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Strength and Power Determinants of Rowing Performance

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Abstract

Rowing is an activity that involves both the upper and lower body, making it a total body exercise. The purpose of this study was to determine which physiological variables account for the most variation in 2000m rowing performance. Ten male (age = 17.4 ± 0.7 yr, weight = 75.2 ± 11.2 kg, height = 181.4 ± 6.1 cm) and seven female rowers (age = 17.3 ± 0.6 yr, weight = 72.4 ± 14.9 kg, and height = 168.3 ± 6.7 cm) participated in this study. Performance variables tested include a 2000m rowing ergometer time trial (8.01 ± 0.69 min), vertical jump (42.6 ± 10.7 cm), inverted row (9.8 ± 6.3 rep), leg press (144.7 ± 25.4 kg), and back extension (26.3 ± 11.1 rep). Significant correlations (p ≤ 0.05) with 2000m rowing performance were identified for vertical jump (r = -0.736), inverted row (r = -0.624), leg press (r = -0.536), and height (r = -0.837). A stepwise multiple regression analysis identified height and leg press as the strongest predictors of 2000m rowing performance (R2= 0.807, p ≤ 0.05). With height removed as an independent variable, a stepwise multiple regression was run again, identifying vertical jump, weight, and age as the best predictors of 2000m rowing performance (R2= 0.842, p ≤ 0.05). Height and leg press were identified as the strongest predictors of 2000m rowing performance. With height removed as an independent variable vertical jump, weight, and age best predicted 2000m rowing performance. Inverted row, despite its strong correlation, did not further contribute to either prediction equation. The results of this study support the importance of strength and anaerobic power development in male and female club level rowers.
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Journal of Exercise Physiologyonline
(JEPonline)
Volume 10 Number 4 June 2007
Fitness and Training
Managing Editor
Tommy Boone, Ph.D.
Editor-in-Chief
Jon Linderman, Ph.D.
Review Board
Todd Astorino, Ph.D.
Julien Baker, Ph.D.
Tommy Boone, Ph.D.
Lance Dalleck, Ph.D.
Dan Drury, DPE.
Hermann Engels, Ph.D.
Eric Goulet, Ph.D.
Robert Gotshall, Ph.D.
Len Kravitz, Ph.D.
James Laskin, Ph.D.
Jon Linderman, Ph.D.
M. Knight-Maloney, Ph.D.
Derek Marks, Ph.D.
Cristine Mermier, Ph.D.
Daryl Parker, Ph.D.
Robert Robergs, Ph.D.
Brent Ruby, Ph.D.
Jason Siegler, Ph.D.
Greg Tardie, Ph.D.
Lesley White, Ph.D.
Chantal Vella, Ph.D.
Thomas Walker, Ph.D.
Ben Zhou, Ph.D.
Official Research Journal of
The American Society of
Exercise Physiologists
(ASEP)
ISSN 1097-9751
STRENGTH AND POWER DETERMINANTS OF ROWING
PERFORMANCE
CHUN-JUNG HUANG, THOMAS W. NESSER, JEFFREY E.
EDWARDS.
Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Physical Education,
Indiana State University, Terre Haute, USA
ABSTRACT
Chun-Jung Huang CJ, Nesser TW, Edwards JE. Physiological
determinates of rowing performance. JEPonline 2007:10(4):43-50.
Rowing is an activity that involves both the upper and lower body,
making it a total body exercise. The purpose of this study was to
determine which physiological variables account for the most variation in
2000m rowing performance. Ten male (age = 17.4 ± 0.7 yr, weight =
75.2 ± 11.2 kg, height = 181.4 ± 6.1 cm) and seven female rowers (age
= 17.3 ± 0.6 yr, weight = 72.4 ± 14.9 kg, and height = 168.3 ± 6.7 cm)
participated in this study. Performance variables tested include a 2000m
rowing ergometer time trial (8.01 ± 0.69 min), vertical jump (42.6 ± 10.7
cm), inverted row (9.8 ± 6.3 rep), leg press (144.7 ± 25.4 kg), and back
extension (26.3 ± 11.1 rep). Significant correlations (p 0.05) with
2000m rowing performance were identified for vertical jump (r = -0.736),
inverted row (r = -0.624), leg press (r = -0.536), and height (r = -0.837).
A stepwise multiple regression analysis identified height and leg press
as the strongest predictors of 2000m rowing performance (R2= 0.807, p
0.05). With height removed as an independent variable, a stepwise
multiple regression was run again, identifying vertical jump, weight, and
age as the best predictors of 2000m rowing performance (R2= 0.842, p
0.05). Height and leg press were identified as the strongest predictors of
2000m rowing performance. With height removed as an independent
variable vertical jump, weight, and age best predicted 2000m rowing
performance. Inverted row, despite its strong correlation, did not further
contribute to either prediction equation. The results of this study support
the importance of strength and anaerobic power development in male
and female club level rowers.
Key Words: Athlete, Endurance, Training,
Rowing Performance
44
INTRODUCTION
Rowing is a continuous movement that requires the production of both aerobic and anaerobic power.
In the drive phase of the rowing cycle, rowers sequentially push with their legs then pull with their
arms and lower back (1,2) requiring both muscular strength and endurance. Previous research has
classified elite and club junior rowers through measurement of upper body strength (3), and
attempted to predict rowing performance via anthropometric variables (4), upper body power (5), and
quadriceps strength (6). However, it remains unclear whether strength and/or muscle endurance are
factors in rowing performance since none of the mentioned studies considered reviewing both
strength and endurance at the same time.
METHODS
Subjects
Ten male and seven female club level rowers (15-18 yr) volunteered for participation in this study.
Physical characteristics can be found in Table 1, 2, and 3.
Procedures
The participants completed a medical history questionnaire and signed an informed consent form
prior to data collection. All experimental procedures were approved by university Institutional Review
Board.
The participants performed five tests on two separate days. The interval between each testing day
was at least three days. They were asked to avoid strenuous physical activity 24 hours prior to
testing. All tests were completed within two weeks.
On day 1, the participants completed a counter movement vertical jump on a Vertec vertical height
measuring device (MF Athletic Corp, Cranston, RI) to measure lower body power and a 2000-m
rowing ergometer test on a Concept II rowing ergometer (Model C, Concept II, Morrisville, VT) to
measure rowing performance. Participants were required to warm up for 500m at the stroke rate of
18-20 strokes·min-1 on a rowing ergometer.
On day 2, the participants first performed a maximum number of inverted rows on a squat rack (MF
Athletic Corp., Cranston, RI) with a standard barbell to measure upper body muscle endurance, then
a 1-repetition maximum (1 RM) leg press (Cybex International Corp., Medway, MA) to measure lower
body strength, and finally a maximum number of back extensions (PFW-560 Roman Bench,
Paramount Corp., Los Angles, CA) to measure lower back muscle endurance. Participants were
required to warm up by jogging for five minutes. All tests were performed at the St. Vincent Sports
Medicine Center in Indianapolis.
The counter movement vertical jump was used to measure lower body power. Participants faced the
Vertec with both feet flat on the floor, and reached as high as possible with either hand to determine
reach height. Then, they jumped vertically as high as possible with one arm swing but no step, and
touched a vane at the highest point of the jump. Reach height was subtracted from jump height to
determine vertical jump height. Each participant completed three trials, while the best performance
was used for data analysis.
The 2000-m rowing ergometer test was a timed test to measure muscle endurance. Participants were
asked to complete the 2000 meter distance in as short a time as possible. Participants worked at a
setting of 1 on a Concept II ergometer. The final time was recorded.
Rowing Performance
45
For the inverted rows, participants lied in a supine position under a bar on a squat rack. The bar was
set at a height of 3 feet. Their feet were placed on a bench approximately 24 inches high. The
beginning position consisted of the arms fully extended with a pronated grip on the bar. Subjects
pulled themselves up until their chest touched the bar. A new repetition began as soon as the
participant reached the bottom position. Subjects maintained a rigid, supine position throughout the
test (6). If a participant held the bottom position for more than 2 seconds or failed to maintain a rigid
position, the test was terminated. The maximum number of inverted rows was recorded and used for
data analysis.
Next, the leg press was used to evaluate lower body strength. Participants grasped the seat’s handle,
and their back needed to be kept straight. Also, participants placed their feet on the machine rests,
and they were required to flex the knee to 90 degrees. Individuals were allowed to warm-up with a
light weight for 5 repetitions. Following a one minute rest period, a weight was estimated to allow 3
repetitions. Weights were increased as necessary (30 ~ 40 pounds) until a 1-repetition maximum (1
RM) had been determined. Three minute rest periods followed each set. If the participant failed, the
load was decreased 15 ~ 20 pounds for the next attempt. By increasing or decreasing the load, the
participants were able to complete a 1 RM within five sets. The maximum load was used for data
analysis.
Finally, the back extension was completed with the subjects in a prone position on a back extension
bench, and their hips aligned with the front edge of the pad. They flexed their torso forward to a 90
degree angle at the hip, and then raised the trunk until their torso is parallel to the floor (7). Hands
were kept clasped behind their head. A new repetition began as soon as the participant reached the
bottom position. If a participant kept the bottom position for more than 2 seconds or failed to reach
parallel, the test was terminated. The maximum number of back extension was recorded and used for
data analysis.
Statistical Analyses
The dependent variable was the 2000-m time trial, and the independent variables were vertical jump,
leg press, back extension, and inverted rows. A stepwise multiple regression analysis was used to
determine predictors of 2000-m rowing time. Pearson correlation coefficient (r) was used to establish
a relationship between 2000-m rowing performance and the independent variables. Statistical
significance was set at P 0.05.
RESULTS
Physiological and performance variables are presented in Tables 1 and 2. Pearson correlation
coefficient (r) was used to compute the correlation between 2000-m rowing performance and age,
height, weight, experience, vertical jump, inverted row, leg press, and back extension (Table 4).
Significant correlations (P 0.05) were identified between 2000-m rowing performance and height (r
= -0.837), vertical jump (r = -0.736), inverted row (r = -0.624), and leg press (r = -0.536). There were
no significant correlations for age, weight, experience, or back extension.
Stepwise multiple regression analysis identified height and leg press as the two variables to best
predict 2000-m rowing performance. Since height cannot be trained it was removed as a performance
predictor. When height was removed as an independent variable, vertical jump, weight, and age were
identified as the best predictors of 2000-m rowing performance. Results are shown in Table 5.
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Table 1. Male Physiological and Performance Variables (n = 10) DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to
examine male and female
rowers on a number of
physiological variables to predict
which may account for variation
in 2000-m rowing performance.
A stepwise multiple regression
identified height as the strongest
predictor of 2000-m rowing
performance (P 0.05 and R2 =
0.70 ).
This supports the importance of
height for success in rowing
performance as suggested by Shephard and Astrand (4) who stated that endurance is affected by
body dimension. They demonstrated that when standing height increases so does muscle leverage
and body mass. As height increases so does sitting height (trunk length), which is significantly related
to rowing performance.
Variables Mean Minimal Maximal
Age (years) 17.4±0.7 15.8 18.3
Height (cm) 181.4±6.1 172.7 193
Weight (kg) 75.2±11.2 64.4 99.8
Experience
(months) 23.2±11.2 6 36
Vertical Jump
(cm) 49.5±7.1 36.8 63.5
Inverted Row
(repetitions) 13.9±4.0 8 20
Leg Press (kg) 154.6±26.9 95.5 186.4
Back Extension
(repetitions) 29.5±13.5 13 57
2000-m Time (s) 452.2±25.3 416 494
Table 2. Female Physiological and Performance Variables (N = 7)
Variables Mean Minimal Maximal
Age (years) 17.3±0.6 16.7 18.1
Height (cm) 168.3±6.7 160.0 180.3
Weight (kg) 72.4±14.9 61.2 99.8
Experience
(months) 28.4±8.9 13 37
Vertical Jump
(cm) 32.6±6.0 25.4 43.2
Inverted Row
(repetitions) 3.9±3.4 0 9
Leg Press (kg) 130.5±15.3 113.6 159.1
Back Extension
(repetitions) 21.7±3.6 16 27
2000-m Time (s) 521.4±19.2 486.0 551
Additionally, Hirata (8)
mentioned gold medal winners
were consistently taller than
national champions in the
single sculls and Bourgolis et
al. (9) found that during the
1997 International World Junior
Rowing Championships,
finalists were taller than non-
finalists. Other researchers
have stated that body height
correlates well with 2000-m
rowing performance (10, 11),
as taller rowers have the
advantage of producing greater
rowing performance (12), since
their greater height allows a
longer stroke.
The second variable identified as a predictor of 2000-m rowing performance was leg press. Leg press
was used to evaluate the lower body strength due to its similarity to the rowing leg drive. Jensen et al.
(13) found that leg extension strength was correlated with 2000-m rowing power. Hagerman (6) has
also shown a correlation between quadriceps’ strength and rowing performance due to the power
provided during the leg drive in the rowing stroke. These studies support the result that leg strength is
vital to rowing performance.
Rowing Performance
47
Table 3. Combined Physiological and Performance Variables (N = 17)
Variables Mean Minimal Maximal
Age (years) 17.4±0.6 15.8 18.3
Height (cm) 176.0±9.0 160.0 193.0
Weight (kg) 74.0±12.5 61.2 99.8
Experience (months) 25.4±10.3 6 37
Vertical Jump (cm) 42.6±10.7 25.4 63.5
Inverted Row
(repetitions) 9.8±6.3 0 20
Leg Press (kg) 144.7±25.4 95.5 186.4
Back Extension
(repetitions) 26.3±11.1 13 57
2000-m Time (s) 480.7±41.6 416.0 551
To examine other independent variables, height was removed as a possible predictor to 2000-m
rowing performance. This second analysis identified vertical jump, weight, and age as additional
predictors of 2000-m rowing performance.
Table 4. Pearson Correlation Coefficients Between 2000-m Rowing Performance and Physical and Physiological
Variables (N = 17) *P 0.05
Variables r
Age -0.407
Height -0.837*
Weight -0.471
Experience 0.091
Vertical Jump -0.736*
Inverted Row -0.624*
Leg Press -0.536*
Back Extension -0.210
Vertical jump was used to measure lower body power. Yoshiga and Higuchi (10) examined 332
young rowers (age 21±2 yrs) in bilateral leg extension power on a 2000-m rowing ergometer. They
emphasized that rowing involved the most muscles in the body, and the bilateral leg extension power
is very important during rowing performance. Gayer (14) demonstrated that peak power was one of
the physiological characteristics that provided the best way to differentiate between successful and
unsuccessful rowers. Furthermore, in a study of female rowers, 75.7 % of the variation in 2000-m
indoor rowing performance time was predicted by mean power during a rowing Wingate test (5). This
information deems it necessary to emphasize the development of peak power in the training of
rowers.
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Table 5. Regression Equations Predicting 2000-m rowing Performance (N = 17)
Variables R
2
R
2
X 100 SEE
Height 0.700 49 23.53
Leg Press 0.807 65.1 19.53
Y’ = 1168.769 – 3.452 (X1) – 0.556(X2)
Y’ = 2000-m row time
X1= height (cm)
X2 = leg press (kg)
Variables R
2
R
2
X 100 SEE
Vertical Jump 0.541 29.3 29.11
Weight 0.775 60 21.10
Age 0.842 70.9 18.33
Y’ = 1009.321 – 2.865 (X1) – 1.328 (X2) – 17.739 (X3)
Y’ = 2000-m row time
X1= Vertical Jump (cm)
X2 = Weight (kg)
X3 = age (years)
The second variable in the second regression equation identified as a predictor of 2000-m rowing
performance was weight. Russell et al. (15) stated that body mass was correlated with 2000-m
performance time (r = -0.41) and was also a predictor of 2000-m rowing performance. Many studies
have shown that typically open class rowers are tall, lean and have a high percentage of lean body
mass (particularly slow twitch muscle fibers (6, 16, 12, 17). Even though there was no significant
correlation between weight and 2000-m rowing performance (r = -0.471) in the current study, weight
improved the prediction of 2000-m rowing performance by 23.4%.
The third variable identified in the second regression as a predictor of 2000-m rowing performance
was age. Few studies reviewed for the present research identified a relationship between age and
rowing performance. Seiler at al. (18) examined 2487 male rowers (age 24 to 93 yrs) and 1615
females rowers (age 24 to 84 yrs), and found that there was a moderate correlation between age and
rowing performance (r=-0.58 for males and r = 0.46 for females). Since age is related to many
anthropometric characteristics, it is very much dependent on the population of rowers as being a
predictor of rowing performance.
Rowing Performance
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The inverted row was used to measure strength in the upper back. Even though the inverted row was
not a predictor of rowing performance, it did have a significant negative correlation with 2000-m
rowing performance (r = -0.624) suggesting upper back strength may very well contribute to 2000-m
rowing performance.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of this study identified height and 1RM leg press as the best predictors of 2000-m rowing
performance. The identification of height and leg strength indicates the importance of leg and trunk
length that could extend the driving phase. This could be used to identify success in potential rowers
though it is not a factor that can be trained. Leg strength can be trained and improved in rowers with
an expectancy of increasing rowing performance. Which type of training is necessary to improve leg
strength and ultimately rowing performance is up to the individual coach and/or athlete. It is important
to note a limitation to this study is subject size. Due to the low number of subjects, genders had to be
combined for statistical analysis. Had numbers been higher, analysis would have been completed for
each gender thus the results may have been different.
Address for correspondence: Nesser, TW, PhD., Department of Physical Education, Indiana State
University, Terre Haute, IN, USA, 47885. Phone (812)237-2901; FAX: (812)237-4338; Email.
tnesser@indstate.edu.
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... While it was shown that the linear oar velocity is dependent on the angular velocities of the lower leg, trunk, upper leg as well as lower and upper arm 11 , some studies showed a strong association between rowing ergometer performance and strength measurements, such as a multiple repetition maximum or a maximal repetition test (e.g. in leg press and bench pull) 2,7,9,[12][13][14][15][16] . Furthermore, the role of various physiological, morphological, and anthropometric variables in predicting rowing ergometer performance was assessed using regression models, where the results suggest a combination of aerobic and anaerobic capacities, as well as large body dimensions and muscle volume of the vastus lateralis muscle to contribute significantly 2,7,9,[12][13][14]16,17 . The importance of neuromuscular determinants is also indirectly underlined by interventional studies, comparing the effects of different strength training regimens on rowing performance. ...
... Contrarily, Chun-Jung et al. (2007) found that trunk extension strength did not correlate with rowing ergometer performance. However, this might be explained by their measurement protocol, which included the maximal number of repetitions, representing a strength endurance domain, whereas in our study maximum strength was measured 14 . Besides the trunk extension, the leg press strength belonged to the strongest correlates for the middle phase, which represents a constant, sustained, high force production between the start and end phases. ...
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... Compared to the metabolic requirements of rowing performance in elite and adolescent athletes, considerably less is known about the role of distinct neuromuscular determinants. While it was shown that the linear oar velocity is dependent on the angular velocities of the lower leg, trunk, upper leg as well as lower and upper arm 11 , some studies showed a strong association between rowing ergometer performance and strength measurements, such as a multiple repetition maximum or a maximal repetition test (e.g. in leg press and bench pull) 2,7,9,[12][13][14][15][16] . Furthermore, the role of various physiological, morphological, and anthropometric variables in predicting rowing ergometer performance was assessed using regression models, where the results suggest a combination of aerobic and anaerobic capacities, as well as large body dimensions and muscle volume of the vastus lateralis muscle to contribute significantly 2,7,9,[12][13][14]16,17 . ...
... While it was shown that the linear oar velocity is dependent on the angular velocities of the lower leg, trunk, upper leg as well as lower and upper arm 11 , some studies showed a strong association between rowing ergometer performance and strength measurements, such as a multiple repetition maximum or a maximal repetition test (e.g. in leg press and bench pull) 2,7,9,[12][13][14][15][16] . Furthermore, the role of various physiological, morphological, and anthropometric variables in predicting rowing ergometer performance was assessed using regression models, where the results suggest a combination of aerobic and anaerobic capacities, as well as large body dimensions and muscle volume of the vastus lateralis muscle to contribute significantly 2,7,9,[12][13][14]16,17 . The importance of neuromuscular determinants is also indirectly underlined by interventional studies, comparing the effects of different strength training regimens on rowing performance. ...
... Contrarily, Chun-Jung et al. (2007) found that trunk extension strength did not correlate with rowing ergometer performance. However, this might be explained by their measurement protocol, which included the maximal number of repetitions, representing a strength endurance domain, whereas in our study maximum strength was measured 14 . Besides the trunk extension, the leg press strength belonged to the strongest correlates for the middle phase, which represents a constant, sustained, high force production between the start and end phases. ...
Article
Background Olympic rowing relies heavily on aerobic metabolism, but the demands on strength and power have not yet been thoroughly investigated (Lawton et al., 2011). As the characteristic pacing strategy compounds an initial start sprint, a sustained middle section and end spurt, the neuromuscular and physiological requirements of the particular phases need to be considered more closely (Garland, 2005; Mikulic, 2011). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify strength qualities for distinct phases in rowing performance in adolescent athletes. Methods The cross-sectional analysis of fourteen national competitive rowing athletes (4 female; 10 male) included anthropometrics, isometric and isokinetic leg press, back extension and flexion, isometric mid-thigh pull (MTP) and handgrip strength, VO2max, and a 2000 m time trial, in which peak forces were measured in the start, middle and end phase. The rate of force developments (RFD) were obtained for isometric leg press (150 and 350 ms) and MTP (150 ms and 300 ms). Stepwise regression models were created for ergometer performance in the start, middle and end phases. Results The best fit model for the start phase included isometric back extension and RFD 300 ms of MTP (R2 = 0.912, p < 0.001), while for the middle section it were VO2max, isometric leg press and sitting height (R2 = 0.844, p < 0.001). For the end phase a best fit was observed for isometric back flexion, RFD 350 ms of leg press, body height and sex (R2 = 0.965 p < 0.001), whereas absolute VO2max, isokinetic back flexion and sex explained variance over the entire 2000 m time trial (R2 = 0.975, p < 0.001). Conclusion For the high acceleration at the start, force transmission through maximum back strength seems to be essential, while fast power production along the kinetic chain is also relevant (Baudouin & Hawkins, 2002). In addition to VO2max, produced maximum strength in the leg press explains the importance for the force production of the sustained middle section (Cosgrove et al., 1999). These results indicate that maximal force complements the reliance on VO2max, as well as neuromuscular parameters and maximal force transmission seems to be important for the start phase. Further research through intervention studies is needed to refine training recommendations. References Baudouin, A., & Hawkins, D. (2002). A biomechanical review of factors affecting rowing performance. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 36(6), 396-402. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.36.6.396 Cosgrove, M. J., Wilson, J., Watt, D., Grant, S. F. (1999). The relationship between selected physiological variables of rowers and rowing performance as determined by a 2000 m ergometer test. Journal of Sports Sciences, 17(11), 845-852. https://doi.org/10.1080/026404199365407 Garland, S. (2005). An analysis of the pacing strategy adopted by elite competitors in 2000 m rowing. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39(1), 39-42. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2003.010801 Lawton, T. W., Cronin, J. B., & McGuigan, M. R. (2011). Strength testing and training of rowers: A review. Sports Medicine, 41(5), 413-432. https://doi.org/10.2165/11588540-000000000-00000 Mikulic, P. (2011). Maturation to elite status: A six-year physiological case study of a world champion rowing crew. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 111(9), 2363-2368. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-011-1870-y
... Other variables influencing rowing performance include the anthropometrics of lean body mass, height, and long limbs. 1,7,8,9,[10][11][12][13][14] When examining female rowers, Battista et al. 15 found that vertical jump (P < 0.05) and years of experience before college (P < 0.05, ≈ 0.5 years) were the most significant indicator between novices and varsity athletes; supported by Huang et al 13 and Ingham et al. 16 The winning time and World record holder for women's rowing is in fact 16% slower than the men's record. Researchers determined this outcome to be due to women having a smaller body frame (P < 0.001) and lower lean body mass (P < 0.001). ...
... Other variables influencing rowing performance include the anthropometrics of lean body mass, height, and long limbs. 1,7,8,9,[10][11][12][13][14] When examining female rowers, Battista et al. 15 found that vertical jump (P < 0.05) and years of experience before college (P < 0.05, ≈ 0.5 years) were the most significant indicator between novices and varsity athletes; supported by Huang et al 13 and Ingham et al. 16 The winning time and World record holder for women's rowing is in fact 16% slower than the men's record. Researchers determined this outcome to be due to women having a smaller body frame (P < 0.001) and lower lean body mass (P < 0.001). ...
Article
Introduction: Rowing is a competitive sport in which men and women of all ages compete. Most of the studies reported on rowing have been carried out with young adult rowers. As it is important to have rowing experience before a senior age classification, it is necessary to study adolescent or junior athletes in this sport. Objectives: The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between selected physiological variables of male and female rowers and rowing performance as determined by a 2,000 m time-trial. Methods: Fifteen rowers (six males and nine females) ages 15-18 years who competed in the Hungarian Junior Rowing Championships performed a 2,000-m rowing ergometer test in the laboratory. Prior to this task, these subjects completed a measure of body size, composition and vertical jump on a force platform. Oxygen consumption was measured along with power output during the rowing ergometer trial. Results: This descriptive study of Junior Rowers identify the importance of aerobic power (rate of oxygen consumption) as a predictor of rowing performance. Since the mean Power was highly related (r = 0.99) with the time to complete the rowing distance, factors that reflect power might also be evaluated to confirm these findings. The time in the competition and time on the rowing ergometer were strongly related (r = 0.721). Excluding power in the regression analyses, oxygen consumption (VO2) and percentage lean body mass (%Lean) were identified as the significant (F=50.63, df=2,12, p <0.001) predictors of performance time. No other variables were selected in the regression equations. Conclusion: The rate of oxygen consumption and lean mass in adolescent rowers need to be considered in explaining performance. Level of Evidence III; Case Control Study.
... Outras variáveis que influenciam o desempenho no remo incluem a antropometria da massa corporal magra, a altura e os membros longos. 1,7,8,9,[10][11][12][13][14] Ao examinar remadores do sexo feminino, Battista et al. 15 descobriram que o salto vertical (P < 0,05) e os anos de experiência antes da faculdade (P < 0,05, ≈ 0,5 anos) foram os indicadores mais significativos entre novatos e atletas do time do colégio; apoiados por Huang et al. 13 e Ingham et al. 16 O tempo vencedor e detentor do recorde mundial do remo feminino é, na verdade, 16% mais lento do que o recorde masculino. Os pesquisadores determinaram que esse resultado se deve ao fato de as mulheres terem uma estrutura corporal menor (P < 0,001) e menor massa corporal magra (P < 0,001). ...
... Outras variáveis que influenciam o desempenho no remo incluem a antropometria da massa corporal magra, a altura e os membros longos. 1,7,8,9,[10][11][12][13][14] Ao examinar remadores do sexo feminino, Battista et al. 15 descobriram que o salto vertical (P < 0,05) e os anos de experiência antes da faculdade (P < 0,05, ≈ 0,5 anos) foram os indicadores mais significativos entre novatos e atletas do time do colégio; apoiados por Huang et al. 13 e Ingham et al. 16 O tempo vencedor e detentor do recorde mundial do remo feminino é, na verdade, 16% mais lento do que o recorde masculino. Os pesquisadores determinaram que esse resultado se deve ao fato de as mulheres terem uma estrutura corporal menor (P < 0,001) e menor massa corporal magra (P < 0,001). ...
Article
Introdução: O remo é um esporte competitivo em que competem homens e mulheres de todas as idades. A maioria dos estudos relatados sobre remo é realizada com remadores adultos jovens. Como é importante a experiência de remo antes de uma classificação etária sênior, faz-se necessário o estudo de atletas adolescentes ou em categoria júnior dessa modalidade. Objetivos: O objetivo deste estudo foi examinar a relação entre variáveis fisiológicas selecionadas de remadores masculinos e femininos e o desempenho no remo, conforme determinado por um contrarrelógio de 2.000 m. Métodos: Quinze remadores (6 do sexo masculino e 6 do feminino) com idades compreendidas entre os 15-18 anos que competiram no campeonato Húngaro de Remo Júnior, realizaram em laboratório um teste ergômetro de remo de 2.000 m. Antes da avaliação em laboratório, os atletas foram sujeitos a uma avaliação da composição corporal e ao teste de salto vertical numa plataforma de força. O consumo de oxigênio e o dispêndio energético foram aferidos durante a prova em ergômetro. Resultados: Este estudo descritivo de remadores juniores identificou a importância da potência aeróbia (taxa de consumo de oxigênio) como um preditor do desempenho no remo. Uma vez que o poder médio apresenta-se altamente relacionado (r = 0,99) com o tempo para completar a distância de remo, os fatores que refletem a potência, podem também ser avaliados para confirmar esses achados. O tempo de competição e o tempo de remo no ergômetro estão fortemente relacionados (r = 0,721). Considerando a análise de regressão, o consumo de oxigénio (VO2) e o percentil da massa corporal magra (% Magra) foram considerados como significantes (F = 50,63, df = 2,12, p <0,001) preditores do tempo de desempenho. Nenhuma outra variável foi incluída na equação de regressão. Conclusão: A taxa de consumo de oxigênio e massa magra em remadores adolescentes, são variáveis que devem ser consideradas na explicação do desempenho dos 2.000m no remo. Nível de Evidência III; Estudo de Caso-Controle.
... Outras variáveis que influenciam o desempenho no remo incluem a antropometria da massa corporal magra, a altura e os membros longos. 1,7,8,9,[10][11][12][13][14] Ao examinar remadores do sexo feminino, Battista et al. 15 descobriram que o salto vertical (P < 0,05) e os anos de experiência antes da faculdade (P < 0,05, ≈ 0,5 anos) foram os indicadores mais significativos entre novatos e atletas do time do colégio; apoiados por Huang et al. 13 e Ingham et al. 16 O tempo vencedor e detentor do recorde mundial do remo feminino é, na verdade, 16% mais lento do que o recorde masculino. Os pesquisadores determinaram que esse resultado se deve ao fato de as mulheres terem uma estrutura corporal menor (P < 0,001) e menor massa corporal magra (P < 0,001). ...
... Outras variáveis que influenciam o desempenho no remo incluem a antropometria da massa corporal magra, a altura e os membros longos. 1,7,8,9,[10][11][12][13][14] Ao examinar remadores do sexo feminino, Battista et al. 15 descobriram que o salto vertical (P < 0,05) e os anos de experiência antes da faculdade (P < 0,05, ≈ 0,5 anos) foram os indicadores mais significativos entre novatos e atletas do time do colégio; apoiados por Huang et al. 13 e Ingham et al. 16 O tempo vencedor e detentor do recorde mundial do remo feminino é, na verdade, 16% mais lento do que o recorde masculino. Os pesquisadores determinaram que esse resultado se deve ao fato de as mulheres terem uma estrutura corporal menor (P < 0,001) e menor massa corporal magra (P < 0,001). ...
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RESUMO Introdução: O remo é um esporte competitivo em que competem homens e mulheres de todas as idades. A maioria dos estudos relatados sobre remo é realizada com remadores adultos jovens. Como é importante a experiência de remo antes de uma classificação etária sênior, faz-se necessário o estudo de atletas adolescentes ou em categoria júnior dessa modalidade. Objetivos: O objetivo deste estudo foi examinar a relação entre variáveis fisiológicas selecionadas de remadores masculinos e femininos e o desempenho no remo, conforme determinado por um contrarrelógio de 2.000 m. Métodos: Quinze remadores (6 do sexo masculino e 6 do feminino) com idades compreendidas entre os 15-18 anos que competiram no campeonato Húngaro de Remo Júnior, realizaram em laboratório um teste ergômetro de remo de 2.000 m. Antes da avaliação em laboratório, os atletas foram sujei-tos a uma avaliação da composição corporal e ao teste de salto vertical numa plataforma de força. O consumo de oxigênio e o dispêndio energético foram aferidos durante a prova em ergômetro. Resultados: Este estudo descritivo de remadores juniores identificou a importância da potência aeróbia (taxa de consumo de oxigênio) como um preditor do desempenho no remo. Uma vez que o poder médio apresenta-se altamente relacionado (r = 0,99) com o tempo para completar a distância de remo, os fatores que refletem a potência, podem também ser avaliados para confirmar esses achados. O tempo de competição e o tempo de remo no ergômetro estão fortemente relacionados (r = 0,721). Considerando a análise de regressão, o consumo de oxigénio (VO2) e o per-centil da massa corporal magra (% Magra) foram considerados como significantes (F = 50,63, df = 2,12, p <0,001) preditores do tempo de desempenho. Nenhuma outra variável foi incluída na equação de regressão. Conclusão: A taxa de consumo de oxigênio e massa magra em remadores adolescentes, são variáveis que devem ser consi-deradas na explicação do desempenho dos 2.000m no remo. ABSTRACT Introduction: Rowing is a competitive sport in which men and women of all ages compete. Most of the studies reported on rowing have been carried out with young adult rowers. As it is important to have rowing experience before a senior age classification, it is necessary to study adolescent or junior athletes in this sport. Objectives: The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between selected physiological variables of male and female rowers and rowing performance as determined by a 2,000 m time-trial. Methods: Fifteen rowers (six males and nine females) ages 15-18 years who competed in the Hungarian Junior Rowing Championships performed a 2,000-m rowing ergometer test in the laboratory. Prior to this task, these subjects completed a measure of body size, composition and vertical jump on a force platform. Oxygen consumption was measured along with power output during the rowing ergometer trial. Results: This descriptive study of Junior Rowers identify the importance of aerobic power (rate of oxygen consumption) as a predictor of rowing performance. Since the mean Power was highly related (r = 0.99) with the time to complete the rowing distance, factors that reflect power might also be evaluated to confirm these findings. The time in the competition and time on the rowing ergometer were strongly related (r = 0.721). Excluding power in the regression analyses, oxygen consumption (VO 2) and percentage lean body mass (%Lean) were identified as the significant (F=50.63, df=2,12, p <0.001) predictors of performance time. No other variables were selected in the regression equations. Conclusion: The rate of oxygen consumption and lean mass in adolescent rowers need to be considered in explaining performance. Level of Evidence III; Case Control Study.
