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The three-dimensional causes of flooding in
Accra, Ghana
Clifford Amoakoa & E. Frimpong Boamahb
a Centre for Geography and Environmental Science, Social and Political
Sciences Graduate Research Program, Faculty of Arts, Monash University,
Melbourne, Australia
b School of Urban and Public Affairs, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY,
USA
Published online: 04 Dec 2014.
To cite this article: Clifford Amoako & E. Frimpong Boamah (2014): The three-dimensional
causes of flooding in Accra, Ghana, International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development, DOI:
10.1080/19463138.2014.984720
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2014.984720
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The three-dimensional causes of flooding in Accra, Ghana
Clifford Amoako
a
*and E. Frimpong Boamah
b
a
Centre for Geography and Environmental Science, Social and Political Sciences Graduate Research Program, Faculty
of Arts, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia;
b
School of Urban and Public Affairs, University of Louisville,
Louisville, KY, USA
(Received 19 April 2014; accepted 3 November 2014)
The perceived and actual causes of flood hazards in cities of sub-Saharan African countries have come
under tremendous debate. In Accra, the capital of Ghana, flooding has been the key source of human
vulnerability. Studies carried out on flood vulnerability in the city have given varied attributions to their
frequent occurrences. In this paper we comprehensively explore the various causes of flood hazards in our
bid to set the stage for an integrated approach to flood management. Using mixed methods including
document reviews, institutional consultations and key informant interviews, the study categorises all the
causes of flood hazards in Accra into three broad but interrelated thematic areas presenting a platform for
integrated flood management. The study therefore recommends a comprehensive and integrated approach
to flood management that takes into consideration the peculiarities of local physical, social, and political
conditions. A framework for such an integrated approach is proposed.
Keywords: Accra; flood hazards; surface water management; urbanisation; climate change/variability
1. Introduction and background
Urban flooding has been a major issue in Accra,
Ghana since the early 1930s (Karley 2009)with
significant flood disasters having been recorded in
1955, 1960, 1963, 1973, 1986, 1991, 1995, 1999,
2001, 2002, 2010 and 2011 (Twumasi and Asomani-
Boateng 2002; Karley 2009;Rainetal.2011). Many
drivers have been attributed to these events. Rain
et al. (2011) and Appeaning-Addo et al. (2011)have
determined the possible role of climate variability
and change in Accra’sflooding. These have been
related to changes in rainfall and temperature pat-
terns and coastal inundation and erosion.
Other attributions cited are poor physical plan-
ning and flaws in the drainage network (Karley
2009); massive growth of the city, preventing infil-
tration by impervious surfaces (Arnold et al. 1996;
Yeboah 2000,2003;Afeku2005); informal housing
development practices (Aryeetey-Attoh 2001); and
poor physical development control and waste man-
agement practices in the city (Karley 2009)which
are indicators of rapid and unplanned urbanisation.
The result of these possible changes in climatic
conditions and rapid urbanisation is a change in
the natural hydrology of Accra through heavy pre-
cipitation and increasing peak run-off discharge
(Nyarko 2002; Adank et al. 2011).
This paper therefore comprehensively discusses
and categorises the various causes of flooding under
three broad but interrelated thematic areas: intensity
of rainfall events and poor management of surface
water resources; uncontrolled urbanisation and resi-
dential development in flood-prone areas; and per-
ceived or real impacts of climate variability and
change. The paper draws mainly on reviews of
both academic and governmental documents,
*Corresponding author. Email: clifford.amoako@monash.edu
International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development, 2014
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2014.984720
© 2014 Taylor & Francis
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institutional surveys and key stakeholder and infor-
mant interviews to analyse the causes of the city’s
exposure and vulnerability to flood hazards. By
broadly categorising the causes of Accra’sperennial
flood situation into the three categories and showing
their interrelationships, the study brings together
pockets of studies which have often identified
some of the causes of flood hazards in Accra.
Validating known findings with institutional
responses while elaborating on other institutional
perspectives often not discussed in studies on
Accra’sflood situation, the discussions in this
paper become key in advocating for an integrated
urban flood risk and disaster management frame-
work for Accra and by extension other urbanising
cities in Africa.
2. Materials and methods
This paper is a synthesised work of documentary
sources, survey of selected institutions responsible
for flood management in Accra, and selected
communities mini-workshops and flood victims’
interviews. Eleven institutions involved in environ-
mental and flood management in the city were pre-
selected for the field study. Six other institutions
were chosen and interviewed based on a snowball
selection resulting from discussions with the pre-
selected institutions. Both unstructured question-
naires and in-depth interviews were used. Tabl e 1
summarises the institutions and the respective num-
ber of officers interviewed.
As well as responding to the questionnaires
prior to the interviews, the questionnaires also
prepared the officers for an informative and enga-
ging discourse during the interview. A key mani-
festation of how prepared the officers were was the
number of relevant government policy documents
organised beforehand and given to the researchers
during the interviews. We also scheduled informal
interviews with some retired public officials
believed to have worked and gained extensive
knowledge in urban flooding in Ghana.
Government policy documents were also reviewed
to validate views sampled during the institutional
surveys.
Table 1. List of institutions interviewed or surveyed.
Institutions No. of officers
Pre-selected institutions
National Disaster Management Organization (NADMO) 2
Town and Country Planning Department 5
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 5
Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMET) –Accra Metropolitan Office 2
Centre for Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems (CERGIS) 3
Department of Urban Roads –Accra Metropolitan Office 2
Water Research Institute, Surface Water Division 2
Hydrological Services Department (HSD) 2
Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA) 1
National Insurance Commission 1
Selected Insurance Companies 2
Institutions selected through snowball sampling
Urban development consultants working in study communities 2
Researchers in the three Ghanaian universities 4
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) –UN Habitat, Accra Office 1
Drainage Maintenance Unit of AMA 1
People’s Dialogue on Human Settlements 1
Ghana Federation of the Urban Poor (GHAFUP) 2
Total 38
2C. Amoako and E. Frimpong Boamah
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3. Flooding in Accra –a contextual review
Accra has an estimated population of about 3 million
(Rain et al. 2011; Ghana Statistical Service 2012). It
is a rapidly expanding city with an annual population
growth rate of 4.3% between 1984 and 2000 and
about 4% between 2000 and 2010 (Ghana Statistical
Service 2002,2012). With this population growth
trend, Accra has been described as one of the fastest
growing metropolises in Africa. The metropolis is
approximately 300 km
2
(Grant & Yankson 2003;
Møller-Jensen et al. 2005) and lies between long-
itude 0° 1′W and 0° 15′E and latitudes 5° 30′Nand
5° 50′N, respectively (Nyarko 2000). Accra is char-
acterised by lowlands and occasional hills with an
average topography of between 20 and 70 m above
mean sea level (Kortatsi & Jørgensen 2001;Nyarko
2002). The general slope of the city is gentle at
below 11%, with a water table varying between
4.80 and 70 m below the surface (Nyarko 2002).
Figure 1 shows the continental and national contexts
of the Accra Metropolitan Area.
3.1. Vulnerability and exposure to flood
hazards in the city of Accra
Accra’s exposure and vulnerability to flood hazards
has been a major concern to city authorities and
residents alike. This has resulted from the increasing
number of communities affected coupled with uncon-
trolled growth of informal settlements in low-lying
and flood-prone areas. A number of scholarships
have been produced on the nature, causes and impacts
of flood hazards in Accra (Nyarko 2002; Douglas
et al. 2008; Appeaning-Addo et al. 2011;Amoani
et al. 2012; Gyekye 2013;Okyereetal.2013).
Interviews with officials of Ghana’s National
Disaster Management Organization (NADMO) iden-
tified three areas of flood vulnerability: (1) areas of
Figure 1. Accra in national and African contexts.
Source: Centre for Remote Sensing and GIS (CERSGIS), University of Ghana, Accra, July–August 2013.
International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 3
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frequent flooding due to insufficient drainage net-
work, clogged drains and overflow of lagoons/rivers;
(2) low-lying flood-prone areas yet to experience
flood hazards; and (3) wetlands or swampy areas.
Studies by Nyarko (2002) and Twumasi and
Asomani-Boateng (2002) also showed increases in
flood-prone zones in the city. In an unpublished
master’s thesis submitted to the Department of
Geography and Resource Development, University
of Ghana, Kagblor (2010) presented a flood vulner-
ability map of the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area
(GAMA) showing the three areas of flood hazards
mentioned earlier (see Figure 2).
The current flood risk map prepared by the
Centre for Remote Sensing and Geographic
Information System (CERGIS) of the Department
of Geography and Resource Development,
University of Ghana is presented in Figure 3.
Figure 3 shows areas vulnerable to flood hazards
in the city of Accra.
According to Douglas et al. (2008), those
heavily affected by Accra’sflood hazards are resi-
dents of communities largely known to house low
income people located in flood-prone areas within
river catchments in the city. Such communities are
usually considered as informal settlements com-
prising a range of rental, squatting and informal
land security. Over 90% of the list of flood-prone
communities obtained from NADMO headquar-
ters is made of such informal settlements.
Residents of these informal settlements live in
very poor and vulnerable physical and socio-eco-
nomic conditions –along intermittently used rail-
way lines,
1
banks of major river catchments
2
and
the lagoon in the city, fringes of unused industrial
sites, fringes of solid waste disposal sites and other
unused public spaces, and undeveloped periph-
eries of the city among others. Since some of
these locations are seen as illegal, they have very
little or no access to basic household and
Figure 2. Flood-prone areas and types of floods in the Greater Accra Plains.
Source: Kagblor (2010)‘A spatio-temporal study of urbanisation and flooding in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area
(GAMA) of Ghana’.
4C. Amoako and E. Frimpong Boamah
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community infrastructure such as water, sanitation,
waste disposal, drainage networks, access
roads, etc.
The Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA), the
city’s highest authority, with the support of the local
office of UN Habitat has identified 82 such informal
communities within the city (AMA & UN Habitat
2011). These communities are home to some
1,652,374 people representing 38.4% of the city’s
population. According to NADMO, an estimated
366,823 of residents of informal settlements form-
ing about 22.2% are living in flood-prone zones and
are therefore vulnerable to flood hazards (National
Disaster Management Organization 2010).
Not only are slum dwellers vulnerable, flood
events have also caused massive destruction in
Accra since 1955 when the first significant flood
event was recorded (Twumasi & Asomani-Boateng
2002). For instance, between 1955 and 1997 prop-
erty worth over US$30 million was destroyed, 100
lives were lost and 10,000 people rendered homeless
either during or immediately after flood events
(Adinku 1994; Gyau-Boakye 1997). This trend
seemed to have increased, with 56 lives lost during
major floods in 1999 (Ahadzie & Proverbs 2011).
Over the last decade the incidence of flood events
in the city has assumed an alarming dimension. In
June 2001, Karley (Karley 2009,p.27)reportedthat
a torrential rainfall that caused flooding in Accra left
11 people dead and over 100,000 others homeless. In
2008 it was estimated that flooding in July and
August caused more than US$1 million worth of
damage in the city of Accra alone. According to
Karley (2009), the total value of assets at risk from
flooding in Accra now exceeds US$6 million per
year. This was estimated to have increased from US
$500,000 recorded in 2007 by the Ghana NADMO
(National Disaster Management Organization 2009).
This shows an approximately 100% increase in the
cost of damage from flooding per year from any
given base year. For a city in a developing country,
these figures are intimidating. The most recent and
Figure 3. Flood risk map of Accra Metropolitan Area (City of Accra).
Source: Centre for Remote Sensing and GIS (CERSGIS), University of Ghana, Accra, July–August 2013.
International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 5
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devastating flood event occurred on 25 and 26
October 2011, killing 14 people and displacing
17,000 others in a day (United Nations
Environment Program (UNEP)/Office for the
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)
2011). Table 1 gives a summary of flood events,
number of communities and residents affected and
the estimated cost of damage in GAMA spanning the
period between 2000 and 2012 compiled data from
NADMO, HSD and reports from local media.
