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Rowing Performance
43
Journal of Exercise Physiologyonline
(JEPonline)
Volume 10 Number 4 June 2007
Fitness and Training
Managing Editor
Tommy Boone, Ph.D.
Editor-in-Chief
Jon Linderman, Ph.D.
Review Board
Todd Astorino, