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RESEARCH/REVIEW ARTICLE
A surge of the glaciers Skobreen
Paulabreen, Svalbard, observed
by time-lapse photographs and remote sensing data
Lene Kristensen
1
& Douglas I. Benn
1,2
1
Department of Arctic Geology, The University Centre in Svalbard, NO-9171 Longyearbyen, Norway
2
School of Geography and Geosciences, Irvine Building, University of St Andrews, North Street, KY16 9AL Fife, UK
Keywords
Glacier surge; time-lapse movie; Skobreen;
Paulabreen; Svalbard.
Correspondence
Douglas I. Benn, Department of Arctic
Geology, The University Centre in Svalbard,
PO Box 156, NO-9171 Longyearbyen,
Norway.
E-mail: doug.benn@unis.no
Abstract
We present observations of a surge of the glaciers SkobreenPaulabreen,
Svalbard, during 200305, including a time-lapse movie of the frontal advance
during 2005, Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission (ASTER) imagery
and oblique aerial photographs. The surge initiated in Skobreen, and then
propagated downglacier into the lower parts of Paulabreen. ASTER satellite
images from different stages of the surge are used to evaluate the surge
progression. Features on the glacier surface advanced 2800 m over 2.4 yr,
averaging 3.2 m/day, while the front advanced less (ca. 1300 m) due to
contemporaneous calving. The surge resulted in a lateral displacement of the
medial moraines of Paulabreen of ca. 600 m at the glacier front. The time-lapse
movie captured the advance of the frontal part of the glacier, and dramatically
illustrates glacier dynamic processes in an accessible way. The movie docu-
ments a range of processes such as a plug-like flow of the glacier, proglacial
thrusting, incorporation of old, dead ice at the margin, and calving into the
fjord. The movie provides a useful resource for researchers, educators seek-
ing to teach and inspire students, and those wishing to communicate the
fascination of glacier science to a wider public.
Surges are among the most dramatic of all glacial
phenomena. When a glacier surges, ice velocities can
increase by one or two orders of magnitude, drawing
down ice from reservoir areas towards the front, in some
cases producing ice-front advances of several kilometres.
These radical transformations reflect switches in the
thermal and/or hydrological conditions at the glacier
bed, resulting from some combination of internal dy-
namic processes and external environmental conditions
(e.g., Kamb et al. 1985; Eisen et al. 2001; Fowler et al.
2001; Hewitt 2007). The classic definition of surging
glaciers emphasizes quasi-periodic velocity fluctuations,
in which glaciers cycle between periods of rapid motion
lasting a few months to several years*the surge or
active stage*and periods of slow flow lasting several
years to decades*quiescent periods (Meier & Post 1969;
Dowdeswell et al. 1995). Other glaciers have been ob-
served to surge only once, and it may be unclear whether
the surge was an isolated occurrence or if the surge
return period was longer than the period of observation.
Few surging glaciers have been studied in detail,
although it is clear that they can exhibit a very wide
range of behaviour. Surges can be ‘‘fast’’ (with velocities
of several kilometres per year) or ‘‘slow’’ (with velocities
of a few tens of metres per year); they can affect both
temperate and polythermal glaciers, and land-based and
calving glaciers (Harrison & Post 2003; Murray et al.
2003; Nolan 2003; Frappe & Clarke 2007).
Surging glaciers are of great interest scientifically,
because they can shed light on dynamic instabilities
(page number not for citation purpose)
To access the supplementary material to this article please see Supple-
mentary Files under Article Tools online.
Polar Research 2012. #2012 L. Kristensen & D.I. Benn. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0
Unported License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original work is properly cited.
1
Citation: Polar Research 2012, 31, 11106, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v31i0.11106
and threshold behaviour in glacier systems. Study of the
geomorphological and sedimentological products of sur-
ging glaciers can allow glacial geologists to better inter-
pret evidence for past glacier activity and its climatic
implications (Evans & Rea 2003; Ottesen et al. 2008).
Additionally, surges provide educators with spectacular
examples of glacier behaviour, which can capture the
interest and imagination of students and lay people alike.
In 2005, Paulabreen, a tidewater-terminating glacier
in Svalbard, underwent a rapid advance which was
the culmination of a surge that started several years
earlier on its tributary glacier, Skobreen (Sund 2006).
We were able to record this event using time-lapse
photography, using an automatic camera installed near
the glacier front. To our knowledge, this movie was the
first to capture a surge of a polythermal glacier, providing
striking evidence for glaciological and geomorphological
processes at the surge front. In this contribution, we
make the movie available for download and provide a
commentary describing the main features that can be
seen as the surge progresses (see Supplementary File).
In addition, we include a selection of satellite images
and aerial photographs that place the movie in a wider
context, and provide a record of glacier evolution during
the surge. Taken together, the movie and images provide
a resource for the research community and educators,
which illustrates the progress of a High-Arctic surge and
its impacts on the proglacial environment.
Study area and glaciological background
Svalbard is one of several regions in the world with a
high concentration of surge-type glaciers. Estimates of
the percentage of Svalbard glaciers that are of this type
range from 13% to 90%, depending on the criteria used
for inclusion (Hagen et al. 1993; Hamilton & Dowdeswell
1996; Jiskoot et al. 1998). The surge and the quiescent
periods are somewhat longer lasting for Svalbard glaciers
(40500 yr for the quiescent period) than for surge-type
glaciers in other regions of the world (Dowdeswell et al.
1991; Hagen et al. 1993). For this reason, the number of
surge-type glaciers in Svalbard is likely to be under-
estimated in statistical analyses, which only include
observed surges. Nuth et al. (2007) found that most
glaciers on Spitsbergen (the largest of Svalbard’s islands)
had lost mass between 1936/38 and 1990, although
many had thickened in their upper parts, possibly
reflecting ice build-up during quiescent periods following
surges. Recent patterns of mass displacement determined
from aerial photographs and satellite imagery indicate
that ‘‘partial surges’’ (affecting only the upper parts of
glaciers) are common in Svalbard (Sund et al. 2009).
Paulabreen (77842’ N, 17824’ E) is a tidewater
glacier calving into Rindersbukta, inner Van Mijenfjorden
(Fig. 1). The glacier is confluent with Bakaninbreen,
which last surged (independently of Paulabreen) in
19851995 (Murray et al. 2000; Benn et al. 2009). Until
recently, Bakaninbreen shared a calving front with
Paulabreen, but due to lateral displacement of Bakaninb-
reen during the 200305 surge of Paulabreen, the former
now terminates on land. In the early 20th century,
Valla
˚krabreen, Scheelebreen and Ragna-Mariebreen
were major tributaries of Paulabreen, but today they are
independent glaciers that terminate on land (Ottesen
et al. 2008). Paulabreen, together with all tributaries
and Bakaninbreen, covers an area of 141.8 km
2
as
measured from an Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emis-
sion (ASTER) image from 2005. Taken separately, Paula-
breen is 64.6 km
2
in area and 16 km long. Skobreen is a
tributary of Paulabreen, with an area of 18.2 km
2
and
a length of 8 km (Hagen et al. 1993). The equilibrium
line altitudes (ELAs) of Skobreen and Paulabreen were
estimated to be 290 and 330 m a.s.l., respectively by Hagen
et al. (1993). Mean annual air temperature is 5.48C
(19972006) and precipitation is on average 244 mm/yr
(19952002) at the coal mine Sveagruva, 18 km north-
west of the front of Paulabreen.
The bedrock of the Paulabreen catchment consists of
shales, siltstones and sandstones of Cretaceous to early
Tertiary age. The bedrock weathers and erodes easily and
the mountain slopes have large scree aprons covering
Fig. 1 Overview of the catchment. Two previous glacier-front positions
as well as the position reached by the 200305 surge are drawn. The
position of the RDC365 camera used for the time-lapse movie is shown.
Map basis: Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission (ASTER) image
taken on 24 July 2003.
A surge of the glaciers SkobreenPaulabreen, Svalbard L. Kristensen & D.I. Benn
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(page number not for citation purpose) Citation: Polar Research 2012, 31, 11106, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v31i0.11106
their lower parts. The geology is important for surge
behaviour in Svalbard. Hamilton and Dowdeswell (1996)
and Jiskoot et al. (2000) showed that a sedimentary
lithology, in particular shale/mudstone as found in this
area, significantly increases the probability that a glacier
will be of surge type.
Four tributaries of Paulabreen (Skobreen, Sokkbreen,
Peisbreen and Ragna-Mariebreen) had arcuate frontal
moraines at their confluences with the main glacier
before the recent surge (Fig. 1). This contrasts with the
tributaries Knoppbreen, Nataschabreen and Bakanin-
breen, which form separate flow-units to Paulabreen as
indicated by medial moraines starting at the confluences
and extending to the glacier front. Aerial photographs
from 1936, 1956 and 1990 show that this pattern has
persisted since at least 1936.
The Holocene maximum position of Paulabreen is
located 25 km from the present glacier front and dates
to around 1300 AD (Punning et al. 1976; Rowan et al.
1982; Hald et al. 2001; Kristensen et al. 2009). The
moraines record one of the largest Little Ice Age advances
(and subsequent retreat) of any Svalbard glacier (De Geer
1919). In 1898, the front was located near the mouth of
Rindersbukta (Kjellstro
¨m 1901) (Fig. 1), then retreated
ca. 10 km until 2003. The 200305 surge of Paulabreen
then caused a frontal advance of 1.9 km (Ottesen et al.
2008). Despite the overall retreat, there is evidence that
Scheelebreen, Valla
˚krebreen and Ragna-Mariebreen
surged and advanced independently around 19191925
(De Geer 1919; Co
¨ster 1925). As noted above, Bakaninb-
reen surged from 1985 to 1995, but the surge terminated
before reaching the front and caused no advance. In a
series of papers (Porter et al. 1997; Murray et al. 1998;
Murray et al. 2000; Fowler et al. 2001; Murray & Porter
2001), it was shown that downglacier propagation of the
surge front was associated with thawing of the glacier
bed, and that flow acceleration reflected enhanced basal
motion over a thin layer of unfrozen basal till.
Methods
Time-lapse movie
A time-lapse camera was placed to the south-west of
Paulabreen on 28 April 2005 (Figs. 1, 2). The camera faced
eastnorth-east (0678) with the glacier front near the
centre of the image. By early July the front had advanced
out of view, and when the camera was visited on 16
August 2005 it was moved ca. 32 m uphill and turned
northwards (to 0258) to have the front in view again. The
distance to the glacier was ca. 1 km in the beginning but
was reduced to ca. 500 m as the glacier advanced.
The camera was an RDC-365 unit consisting of a
CX6200 digital camera (Kodak, Rochester, NY, USA),
built into a water-proof box with a time-lapse controller
and a solar panel by MetSupport (Roskilde, Denmark).
The image resolution is 16321232 pixels. The camera
was programmed to take one picture per day at 12.00
(local time) with a date-stamp. The RDC365 was mounted
on a small bench on the slope overlooking the glacier, on
one of the only places free of snow at the time of
installation. Later, it was observed that the whole slope
was ice-cored and rather unstable, which explains the
slight movement of the camera seen in the movie,
particularly in the snow melting period.
From the record of the active phase of the surge
(29 April 2005 to 15 November 2005), 24 pictures were
omitted due to fog, six due to raindrops on the window,
14 due to snow on the window and five due to the polar
night darkness. The longest period of missing frames was
eight days. The camera failed to record images on 92 days
in the polar night as the battery failed (the pictures would
have shown nothing for most of the period in any case).
From 16 February to 22 July 2006, 116 pictures were
removed, leaving only 40 pictures documenting the
stagnation and initial down-wasting of the glacier.
The selected images were enhanced using Auto Smart
Fix in Adobe Photoshop Elements and the movie was
compiled using Windows Movie Maker.
Photographs and ASTER images
The geometric evolution of the glacier during and follow-
ing the surge is documented using oblique aerial photo-
graphs taken on three occasions (8 August 2003,
26 September 2005 and 18 June 2007). In addition,
Fig. 2 Placing the time-lapse camera on 28 April 2005. Photographer:
Anne-Marie LeBlanc.
L. Kristensen & D.I. Benn A surge of the glaciers SkobreenPaulabreen, Svalbard
Citation: Polar Research 2012, 31, 11106, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v31i0.11106 3
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ground-based photographs of the glacier front were taken
on various dates during spring 2005. We also mapped
visible surface features such as medial moraines and
moraine loops on satellite images and vertical aerial pho-
tographs. Three ASTER images (15 m resolution 1B VNIR,
bands 1, 2 and 3N) from different stages of the surge (24
July 2003, 23 July 2005 and 4 August 2008) were used.
The aerial photograph from 1990 (NP 1:50.000-S90
6826) was georeferenced by control points from a 2003
ASTER image using the spline transformation function
(‘‘rubber-sheeting’’) in ArcGIS. This transformation was
applied because the high mountains created distortion on
the image, which was taken at a low altitude compared to
the satellite image. In areas with few control points, such
as the glacier surfaces, the resulting rectified image most
likely contains inaccuracies of up to a few tens of metres.
These errors, however, are one or two orders of magni-
tude smaller than the displacements of interest, and
therefore do not significantly affect our results.
Data presentation and interpretation
The time-lapse movie
The images we include in this movie show the surge
advance of Paulabreen and the early part of the quiescent
period following surge termination. The movie shows
intensely crevassed ice at the advancing frontal and lateral
margins, behind which the glacier surface behaves like a
coherent block. Behind the surge front, therefore, glacier
motion appears to occur almost entirely by basal motion
(sliding and/or till deformation), with little deformation
of the overlying ice. This is consistent with the idea that
rapid motion during surges is facilitated by trapped,
pressurized water at the bed, and that basal drag is very
small. The driving stress arising from the downslope com-
ponent of the glacier’s weight appears to be largely sup-
ported at the glacier margins, where large stress gradients
result in intense deformation and fracture of the ice.
The land-based part of the glacier advanced across ice-
cored terrain that was mantled with a thin sediment
cover. From around 10 July 2005, the proglacial buried
ice on the right of the field of view can be seen to thicken
as the surge front comes closer, consistent with horizon-
tal shortening in response to compressive stresses trans-
ferred from the advancing glacier. From 24 July 2005, the
proglacial ice is dislocated along a succession of low-angle
fractures, and slabs are thrust ahead of the surge front
before being progressively over-ridden and incorporated
into the glacier. The movie illustrates the complexity of
deformation patterns in the zone of intense compression
near the glacier margin.
Following re-orientation of the camera on 16 August,
there is little evidence of deformation or dislocation of the
glacier foreland. This partly reflects the fact that the glacier
margin was obscured by foreland topography. The glacier
front forms a vertical calving face, and calving losses
partially offset the advance of the ice margin in this area.
The vertical ice front contrasts with the sloping, broken-
up glacier front seen prior to mid-July, when sea ice
remained in the fjord. This contrast indicates that calving
was suppressed in winter, possibly by the presence of sea
ice in the fjord or cessation of surface melting and water
input to crevasses (see Vieli et al. 2002; Nick et al. 2010).
The last image of 2005 is for 15 November. The sequence
resumes on 16 February 2006, when the glacier terminus
is a short distance beyond the November position. Only
minor forward motion of the ice is apparent in the 2006
images, indicating that surge termination occurred during
the months of darkness, probably in late November or
early December.
Evolution of Skobreen
Paulabreen during the
surge
The geometric evolution of SkobreenPaulabreen is
summarized in Fig. 3, which shows the location of the
ice front and medial moraines on the glacier surface
Fig. 3 Development of the surge illustrated by the progressive
displacement of medial moraines and end moraine loops as well as
the glacier-front positions. The illustration is based on the following
images: NP1990 1:50.000 (black), Advanced Spaceborne Thermal
Emission (ASTER) 24 July 2003 (blue), ASTER 23 July 2005 (green) and
ASTER 4 August 2008 (red).
A surge of the glaciers SkobreenPaulabreen, Svalbard L. Kristensen & D.I. Benn
4
(page number not for citation purpose) Citation: Polar Research 2012, 31, 11106, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v31i0.11106
in 1990, 2003, 2005 and 2008. The surge was clearly in
progress by the summer of 2003. The moraine loop of
Skobreen extends farther out into Paulabreen than in
1990, and the upper trunk of Skobreen and tributary
niches were traversed by numerous transverse crevasses
(Fig. 4a). Crevasses in the upper part of Skobreen can be
very clearly seen in oblique aerial photographs taken on
8 August 2003 (Fig. 5). Approximately 700 m upstream
Fig. 4 Two Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission (ASTER) images showing Skobreen and most of Paulabreen showing the change in the crevasse
pattern: (a) the early surge phase, 24 July 2003; (b) the full surge stage, 23 July 2005.
Fig. 5 Two oblique photographs on 8 August 2003, during the early surge stage: (a) most of Skobreen; (b) a major part of the catchment. Both
photographs clearly show a surge bulge at the lower end of Skobreen. Photographer: Tavi Murray.
L. Kristensen & D.I. Benn A surge of the glaciers SkobreenPaulabreen, Svalbard
Citation: Polar Research 2012, 31, 11106, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v31i0.11106 5
(page number not for citation purpose)
of the moraine loop of Skobreen, a pronounced bulge can
be seen, traversed by longitudinal crevasses indicative of
compressive flow. The glacier between the bulge and the
moraine loop was deformed into a series of arcuate
waves, resembling ogives (see Waddington 1986). The
ice in the margins of the main trunk was brecciated.
There were no indications of activation of Paulabreen,
although the moraine-loop of Skobreen had moved ca.
300 m into the trunk of Paulabreen between 1990 and
2003. These observations are consistent with patterns of
elevation change measured from digital elevation models
by Sund et al. (2009), which showed ‘‘drawdown’’ of ice
in the upper part of Skobreen, and marked thickening of
its lower part. The date of surge initiation is not known,
although Sund (2006) argued that extensional crevasses
had begun to form in the upper basin as early as 1990.
Between summer 2003 and spring 2005, the surge
propagated downglacier and had affected most of the
lower tongue of Paulabreen. On 2 April 2005, we ob-
served that the south-west side of the glacier was heavily
crevassed and brecciated. Sea ice was bulldozed in front
of the glacier (Fig. 6) and continuous cracking noises
indicated high activity. However, the north-east part of
the glacier front was undisturbed, which suggests that we
arrived soon after the surge front reached the glacier
terminus. Fig. 7 shows the boundary between surging
and non-surging ice in mid-April 2005.
By 23 July 2005, the surge had affected all of Skobreen
and the entire width of Paulabreen (Fig. 4b). The
moraine loop of Sokkbreen had moved 1300 m down-
glacier. The medial moraine between Paulabreen and
Bakaninbreen was pushed obliquely downglacier, and its
lower part had been displaced several hundreds of metres
to the right (Fig. 3). The front had advanced by up to
1400 m. The length of the combined moraine-loop of
SkobreenPaulabreen increased from 3770 m (2003) to
5460 m (2005), probably indicating both shearing and
extension of the ice along this line.
The time-lapse movie shows that the surge ended in
the dark season of 200506, but the next cloud-free
ASTER image is from 4 August 2008. Moraine loops and
other debris features on the surface were located 1300 to
1500 m downstream and ca. 200 m laterally compared
with 23 July 2005. The SkobreenPaulabreen loop
became 700 m longer (to 6155 m), signifying further
extension along its line. The front had advanced between
200 and 400 m, although this must be less than the total
ice displacement because some calving occurred after
stagnation of the front. The average velocity in the main
trunk during the entire surge was 3.2 m/day assuming an
onset of the surge of Paulabreen of 24 July 2003 and a
termination in December 2005. It is important to note
that the surge front (the boundary between surging and
non-surging ice) must have travelled downglacier con-
siderably faster than this, as has been observed at other
surging glaciers (e.g., Raymond et al. 1987; Murray et al.
2000; Frappe & Clarke 2007).
Oblique aerial photographs taken in September 2005
show the morphological effects of the surge on the glacier
(Fig. 8). By that time, a large volume of ice had been
transported from upper Skobreen (the reservoir area)
into a lower receiving area. Remnants of ice left stranded
on the walls of the Skobreen cirque after the surge show
drawdown of at least 50 m over large areas. Almost the
Fig. 6 The surging glacier advances into the fjord Rindersbukta,
deforming the sea ice, in this photograph taken on 2 April 2005. Notice
the chaotic brecciated glacier ice. Photographer: Anne-Marie LeBlanc.
Fig. 7 The front of PaulabreenBakaninbreen on 14 April 2005. In the spring of 2005, the surge had only reached the south-western half of the front.
A surge of the glaciers SkobreenPaulabreen, Svalbard L. Kristensen & D.I. Benn
6
(page number not for citation purpose) Citation: Polar Research 2012, 31, 11106, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v31i0.11106
entire catchment of Skobreen was active in the surge,
with the exception of a series of small niches around the
cirque headwalls. Even in these areas, however, trans-
verse crevassing indicates ice drawdown in response to
lowering of the main glacier (Fig. 9). In the receiving
area, the zone of most intense crevassing was around the
margins of the surging part of the glacier, whereas a large
part of Paulabreen behind the surge front was relatively
uncrevassed. This suggests that much of the glacier was
moving by plug flow over a weak substrate, consistent
with the flow pattern shown in the time-lapse movie.
Much of the stress exerted by this part of the glacier
appears to have been supported around the margins,
resulting in intense compression and fracturing.
Summary and conclusions
During 2003 and 2005 Skobreen and the lower part of
Paulabreen, Svalbard, experienced a major surge. ASTER
images from different stages of the surge together with an
aerial photograph before the onset of the surge were used
to evaluate the surge progression. The surge initiated in
Skobreen, and propagated downglacier into Paulabreen
eventually resulting in an advance of the glacier into
the fjord. The medial moraines of Paulabreen were pro-
gressively displaced obliquely downglacier, with a lateral
displacement of several hundreds of metres. Ice was
displaced a maximum of 2800 m downstream, measured
from displacement of debris surface features, giving an
average ice velocity of 3.2 m/day. The front advanced less
than the total ice displacement (13001800 m), as calving
occurred during the surge. The evidence for plug flow
suggests that the high velocities were the result of basal
Fig. 8 SkobreenPaulabreen during and following the surge. (a) The lower part of Paulabreen, viewed towards the south on 26 September 2005.
Skobreen occupies the cirque in the upper middle part of the photograph, and the boundary between surging and non-surging ice on Paulabreen is
visible on the upper left. (b) The surge front at the south-west margin of Paulabreen, 26 September 2005. Note the chaotically crevassed ice near the
glacier front, behind which the ice is relatively uncrevassed. In the foreground of the photograph is a crevassed forebulge formed of old, buried glacier
ice. (c) View over Paulabreen into Skobreen, 26 September 2005. (d) Remnant ice stranded above Skobreen after surge termination, 18 June 2007. The
ice cliff is ca. 50 m high.
Fig. 9 Photograph taken on 18 June 2007 towards the south-west
showing most of Skobreen after the surge. The majority of the glacier is
covered with transverse crevasses, including the niches to the left in the
picture. Note the substantial down-draw on either side of the main
trunk. Towards the bottom in the picture longitudinal crevasses can be
seen.
L. Kristensen & D.I. Benn A surge of the glaciers SkobreenPaulabreen, Svalbard
Citation: Polar Research 2012, 31, 11106, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v31i0.11106 7
(page number not for citation purpose)
motion (sliding and/or till deformation) facilitated by
pressurized water at the bed.
A time-lapse movie (see Supplementary File) captured
the advance of the frontal part of the glacier, and
dramatically illustrates glacier dynamic processes in an
accessible way. The movie documents a range of pro-
cesses such as a plug like flow of the glacier, proglacial
thrusting, incorporation of old, dead ice at the margin
and calving into the fjord. In our experience, the movie
provides a powerful resource for teaching and inspiring
students, and for communicating the fascination of
glacier science to a wider public.
Acknowledgements
We kindly acknowledge the following people and in-
stitutions: Svalbard Villmarkssenter, a local tour company
that drew our attention to the surge of Paulabreen. Store
Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani who funded the camera
and provided logistical support. The University Centre in
Svalbard (UNIS) provided funding and logistical support,
and Lars Grande helped secure funding for the camera
system. Anne-Marie LeBlanc, Alex Wolfe, Ole Humlum,
Ruth Mottram, Lars Grande, Fabrice Caline and various
student groups at UNIS helped in the field. The photo-
graphs in Fig. 5 were kindly provided by Tavi Murray.
The ASTER images were obtained from the Land
Processes Distributed Active Archive Centre of the US
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The
1990 aerial photograph (Fig. 3) is used with permission
from the Norwegian Polar Institute.
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