Table 2 indicates that 83 people have been killed
directly by flood hazards over the last 12 years in
the GAMA. Over the same period, about 178,750
people have been displaced by flood hazards with
an estimated total cost of damages and loss standing
at about US$43.7 million. As a result the director of
research at the NADMO headquarters described
flooding as:
the single major cause of displacement, related
deaths [direct and indirect], physical and material
losses as well as economic destruction of the
Accra Metropolis …
4. The three-dimensional causes of flood
hazards in Accra –perceptions and realities
A review of a scientific report on flooding in
Ghana, obtained from the Water Research
Institute (WRI) during fieldwork, summarises
the key causes of flood hazards in Accra gener-
ally into three broad but interrelated factors
namely, meteorological including rainfall and
storm surges, hydrological relative to impervious
urban landscape and management surface water
resources and anthropogenic activities including
urbanisation and land use changes (Water
Research Institute (WRI) 2011). Other attribu-
tions of flooding in Accra mentioned in the lit-
erature include:
●the overflow of Odaw River out of its nat-
ural valley and catchment (Hayward &
Oguntoyinbo 1987 and Arkorful 2008);
●massive and uncontrolled growth of Accra
(Afeku 2005;Karley2009;Rainetal.2011);
●prevention of natural infiltration by imper-
vious surface (Arnold et al. 1996; Yeboah
2000,2003; Afeku 2005);
●poor flows in drainage network such as
undersized, unconnected and/or improperly
channelled drains (Rain et al. 2011);
●poor development control practices (Afeku
2005; Karley 2009);
●limited liquid and solid waste disposal chan-
nels (Afeku 2005);
Table 2. Major flood hazards and their impacts in Accra (2000–2012).
Date
No. of communities
affected
No.
displaced Casualties
Estimated cost of damage
(million US$)
7 May and 5 June 2000 49 6584 12 5.65
1 June 2001 65 41,450 13 10.00
6 January, 9 and 13
June 2003
25 2787 3 2.54
18 June 2003 30 3140 5 1.71
13 April 2004 9 250 –0.61
12 March 2005 22 2370 3 7.35
13 June 2007 40 13,140 5 1.14
27 March 2008 12 1456 –0.91
19 June 2009 33 15,616 7 4.12
20 June 2010 42 19,833 17 2.78
25 and 26 Oct 2011 149 65,236 14 4.72
June and October 2012 157 6888 4 2.18
Source: Compiled from National Disaster Management Organization, Hydrological Services Department and Media
Reports (2000–2012).
6C. Amoako and E. Frimpong Boamah
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●poor physical planning and flaws in the
drainage network (Karley 2009; Rain et al.
2011); and
●informal housing development practices
(Aryeetey-Attoh 2001).
The above are all indicators of rapid and
unplanned urbanisation confronting the city, as
well as the poor management of water bodies in
the city. Rain et al. (2011) and Appeaning-Addo
et al. (2011) have also reported on the role of
climate variability and change in Accra’sflooding.
However, the causes of flood hazards in the
Accra metropolis as gathered from institutional
stakeholders and key informants interviewed can
be discussed under three main thematic areas:
intensity of rainfall events and management of
Accra’s surface water resources; uncontrolled
urbanisation and ineffective urban planning; and
the possible impacts of climate variability and
changes. These are discussed in the following
sub-sections.
4.1. Intensity of rainfall events and poor
management of surface water resources in the
City of Accra
Kwaku and Duke (2007, p. 30) in their analysis of
projected return period of rainfall patterns in Accra
predicted that a maximum of 84.05 mm in 1 day,
91.60 mm in 2 days, 100.40 mm in 3 days,
105.67 mm in 4 days and 109.47 mm in 5 days
is expected to occur at Accra every 2 years.
Similarly a maximum rainfall of 230.97 mm,
240.49, 272.77 mm, 292.07 mm and 296.54 mm
is expected to occur in 1 day, 2, 3, 4 and 5 days,
respectively, every 100 years (see Table 3).
Rainfall intensity is further discussed in the
section on the perceived causes of climate change
and variability. Accra’s projected return period
maximum rainfall figures give warning about the
possibility of extreme precipitation events in
Accra and could be taken as a rough guide for
land use and storm water infrastructure planning
(Table 2). The study concluded that the 2–
100 year return period presents sufficient time for
natural soil and water conservation measures, con-
struction of dams and storm water management
drains to occur (Kwaku & Duke 2007). A key
impact of current and projected extreme rainfall
patterns is the change in the urban hydrology of
Accra leading to perennial flood events (Odai
2009; Simister 2010). The situation is exacerbated
by rapid urbanisation and changes in urban land
use and land cover. The Ghana Meteorological
Agency (GMET) reports that:
Accra experiences a bimodal rainfall regime,
which occurs from March to July (major rainy
season) and from September to November (minor
rainy season). Average annual rainfall is about
810 mm. Rainfall is usually intensive with short
storms, giving rise to annual local flooding where
drainage channels are missing or obstructed.
These intensive rainfall events are seen as
being the fundamental cause of flooding if the
storm water or surface run-off that follows them
are not properly managed or drained out of the
various flood-prone communities. This coupled
with a combination of low-lying topography,
Table 3. Projected annual 1 day, 2–5 consecutive days’maximum rainfall for Accra (using data from Accra airport
station and surroundings).
Return period 1day (mm) 2 days (mm) 3 days (mm) 4 days (mm) 5 days (mm)
2 84.04 91.60 100.40 105.67 109.47
5 121.54 130.27 144.57 153.12 157.47
10 147.10 156.31 174.60 185.52 190.07
20 171.60 181.08 203.32 216.61 221.23
50 205.44 215.04 242.94 259.61 264.20
100 230.97 240.49 272.77 292.07 296.54
Source: Extracted from Kwaku and Duke (2007, p. 30).
International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 7
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presence of rivers and their encroachments espe-
cially by slum populations, present flood vulner-
ability to slum and informal settlements in the
affected areas. Substantial parts of settlements –
Alajo, Kpehe, Kotobabi, Avenor, Kokomlemle and
the whole of Korle Dudor and Ussher and James
Towns, Glefe, Gbegbeyiese and Mpoase –are all
within flood-prone zones.
3
Relative to how long it rains for flooding to
occur, the answer of the GMET official was:
These days the slightest rainfall causes flood in
many communities due to poor planning, choked
drains and lack of storm drains …Rain duration;
anything above an hour of even moderate rainfall
is most likely to cause major flood hazards.