... Compelling evidence suggests that strength capacity is positively associated with rowing performance. 10,14,22 Recent studies by Pérez-Castilla et al 23 22 revealed that the mechanical performance produced during the leg press and bench pull exercises are powerful predictors of 2000-m rowing performance. However, to our knowledge, this is the first study to directly compare the potential interference effects of upper-and lower-body RT protocols on subsequent rowing performance. ...
... Compelling evidence suggests that strength capacity is positively associated with rowing performance. 10,14,22 Recent studies by Pérez-Castilla et al 23 22 revealed that the mechanical performance produced during the leg press and bench pull exercises are powerful predictors of 2000-m rowing performance. However, to our knowledge, this is the first study to directly compare the potential interference effects of upper-and lower-body RT protocols on subsequent rowing performance. ...
Article
Purpose: To evaluate the interference effects of various resistance-training (RT) protocols on rowing ergometer performance. Methods: Fourteen semiprofessional male rowers randomly completed 5 protocols in separate sessions: (1) control-no RT session was performed, (2) upper-body high-fatigue-4 sets to failure during the bench pull exercise, (3) upper-body low-fatigue-4 sets of 6 repetitions during the bench pull exercise, (4) lower-body high-fatigue-4 sets to failure during the leg-press exercise, and (5) lower-body low-fatigue-4 sets of 6 repetitions during the leg-press exercise. All sets were performed against the 12-repetition-maximum load with 2 minutes of interset rest. Following the completion of the protocols, subjects performed an all-out 1000-m rowing ergometer test. Results: Compared with the control condition, rowing ergometer performance was not significantly affected after the low-fatigue RT protocols (upper body: P ≥ .487; Δ = 0.0%-0.2%; lower body: P ≥ .200; Δ = -0.2%-0.5%), while it significantly declined following high-fatigue RT protocols (upper body: P ≤ .001; Δ = 1.0%-2.0%; lower body: P ≤ .002; Δ = 2.1%-2.5%). The average heart rate was significantly lower for the control condition compared with all RT protocols (P ≤ .043; Δ = 1.0%-1.5%). Conclusions: To minimize interference on rowing performance, coaches should prioritize the level of effort in RT protocols over specific exercises, specifically avoiding high-fatigue protocols that lead to failure before rowing practice.
... Mean and maximal power measured on a rowing ergometer, one repetition of maximal leg push-up and one repetition of maximal pull-up strength tests have been correlated with rowing performance (Akça, 2014). The predictive role of leg push-up and maximal vertical jump has also been investigated (Huang et al., 2007), studies that emphasize the importance of developing strength and anaerobic power. ...
... Dayung atau rowing adalah salah satu cabang olahraga daya tahan (endurance) yang sasaran utamanya adalah air dengan menggunakan media perahu dan dayung. Gerakan mendayung merupakan gerakan terus menerus yang membutuhkan produksi tenaga aerobik dan anaerobik yang membutuhkan kekuatan dan daya tahan otot (Huang et al, 2007). Rowing merupakan olahraga yang sangat menuntut fisik dan mental, sebagaimana dibuktikan oleh fakta bahwa pendayung menunjukkan atribut fisiologis tertinggi yang tercatat (misalnya, VO2max) di antara atlet olahraga apa pun (Schmid et al, 2020). ...
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Rowing is the dominant endurance sport, so rowing trainers must be more observant in providing forms of training to improve physical condition, especially in the endurance component. The High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) method was chosen as the training method used to improve the results of the 6000 m rowing test ergonometer. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of the High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) method on the results of increasing the 6000 m rowing test ergometer. The method used in this study is an experimental method with a research design of One Group Pre-test Post-test Design. 4 Rowing athletes in Bandung were selected and used as samples in this study. The training was carried out for 4 weeks with a total of 12 meetings and 3 meetings a week. The instrument used is a rowing ergometer 6000 m test. The results of this study showed that there was an effect of the high intensity interval training (HIIT) method on the 6000 m rowing test ergometer.
... It has to be considered also the metabolic role of testosterone that plays a pivotal role in gluconeogenesis via the proteolytic pathway, in the storage of glycogen and in protein synthesis at muscular level [26]. The higher increase noted in testosterone following the indoor race, was probably induced by adrenaline stimulation, and by the stimulatory effect of lactate which is mostly produced during ergometer sessions rather than boat races [27]. It is also important to note that in adolescent non-elite athletes the improvement of the technical approach is important to determine a better physical response, also in terms of stress-related biomarkers and to maximize the effort of the performance. ...
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Purpose There is a lack of data regarding the stress and motivation response in adolescent athletes during competitions. The athletic performance can be highly influenced by stress rather than appropriate training, at this age. The aim of this investigation is to evaluate the level of stress markers in adolescent rowers in different competition settings that might alter their stress status and performance. Methods Adolescent rowing athletes (12–18 yrs) have been tested for determining saliva content of stress biomarkers, cortisol and testosterone, before and after competitions that have been performed indoor and outdoor. Specifically, samples have been taken in the morning, before and after the race in 2 different settings: 1) an indoor rowing competition with an ergometer, 2) an outdoor rowing competition on boats. Results A reduction in cortisol levels has been observed in athletes right before the outdoor race, while testosterone levels increased at the same time point before either the ergometer or boat competition and kept rising at the end of the race. Significant differences have been found comparing the testosterone/cortisol ratio between indoor and outdoor data, being higher in the indoor race at all considered time-point. Furthermore, the linear regression demonstrated that the increased ratio correlated with a better podium position in the indoor race. Conclusion Despite the age differences among athletes might have an influence on their hormone levels, these data suggest that rowing athletes subjected to different kind of competitions show a different stress and motivation response profile that might influence their performance.
... For example, Majumdar et al. (2017) showed that the body weight of the athletes was significantly related to their performance, and that the athletes with a higher body weight were able to complete the parkour in a shorter time than the lighter athletes did. It has also been reported in the literature that rowers with more lean body mass and muscle mass are associated with better 2000-meter performance time (Huang et al., 2007;Majumdar et al., 2017;Sulaiman et al., 2016). In this study, when we compare the lean body mass values of scullers with those of sweep rowers, it was seen that the results were greater in favor of sweep rowers (Table 3). ...
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Eight elite junior oarsmen (ER) and sixteen club level rowers (CR) were tested for upper body strength (trunk, arms) and for mean, peak and minimum power outputs using the Double-Arm Anaerobic Work Test (DAAWT). This test is a modified version of the original Wingate test whereby athletes can be tested using trunk and both arms simultaneously. Multiple Discriminant Analysis was used to determine if the DAAWT variables alone were sensitive enough to discriminate between the two groups. Additionally, Pearson's correlation coefficients and ANOVA were employed. Results indicate that mean power and power difference expressed in absolute values (Watts) could successfully classify junior oarsmen into appropriate groups (91.8%, P less than 0.001). In addition, there was a fairly high correlation (r = 0.81) between mean power and strength in the ER. The strongest ER demonstrated the least fatigue while highly significant differences between the groups in most of the other variables examined have also been demonstrated.
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At the start of a rowing race, the boat is accelerated and the force on the oars reaches between 1000 and 1500 N. During the race, the speed is maintained at a lower level with a peak rowing force of 500-700 N for 210-230 strokes for about 6.5 min. Rowers are adapted to this effort by a large muscle mass and high metabolic capacities. The muscles of successful rowers demonstrate 70%-85% slow-twitch fibers. Both slow- and fast-twitch fibers have increased oxidative enzyme activities reflecting elevated number and density of mitochondria. Rowing force and boat velocity correlate to maximal oxygen uptake (VO2) which reaches 6.0-6.61.min-1 (65-70 ml.min-1. kg-1) and to the VO2 during a race. In turn, the VO2 during a race is related to slow-twitch fibers content of the muscles, also to the aerobic-anaerobic threshold (AAT) and inversely related to the maximal blood lactate level. The AAT is 80%-85% of maximal performance in highly trained rowers. In successful rowers training intensity is 70% -90% of the training time below the AAT. Training eliciting a blood lactate above 4.0 mmol/l, sprint training and athletics training complete the training schedule, which may reach 1000 h, or 5000-7000 km per year.
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The relationship between power and gross efficiency during near-maximal rowing, and physiological measures of strength, power, aerobic and anaerobic capacities and United State Rowing Association (USRA) performance tests (independent variables) was investigated among collegiate male rowers. Criterion measures of rowing power and gross efficiency were measured in a moving-water rowing tank, using an oar instrumented with strain gauges to assess force and a potentiometer to assess oar position. Bivariate correlation analysis (n = 28) indicated no relationship between the independent variables and rowing gross efficiency (P > 0.05). Rowing power [mean (SD) 483.4 (34.75) W] was significantly related to inboard leg extension strength (IL strength, r = 0.63), outboard leg extension strength (r = 0.45), combined leg extension strength (r = 0.45), and time to complete the USRA 2000-m simulated rowing race (r = -0.52; P <0.05). Stepwise regression using resampling cross-validation of 15 random samples (21 subjects per sample selected from a total group of 28 intercollegiate oarsmen) indicated that predictors of rowing power were IL strength and blood lactate following a peak oxygen uptake rowing test with significant multiple correlations of R 0.61 to 0.86 (P <0.05). The standard error of estimate (SEM) ranged from 18.1 to 29.9 W, or 5.3 (0.77) percent of the criterion value. Cross-validation with a hold-out group (seven subjects per sample) was performed for each equation and correlations ranged from R = 0.14 to 0.97 (SEM = 8.0 to 38.9 W). In conclusion, data from the present study suggest that to increase rowing power, training should emphasize leg strength and anaerobic training to decrease the level of lactate accumulated during rowing.
Article
The biology and medicine of rowing are briefly reviewed. Effort in a 2000-m race is about 70% aerobic. Because the boat (and in some instances a cox) must be propelled, successful competitors are very tall, with a large lean mass and aerobic power. Large hearts may lead to erroneous diagnoses of a cardiomyopathy. Large respiratory minute volumes must be developed by chest muscles that are also involved in rowing. The vital capacity is typically large, and breathing becomes entrained. Expiration cannot be slowed relative to inspiration (as normally occurs at high rates of ventilation) and the limiting flow velocity may be reached, with the potential for airway collapse. Performance is strongly related to the power output at the "anaerobic threshold", and lactate measures provide a guide to an appropriate intensity of endurance training. Peak blood lactate levels are higher in males (commonly 11-19 mmol . l-1 and occasionally as high as 25 mmol . l-1) than in females (9-11 mmol . l-1), probably because males have a greater muscle mass in relation to blood volume. The skeletal muscles are predominantly slow twitch in type, developing an unusual force and power at low contraction velocities. Many rowers have a suboptimal diet, eating excessive amounts of fat. Lightweight rowers also have problems of weight cycling. Aerobic power and muscle endurance often change by 10% over the season, but such fluctuations can be largely avoided by a well-designed winter training programme. Injuries include back and knee problems, tenosynovitis of the wrist and, since the introduction of large blades, fractures of the costae.
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Part 1: Definitions: Semantic and physiological definitions Endurance sports Part 2: Basic scientific considerations: Part 2a: Biological bases of endurance performance and the associated functional capacities: General considerations Anatomical and anthropometric fundamentals of endurance Cellular metabolism and endurance The pulmonary system and endurance Cardiac function and endurance Peripheral circulation and endurance Central nervous influence on fatigue Muscular factors in endurance Endocrine factors in endurance Food stores and energy reserves Part 2b: Psychological aspects of endurance performance: Psychological aspects of endurance performance Part 2c: Genetic determinants of endurance performance: Genetic determinants of endurance performance Part 2d: Physical limitations of endurance performance: Mechanical constraints upon endurance performance Heat exchange in hot and cold environments Economy of movement Part 3: Measurements of endurance: Factors to be measured Maximal oxygen intake Sport-specific ergometric equipment Haemoglobin, blood volume and endurance Muscular endurance and blood lactate Metabolism in the contracting skeletal muscle Body composition and body energy stores Personality and endurance performance: The state/trait controversy Sensory processes and endurance performance Environmental extremes and endurance performance Part 4: Principles of endurance preparation: Influences of biological age and selection Endurance conditioning Diet, vitamins and fluids: intake before and after prolonged exercise Psychology and endurance sports Prevention of injuries in endurance athletes Biochemical causes of fatigue and overtraining Reversible reproductive changes with endurance training Part 5: Specific population groups and endurance training: Aerobic responses to physical training in children Pregnant women and endurance exercise The elderly and endurance training Part 6: Clinical aspects of endurance training: Medical surveillance of endurance sport Cardiovascular benefits of endurance exercise Cardiac problems in endurance sports Lung fluid movement Hyperthermia, hypothermia and problems of hydration Problems of high altitude Ambient air pollution and endurance performance Effects of endurance exercise on immune response Overuse syndromes Other health benefits of physical activity Part 7: Specific issues in individual sports: Swimming as an endurance sport The energetics of running Canoeing Rowing Cross-country ski racing Cycling Triathlon training and competition Mountaineering The physiology of human-powered flight Endurance in other sports Index
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In a recent study of the kinematics of the drive phase of the rowing stroke, Lamb (1989) provided detailed evidence that ergometer performance simulates on-the-water performance closely. In the present experiment, Lamb's analysis was extended in an investigation of the timing of the complete cycle of the rowing action of 5 rowers under each of those performance conditions. The authors followed Beek's (1992) suggestion that the first task in the analysis of timing in skilled movement is to specify the sources of variance and invariance in each particular task by identifying the major temporal constraints and the key relative timing variables. In addition, the possibility that some simple mathematical relationship (e.g., Schmidt, 1985) might describe the relative timing between the stroke and recovery phases of the rowing action when performed at different speeds was investigated. Both an absolute and a relative variability criterion were used in assessing and comparing timing variability over 4 speeds of rowing and between on-water and ergometer rowing in 5 elite male subjects. Criteria outlined by Gentner (1987) were used in assessing relative timing between stroke and recovery. The results indicated that variability decreases dramatically as a function of increased rowing rate; however, when variability is expressed as a function of movement duration, those decreases appear much less dramatic. Overall variability of the rowing cycle was caused principally by variability in the recovery phase, whereas the stroke phase was relatively invariant under both rowing conditions. The changes in the relative timing of the rowing stroke across the 4 speeds studied followed a simple mathematical rule, best described as linear increments in the stroke proportion of the total rowing cycle with increases in rowing rate. Moreover, those changes were similar across the 2 rowing conditions. The present results are discussed in light of findings from other forms of propulsion, such as walking, running, and stair climbing, in which the movement constraints are quite different.
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Thesis (M.S.)--Washington State University, 1993. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 57-62). Microfiche. "UO 94 125."
Article
Elite oarsmen and oarswomen possess large body dimensions and show outstadning aerobic and anaerobic qualities. Oarsmen have V̇O2max values of 6.1 ± 0.6 L/min and have incurred O2 debts of between 10 and 20 litres. The caloric expenditure of rowing estimated from the O2 cost of a 6-minute rowing ergometer exercise was calculated at 36 kcal/min, one of the highest energy costs so far reported for any predominantly aerobic-type sport. Aerobic and anaerobic calculations show that 70 to 75% of the energy necessary to row the standard 2000m distance for men is derived from aerobiosis while the remaining 25 to 30% is anaerobic. Women achieve V̇O2max values of 4.1 ± 0.4 L/min and slightly lower anaerobic values than men. The relative 60 to 65% energy contribution of aerobic metabolism and 35 to 40% for anaerobiosis is not surprising since women compete at 1000m. Rowers also exhibit excellent isokinetic leg strength and power when compared with other elite athletes and oarswomen produced higher relative leg strength values than men when lean body mass is considered. Muscle fibre type distributions in oarsmen resemble those of distance runners while women tend to have a slightly higher proportion of fast-twitch fibres. An average power output of 390 ± 13.6W was produced by oarsmen for 6 minutes of simulated rowing while women were able to develop 300 ± 18.4 for 3 minutes of the same activity. Mechanical efficiency for rowing was calculated at 20 ± 0.9%. Oarsmen also achieve very high ventilation volumes being able to average above 200 L/min BTPS for 6 minutes of simulated rowing; women ventilate 170 L/min BTPS for 3 minutes of this exercise. Excellent V̇O2max and O2 pulse values demonstrate outstanding cardiorespiratory efficiency. Both oarsmen and oarswomen utilise a unique physiological pattern of race pacing; they begin exertion with a vigorous sprint which places excessive demands on anaerobic metabolism followed by a severely high aerobic steady-state and then an exhaustive sprint at the finish. Tolerance to excessive anaerobiosis is evident by very high lactates and O2 deficits measured during the first 2 minutes of exercise. Physiological profiles of successful international calibre rowing athletes have been established as a result of studies described in this review and the data have been used in a variety of ways to improve rowing performance.
Article
The purpose of this investigation was to compare the myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform expression of the triceps brachii muscle and isoinertial, isometric and isokinetic strength indices in competitive bodybuilders (CB, n = 5), recreational resistance trainers (RT, n = 5), endurance-trained rowers (ER, n = 5) and control (C, n = 5) subjects. Muscle tissue samples were analysed for MHC isoform content using 6% sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The CB possessed significantly smaller (P < 0.05) percentage of MHC type IIb proteins [12.92 (SD 7.08)%] than RT [30.08 (SD 6.58)%] ER [31.20 (SD 2.74)%] and C [38.22 (SD 2.95)%] groups (i.e. CB < RT approximately ER < C). While the content of MHC type IIa isoforms did not differ significantly between the two resistance-trained groups [CB = 55.76 (SD 5.38)%; RT = 45.72 (SD 7.8)%], CB presented significantly more type IIa MHC isoforms than ER [42.84 (SD 2.98)%] and C [34.72 (SD 1.57)%] subjects (i.e. CB approximately RT > ER approximately C). The MHC type I protein content did not differ significantly among RT [24.20 (SD 4.89)%] ER [25.38 (SD 1.67)%] and C [27.06 (SD 1.81)%] groups. The CB [31.32 (SD 2.67)%] presented significantly more type I MHC isoforms only in comparison with RT. However, when changes in the percentage of MHC type I isoforms were converted to effect sizes (ES), it appeared that low statistical power rather than the absence of an effect accounted for the nonsignificant differences between CB and other groups (i.e. CB > RT approximately ER approximately C). Significant differences existed in isoinertial strength among the trained athletes (i.e. CB > RT > ER approximately C), while isometric and isokinetic strength were not significantly different among any of the trained groups. However, the ES transformation of data demonstrated that large differences existed between resistance-trained groups and ER for isometric and isokinetic strength (i.e. CB approximately RT > ER approximately C). A statistically significant negative correlation (P < 0.001) was found between MHC type IIb isoforms and isoinertial strength index (r = -0.68). The MHC type IIa proteins were positively related to all the strength measures considered (r = 0.51 0.61; P < 0.001). These data demonstrated different patterns of MHC isoform expression among the different groups of athletes and it is suggested that these differences on occasion may affect the expression of strength.