in a number of pre-Christian health and safety beliefs in Europe, to include the Pythagorean cult of Hygieia, and the Old Religion of Northern Europe. This non-hierarchical pattern-recognition archetype/prototype was hypothetically added to the pre-existing hierarchical one to form a hybrid nosology that can accommodate for a change in disease perceptions. The selection of five parameters rather than another number might be due to a numerological association between the integer five, the golden ratio, the geometry of the pentagram and the belief in health and wholeness arising from cosmic or divine harmony. In any case, this body of purely empirical knowledge is nowadays widely flourishing in the US and in Europe as an alternative to Western Medicine and with the claim of being a unique, independent and comprehensive medical system, when in reality it is structurally-and perhaps historically-related to the health and safety beliefs of pre-Christian Europe; and without the prospect for an epistemological rupture, it will remain built upon rudimentary cognitive modalities, ancient metaphysics, and a symptomological view of disease.
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