However, the rainfall figures vary …
Aside the above, flooding in the city was also
attributed to the poor management of surface
water. According to the Head of Natural
Resources Department of the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), the city of Accra has
four main surface water resources. These are from
the west of the city: the Densu River basin which
drains into the Sakumo Lagoon and then into the
sea (Gulf of Guinea); Odaw-Korle-Chemu catch-
ment which passes through the middle of the city
with a number of tributaries; the Kpeshie and
Songo-Mokwe catchments or drainage systems to
the far east of the city (see Figure 4, the Drainage
System of GAMA). All these catchments/drainage
systems have their sources beyond the boundaries
of Accra but their periodic overflows were indi-
cated as a key cause of flood hazards in the city.
However, the two river basins which were men-
tioned to have caused most severe flood hazards
are Densu River basin and Sakumo lagoon which
is the largest of the four (covers 2500 km
2
and
runs for over 100 km –the Accra section covers
393 km
2
); and Odaw-Korle-Chemu catchment
which covers an area of 250 km
2
and passes
through the most urbanised spaces of Accra.
Figure 4. Drainage system, Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA).
Source: Centre for Remote Sensing and GIS (CERSGIS), University of Ghana, Accra, July–August 2013.
8C. Amoako and E. Frimpong Boamah
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When asked, how these surface water
resources are managed, the EPA official in charge
of Natural Resource Department replied that:
They are not managed that is why they have been
so encroached and polluted. If they were mana-
ged how will they be so polluted?
He went on to say that apart from the Densu
Basin which has a management plan and is man-
aged by the Water Resources Commission (WRC),
the rest of Accra’s river catchments are virtually
unmanaged and as a result their banks have been
heavily encroached by unapproved residential and
commercial development activities. He attributed
the management of the Densu Basin to the fact
that the basin has the Weija Dam, located some
20 km from Accra central on the Densu River and
one of the major sources of water supply not only
for the city of Accra, but GAMA which comprise
the Accra Metropolis and seven other adjoining
local government areas.
4
When consulted, the WRC indicated that
Densu Basin is managed by the Densu Basin
Secretariat and the Densu Basin Board which
was established in 2004 as an administrative sub-
committee of the WRC with members from AMA
and other local government assemblies through
whose jurisdiction the river passes. The other
river catchments in the city of Accra are not
under any defined management structure.
However, the most polluted and among the
major causes of flood hazards in Accra have
been the Odaw River and the Korle Lagoon,
5
owing to their central location through the most
urbanised areas of the city. According to Biney
and Amuzu (1995), the Korle Lagoon is the major
basin into which the greater proportion of the
floodwaters of Accra flow before entering the
sea. Being part of the Odaw-Korle-Chemu catch-
ment, Odaw River passes through the central part
of Accra, drains into the Korle Lagoon near the
central business district (CBD) to the west and
then into the Gulf of Guinea. Over 58% of
Accra’s population lives within the Odaw River
and Korle Lagoon catchment area while the
lagoon is the principal outlet to the sea for the
city of Accra
6
(Boadi & Kuitunen 2002; The
Center on Housing Rights and Evictions
(COHRE) 2004, p. 46).
According to the AMA, there are over 65 out
of the 82 officially identified slums and shanty
towns within the immediate environment of the
Odaw-Korle catchment/basin (UN Habitat 2011)
making all of them highly vulnerable to flood
hazards. Boadi and Kuitunen (Boadi &
Kuitunen 2002, p. 302) assert that the intensity
of commercial, industrial and residential activities
along the Odaw-Korle basin, leading to the gen-
eration of substantial quantities of solid wastes,
makes it:
one of the most polluted water bodies on earth,
serving as a cesspool for most of Accra’s indus-
trial and municipal wastes.
Several of these activities were observed during
the fieldwork in some of the communities along
the lagoon. The stench from the polluted parts of
the Odaw River and Korle lagoon has engulfed all
the communities within their environs in the
southern part of the city. As a result, residents of
the city refer to the area around the Korle lagoon
as the ‘Lavender Hill’of Accra –a rather sarcastic
and disrespectful designation for the area to
make fun.
As a result of the above, officials of AMA
under whose jurisdiction the Odaw River Korle
lagoon’s management falls, indicated that the
Odaw-Korle catchment has been the most difficult
surface water resource to manage due the number
of stakeholders involved and their different views
on its management. The main attempts to manage
the Odaw-Korle basin were under the Korle
Lagoon Ecological Restoration Project (KLERP)
and the Odaw drainage improvement works under
the Urban Environmental Sanitation Project
(UESP).
7
These two projects have been unsuccess-
ful owing to financial constraints, lack of political
will and the continuous feud between the city
authorities and residents within the catchment of
the proposed projects.
International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 9
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Again, according to the Metro Roads
Department and Drainage Maintenance Unit,
poor and/or lack of storm water management and
uncontrolled dumping of solid waste into storm
drains have also played a key in the occurrence
of flood hazards in the city. Presently, the city of
Accra has no comprehensive plan for storm water
management via streams and constructed drains.
This obviously must change if urban water is to be
managed and the resources harnessed to ensure
healthy living for city dwellers, especially resi-
dents within the Odaw-Korle catchment.
4.2. Uncontrolled urbanisation and slum
development in flood-prone areas in Accra
Accra’sperennialflood hazards have been attribu-
ted to uncontrolled informal urbanisation and occu-
pation in flood plains (Afeku 2005;Karley2009).
For instance, in Karley’s(2009)studyonflooding
and urban planning in Accra he concluded that:
there is no evidence that unusual rainfall has been
occurring recently that could explain the
increased occurrences of flooding being experi-
enced. Rather, the cause of the problem is the
lack of drainage facilities to collect the storm
water for safe disposal (p. 25).
Flooding in Accra has also been attributed to
poor physical planning and flaws in the drainage
network (Karley 2009; Rain et al. 2011); massive
growth of the city, preventing infiltration by
impervious surfaces (Arnold et al. 1996; Yeboah
2000,2003; Afeku 2005); informal housing devel-
opment practices (Aryeetey-Attoh 2001); and poor
physical development control and waste manage-
ment practices in the city (Karley 2009) which are
indicators of rapid and unplanned urbanisation.
According to NADMO officials interviewed
during this study, since the severe flood hazards
in 2007 which also displaced over 13,000 resi-
dents, Accra has seen continuous and rapid expan-
sion in vulnerable areas and residents. The director
of the Research Department at NADMO’s head-
quarters indicated that:
Almost all informal settlements are located at
hazardous and flood prone areas’of the metropo-
lis. These settlements are usually located on unap-
proved, unplanned or illegally acquired parcels of
land [not recognised by the city authorities].
There are also flood-prone slum areas which
are seen as recognised settlements, but owing to
the fact that such areas were developed ahead of
land use planning, they lack the needed municipal
infrastructure to prevent the occurrence of flood
hazards. The growth of informal settlements in
flood plains reflects the failure of urban planning
(Karley 2009) and/or the inability of the city’s
administration to deal with housing supply
shortages and unaffordable housing for the urban
poor (Konadu-Agyemang 2001). This failed pre-
sence or neglect of the state could be situated
within Parker’s(2000, p. 11) argument that ‘poli-
tical decisions which may be entirely unrelated to
flood hazards may lead to some persons and
groups becoming more vulnerable to flood
disasters’.
The excessive pressure on and absence of
infrastructure in both the inner part and fringes
of the city, of which sanitation and drainage
facilities are key, become essential contributing
factors to the city’s vulnerability to flooding.
Accounts by Boadi and Kuitunen (2002,2003)
and Afeku (2005) acknowledge these factors and
also include increasing waste generation and
poor disposal practices in the city, particularly
in the flood-prone informal settlements. Officials
interviewed at the AMA, TCPD, NADMO and
EPA also confirmed the link between Accra’s
uncontrolled urban growth patterns and the vul-
nerability of its informal settlements to flood
events and hazards. Poor waste disposal, break-
down of storm drains due to continuous choking
and lack of maintenance, and in most cases the
absence of storm drains, were highlighted in
these interviews, supporting the points raised at
the beginning of this paragraph. Respondents in
the selected flood prone communities cited rapid
informal urbanisation, haphazard residential
development, and lack of storm drains in their
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neighbourhoods as the key causes of Accra’s
perennial flood hazards. Officials of the AMA
also associated these causes with the uncon-
trolled growth of slum communities without the
approval of the city authorities.
Slum development in Accra is constructed
and understood in terms of residential densities,
security of tenure, distribution of household
incomes, and access to basic infrastructural facil-
ities and services (Grant 2006;Afenah2009).
These informal areas are heavily built up with
very little room for expansion, buildings are of
poor quality and housing infrastructure, like
roads and drains, is mostly non-existent or
poorly developed. Noted for their informality,
these high density residential zones grow and
expand along the coast, on open spaces along
major highways and railway lines, unused gov-
ernment land, hazardous flood plains or on
reclaimed wetlands. The three main types of
flood hazards identified by the NADMO and
WRI as affecting the city’s slum areas are: loca-
lised flooding due to lack of/inadequate drainage,
poor waste disposal management practices;
flooding from the overflow of streams, rivers
and lagoons into settlements built in waterways;
and coastal erosion and flooding from the sea
through storm surges and tidal waves (also see
Douglas et al. 2008). Most informal communities
in Accra are vulnerable to the first two types of
flood hazards, while all the coastal informal
communities are liable to flood hazards from
the sea. In the work of Douglas et al. (2008,p.
194) the two main causes of flooding in Accra
related to uncontrolled urbanisation and slum
development is quoted as ‘improper city plan-
ning with regard to layout of buildings and
other structures and poor drainage’.Thus,the
apparent role of informality, informal settlements
and land administration system in the vulnerabil-
ity and exposure of residents to flood hazards
cannot be ignored. Afeku (2005), Karley (2009)
andRainetal.(2011) also make contributions to
the discussions about the role of uncontrolled
informal urbanisation in flood vulnerability in
Accra.
4.3. Perceived impacts of climate variability and
change
The role of climate change and variability in flood-
ing in Accra is a contested issue among institu-
tional participants/stakeholders, whereas the
reality of the phenomenon and its impact on flood-
ing in the three northern regions of Ghana is not in
any doubt (Douglas et al. 2008; Karley 2009; Rain
et al. 2011). For instance a study carried out by
Karley (2009)onflooding and urban planning in
Accra concluded that:
heavy rainfalls and increased intensity of rainfall
may result in flooding, the fundamental problem
is that water courses are being blocked as a result
of human activities such as building houses on
river beds and across water courses, the lack of
adequate and the right drainage infrastructure and
the siltation of limited drainage systems.
He further argues that ‘although it cannot be
said clearly that climate change caused the recent
heavy rainfall events’, studies undertaken to reveal
overall climate trends for Accra and Ghana sug-
gest changes in the patterns and intensity of rain-
fall events in the future. These include the World
Bank study of the Economics of Adaptation to
Climate Change Study (looking at the 2010–
2050 period) and the 2000 United Nation
Development Programme (UNDP) Climate
Profile of Ghana (looking at the 2060–2090 per-
iod). The latest climatic analysis and projections
by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change IPCC 2012) for the West African sub-
region also support findings from the two reports.
Douglas et al. (2008) in a study of five African
cities, including Accra, also argued that, ‘flooding
in urban areas [in Africa] is not just related to heavy
rainfall and extreme climatic events; it is also
related to changes in the built up areas themselves’.
Thus, urban flooding has been argued by Douglas
et al. (2008) as the most significant manifestation of
the interrelationship between uncontrolled urbanisa-
tion and climate change in most African cities. In a
participatory vulnerability analysis (PVA) study in
International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 11
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the five African cities of Accra (Ghana), Kampala
(Uganda), Lagos (Nigeria), Maputo (Mozambique)
and Nairobi (Kenya), it was posited that increased
storm frequency and intensity related to climate
change have been exacerbated by such local factors
as the growing occupation of floodplains, increased
run-off from hard surfaces, inadequate waste man-
agement and silted-up drainage (Douglas et al.
2008).
Rain et al. (2011) also appears to have given
hints of the possible role of climate change in
Accra’sflooding but states clearly that the first of
all the causes of flood hazards is ‘the massive
growth of the city’which has resulted in several
challenges that make its residents vulnerable to
flood occurrence. Coming after Rain et al. (2011)
are Appeaning-Addo et al. (2011), Amoani et al.
(2012) and Appeaning-Addo (2013) who have
confirmed the impacts of climate change/variabil-
ity in sea-level rise, tidal waves and storm surges
in the coastal communities along the west coast of
Accra including Gbegbeyiese, Mpoase, Glefe and
Pambros area. An observation made by a commu-
nity member during the study’s mini-workshop in
the informal coastal town of Glefe sheds some
light on their flood vulnerability experience. He
intimates that:
…parts of the community close to the shore have
also been washed away over the last 20 years or
so. So the initial Glefe community where our
fathers settled is virtually in the sea. (Joshua,
56, Property owner/Community leader and native
of Glefe)
Another respondent throws some light on the
cause of flood hazards by asserting that:
I think haphazard development of houses is one
of the problems. When the rains set in, whether
heavily or not, because houses have been built on
the waterways, there are no channels to carry the
run off along into the sea so they make their way
into our houses and even rooms. I know the cause
of the annual floods in my house …They are
overflows from the next house which has been
built too close to the lagoon. We have to quarrel
about the issue so many times but there has been
no settlement. As we talk now, the two house still
have floodwaters all over from last two week’s
down pour …there is no channel for the water to
flow even after several days of flood. We keep
talking and nothing happens. (Daavi, age 63,
Glefe community)
The foregoing makes the relationship between
climate variability/change and urbanisation in
Accra a delicate one which has generated intellec-
tual and policy debates locally by various stake-
holders at all levels. These differences in opinion
among institutional participants as to the actual
role of climate change/variability in Accra’sflood
were revealed during the fieldwork. The
coordinator
8
of the Climate Change Unit of the
EPA, when asked as to whether climate variability/
change is a key issue in the development of Accra
and Ghana, answered:
Yes it is …and we are finding ways to commu-
nicate it to the ordinary Ghanaian. May be those
in Accra are not feeling its impacts, but it is being
felt hugely in the three northern regions [of
Ghana]. The government of Ghana and for that
matter EPA sees climate change as a development
issue that must be given serious consideration.
He gave two reasons for his statement above.
First, the predictions made by the IPCC about
possible changes in the climatic condition on the
African continent and particularly, the West
African sub-region. Based on the IPCC (2012)
prediction, the sub-region is to experience signifi-
cant changes in extreme climatic events such as
intensive rainfall, rising temperatures, sea level
and droughts with their associated episodes of
flood hazards, water shortages and food insecurity.
The second reason is based on the findings from a
study on climate variability/change commissioned
by the EPA with the support of the government of
The Netherlands. The study, Report on Climate
Change Impacts Assessments in Ghana, which
was under The Netherlands Climate Change
Studies Assistance Programme, was to conduct a
comprehensive climate change scenarios, vulner-
ability and adaptation assessment over the entire
12 C. Amoako and E. Frimpong Boamah
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country. As of now, the report is the most
comprehensive document on climate change in
Ghana. It captures possible future climate and the
current climatic conditions and assesses the vul-
nerability and adaptation mechanisms for all sec-
tors of our economy. The report indicates that
climate variability/change is an important devel-
opment issue affecting the country and hence must
receive the needed attention from relevant
stakeholders.
In the case of climate change impacts in the
Accra Metropolis, another document prepared by
the EPA in 2000 and obtained from the Climate
Change Unit of the agency revealed a gradual but
sure impact of changes in climatic conditions
along the coastal areas of the city. For instance
the study projected a 0.2-m rise in sea level by
year 2100 if the current scenario continues.
However, under increasing changes in climatic
scenarios, the study rather predicts an increase of
up to 1 m sea-level rise by 2100. Therefore, com-
munities along the coast of Accra are now
believed to be experiencing climate change by
the EPA.
Scientific studies carried out in Accra in the
recent past support the above view (Nyarko 2002;
Kwaku & Duke 2007; Appeaning-Addo et al.
2008,2011). For example, in a study of the impact
of coastal inundation resulting from climate
change in selected coastal communities in Accra,
Appeaning-Addo et al. (2011) predicted the loss of
926 houses, affecting some 650,000 people and
submerging about a square kilometre of land in the
selected communities by the end of the twenty-
first century. A sea-level rise of 6 mm/year was
also predicted for the next century over a historical
value of 2 mm/year (Appeaning-Addo et al. 2008,
pp. 550 and 551) with a mean erosion of 1.13 m/
year (± 0.17 m/year).
Again, GMET also indicated that rainfall pat-
terns in the Accra plains have changed in terms of
frequency and intensity as captured from recent
rainfall figures. While frequency has largely
reduced, the intensity of rainfall per rainy day
appears to have gone up on the average.
Rainfall figures collected from GMET over the
last five decades have been summarised in Figure 5.
From Figure 5, the highest rainfall over the last
Figure 5. Total annual rainfall figures for Accra 1961–2010.
Source: Authors construct based on data from Ghana Meteorological Agency (Accra Airport Station).
International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 13
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50 years was 1400 mm recorded in 1968 while the
lowest rainfall of 350 mm was recorded in 1983
when the entire country experienced its worst
drought in history (Tschakert et al. 2010,pp.6
and 7; Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and
Recovery (GFDRR 2011a), p. 6). Rainfall events
have gradually increased over the 1986–1995 per-
iod, including a high number of 24-hour maximum
rainfall events –a trend that has continued in the
last decade.
A further analysis of the rainfall pattern of
Accra reveals a gradual increase in annual rainfall
over the last three decades along with the average
annual rainy days (see Figure 6). This increases,
notwithstanding, the rate of increase in mean
annual rainfall has been faster than the average
number of rainy days per year. This is an indica-
tion of a general increased intensity of precipita-
tion events per rainy day over the years.
Temperature variation in Accra is minimal, ran-
ging between 20°C and 35°C throughout the year.
The annual mean temperature of Accra has also
seen gradual increases over the last five decades
as shown in Figure 7. The parallel increases in
temperature across all river basins suggest that the
observed intensification in flood frequency may not
be just a cyclical variability. These changes in rain-
fall and temperature patterns have been associated
with rapid urbanisation, changes in urban land use
and poor waste management practices (Afeku
2005; Karley 2009; Rain et al. 2011) and climate
variability and changes (Appeaning-Addo et al.
2011; GFDRR 2011a,2011b; Rain et al. 2011).
According to the GMET official interviewed:
These general increases in intensity of rainfall
events coupled with uncontrolled development
in water ways, poor waste disposal into water
bodies are the key causes of flood hazards in
Accra …Apart from the areas that experience
storm surges and coastal floods, one can relate
Accra’sflood events to the intensity and duration
of rainfall coupled with poor urban planning.
Apart from the above analysis of the possible
impacts of climate variability and change, the
GMET official also reports on ‘a slight shift also
in the time of heavy rainfall in Accra. Over the last
decade or so, we get the very heavy rainfall in
Figure 6. Changes in mean annual rainfall per decade for Accra 1961–2010.
Source: Authors construct based on data from Ghana Meteorological Agency (Accra Airport Station).
14 C. Amoako and E. Frimpong Boamah
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October and sometime January instead of the
May-June-July’. However, this could not be con-
firmed since there has not been any scientific
research in that direction, but it is a significant
observation of climate variability that must be
given consideration in further research on the
actual impacts of climate change in Accra.
Officials of NADMO also believe that climate
variability/change has a role to play in Accra’s
flooding through:
●Extreme rainfall events (examples of 2007
and 2011 were given) –again it was also
indicated that the number of rainy days per
annum has been ‘dwindling’
9
while the
average amount (intensity) of rain per/rainy
day appears to be increasing.
●Tidal waves and storm surges –it was indi-
cated that over the past two decades, the
shoreline along the west coast of Accra
Metropolis has seen significant erosion
10
and destruction of human settlements along
the coast line –the worst affected commu-
nity is Glefe.
According to the Chief Disaster Control Officer at
the NADMO headquarters:
Climate variability/change and disasters are inte-
grally linked; climate affects both the occurrence
of physical hazards and the coping capacity of
communities to deal with such disasters.
He also intimated that recorded extreme rainfall
events such as the three-hour heavy rainfall on the
dawn of 25 October 2011 which caused flooding
in many parts of Accra, could be related to chan-
ging climatic conditions since it occurred not in
the main rainy season and was so sudden.
In contrast to the foregoing views on the role
of climate variability/change in the causes of flood
hazards some institutional participants interviewed
indicated that the issue of climate change has been
over-emphasised to the neglect of the actual
causes of flooding in Accra –poor urban land
management and failed land use planning.
For example, the head of the Built
Environment Department of the Environmental
Protection Energy in an answer to the question of
Figure 7. Trends of annual mean temperature of Accra 1961–2010.
Source: Authors construct based on data from Ghana Meteorological Agency (Accra Airport Station).
International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 15
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the role of climate variability and change in flood
occurrence opined that:
in my opinion, its role in Accra’sflood in parti-
cular, is minimal …Well let’s say along the
western shores of Accra there could be storm
surges relative to changing sea levels …but
flood hazards in Accra could be attributed mainly
to poor planning and solid waste management.
Officials of AMA and the Metro TCPD also
hold similar views, with the argument that the
impact of climate change, if at all occurring,
could not lead to such devastating flood hazards
if land management, land use planning and solid
waste management in the city were properly
handled. In addition, WRI in most of its researches
on the causes of flooding in Accra also attributes
the flood hazards to the hydrology of the city. An
official of the institute mentioned in an interview
the low-lying topography, changing land use cover
and their impacts on run-off and storage coeffi-
cients of the river catchments within the city’s
landscape.
With increased urbanisation in Accra, run-
off coefficients and peak discharge of the var-
ious rivers in the city have been high. The peak
run-off determined by Nyarko (Nyarko 2002,p.
6) is presented in Table 4. The work of Nyarko
(2002) has been cited in a number of scholarly
works by WRI. Tab le 4 shows the total run-off
discharge over land the surface of the Accra
Metropolis and hence the maximum flood that
the various areas are likely to experience in the
event of intensive precipitation. From this table,
the Odaw-Korle-Chemu and Densu-Sakumo
being the biggest catchments produce a total
dischargerateof2350m
3
/sec and 3251 m
3
/
sec, respectively, if their entire catchments con-
tribute to run-off at the same time. With limited
drains, increasing impervious surfaces and
unpredictable extreme precipitation events,
Accra’s hydrology is susceptible to high storm
water run-off increases in the years to come
(Water Research Institute (WRI) 2011, pp. 21–
23). Thus according to WRI (2011) the actual
impact of erratic rainfall events due to climate
variability/change on flood occurrence can be
felt in the face of unplanned urban growth,
unclear land management structure and a weak
institutional framework.
5. How should the knowledge of causes help
us find solutions?
While flood causes in Accra have been debated in
the literature, the above discussions indicate that
these causes are not in isolation and must be
perceived as interrelated. The specific contribution
of each of the causes discussed has been a matter
of tremendous debate among the various institu-
tional stakeholders and studies (Karley 2009)due
to the absence of a comprehensive study on the
issue. The proposal for a more comprehensive and
holistic approach to managing flood hazards is
therefore needed. In this paper, we make an inter-
vention by proposing an integrated flood risk and
hazard management framework that takes into
consideration the interrelationships between the
three causes of flood events discussed in the
study. This framework is captured in Figure 8.
Table 4. Total run-off discharge of Accra’s hydrology.
Name of catchment Area (km
2
)
Run-off
coefficient
Storage
coefficient
Rainfall intensity
(mm)
Peak run-off
(m
3
/s)
Densu-Sakumo 393 0.7 0.5 140.2 1444–3251
Kpeshie 62.6 0.7 0.2 140.2 344
Songo-Mokwe 30.7 0.8 0.3 140.2 105–115
Odaw-Korle-Chemu 250 0.9 0.2 140.2 2350
Source: Adapted from Nyarko (2002, p. 6).
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The flood risk management framework pro-
posed in Figure 8 looks at flood risk management
solutions based on the intersections among the
causes of floods in Accra discussed in this paper.
In thinking through the operationalisation of this
framework, one can for example consider Accra’s
experiences of heavy precipitation and subsequent
increases in surface run-off (Nyarko 2002; Adank
et al. 2011). The framework can be made opera-
tional by the design of flood management inter-
ventions that cut across the three causes. For
instance, flood management issues focusing on
drainage construction and expansion in addressing
this cause will be plausible but not sufficient.
Considering the challenges of urbanisation and
slum developments gives room to develop scenar-
ios as to drainage designs which address the high
densities in the city, especially slum areas and the
sprawling suburbs of Accra. Equally significant in
considering urbanisation challenges in light of
rainfall intensity and surface run-off is how
drainage designs can be used to harvest rains to
deal with the perennial water supply shortages in
Accra. The intersection of causes presented by this
framework may therefore represent means to turn
causes into opportunities.
Again, the spatial and temporal scales of
operationalising this framework become very
relevant. At different spatial and temporal scales,
the three-dimensional view of causes as presented
in Figure 8, can be expanded or contracted. At
local levels, which are smaller spatial scales
within Accra, although the framework will
allow for an integrated approach in dealing with
flood hazards, peculiar internal and external fac-
tors may make one of these causes dominant. For
instance, dumping of waste near and into water
bodies at certain localities within Accra may have
the most significant influence on flood hazards in
these localities. Flood management measures to
be considered may most often address provision
of sanitation facilities, building structures to
Figure 8. Framework for integrated flood risk management.
Authors’construct 2014.
International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 17
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serve as buffer protection for the water bodies,
and developing and creating the necessary zoning
restrictions and sanctions to deal with waste
dumping along and in these water bodies. The
challenges of urbanisation and slum development
therefore become the dominant factor for such
specific localities.
The nature of these three factors also changes
with respect to time. The nature of urbanisation
challenges such as informal housing may change
as the social and economic conditions of household
changes. Climatic changes coupled with urbanisa-
tion changes will demand that time is factored into
the discussion of flood management issues in terms
of urbanisation and perceived influence of climate
change. Providing early warning systems will not
be enough to deal with future flood hazards if
climatic changes cannot be adequately monitored
and possible predicted, and if rescue measures are
not adapted to handle the changing growth patterns
of the city especially the slum areas. The time
element in this framework therefore makes one
look at policy interventions over a range of time,
before, during and after floods.
The intersections of these three causes creates
an emergence of issues dealing with their reinfor-
cing influence to determine the hazard, exposure
and vulnerability of people and infrastructure in
Accra. Flood management issues in Accra consid-
ering the intersection of these causes help to deter-
mine proactive rather than reactive infrastructure,
institutional and policy measures. Monitoring and
evaluation also becomes a fundamental prerequi-
site (Ahadzie & Proverbs 2011) to ensure the
spatial and temporal dynamics of this framework.
6. Conclusion –an emerging policy and
research path for flood hazards in Accra
This paper contributes to the discussions on flood
hazards in Accra by presenting the causes as three
interrelated causes. The paper bridges how existing
studies on flood hazards in Accra have not
addressed the interrelationships between these
hazards. Hence, the link in understanding how
social, economic and political factors shapes
Accra’sresiliencytoflood hazards is virtually
non-existing. The three-dimensional view of flood
hazard therefore shifts the paradigm of how
research on Accra’sflood hazards may be contex-
tualised within the ‘social resilience’Adger (2000)
framework. Adger (2000,p.347)defines such
social resilience as ‘the ability of groups or com-
munities to cope with external stresses and distur-
bances as a result of social, political and
environmental change’. In dealing with distur-
bances such as floods, communities in Accra draw
on both internal and external socio-economic, poli-
tical and environmental resources to self-organise,
learn, cope with and adapt (Carpenter et al. 2001)to
such hazards. Understanding flood causes to be
interrelated begins the process in also identifying
the internal and external interrelated factors neces-
sary for Accra’sflood risk management.
Again, creating the connections among these
three causes become necessary for a comprehen-
sive view, analysis and solutions to flood hazards
in the city. A key policy path emerging from the
discussions in this paper is the proposition of an
integrated flood risk management framework. As
earlier discussed, operating this framework calls
for an understanding that the three causes of flood
hazards in Accra are interrelated. Formulating
flood management measures arising from the inter-
section of these factors must vary based on loca-
tion and time. This also tips policy paradigms
towards engendering more sustainable policy fra-
meworks that are responsive to time and the
unique peculiarities of localities in Accra as well
as the nation.
Notes
1. Rail transport in Accra is currently not working
but the railway authorities are threatening to evict
squatters on their land.
2. Within the city of Accra, there are four main river
catchments/basins.
3. Interview with Mr Kafui Agbleze of research
department of NADMO headquarters, Accra.
4. These are designated Metropolitan Areas,
Municipal Areas or Districts based on their
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population, land sizes and/or level of socio-eco-
nomic development and are governed by
Metropolitan, Municipal or District Assembly,
respectively.
5. This was mentioned by all officials interviewed in
Accra, Ghana.
6. This was mentioned in an interview with officials
of the Metro Town and Country Planning
Department, June 2013 and has also been captured
earlier by Boadi and Kuitunen (2002) and The
Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (The
Center on Housing Rights and Evictions
(COHRE) 2004).
7. Interview with Mr KofiNti Appeagyei, Metro
Roads Department, July 2013.
8. Interview with Mr K. Oppon-Boadi in his office
on 16 June 2013.
9. See rainfall figures, rainy days and amount of
rainfall collected from the GMET (Ghana
Meteorological Agency).
10. Refer to works by Appeaning-Addo et al. (2011),
Amoani et al. (2012), Appeaning-Addo and
Adeyemi (2013).
Notes on contributors
Clifford Amoako is a PhD candidate at the Centre for
Geography and Environmental Science, under the
School of Social and Political Sciences Graduate
Research Program, Monash University. His research
interest is in urban flood vulnerability and sustainable
urban development in developing countries.
Emmanuel Frimpong Boamah is a doctoral fellow at the
School of Urban and Public Affairs, University of
Louisville. His research covers hazard mitigation, sus-
tainable urban transportation, regionalism and systems
modelling.
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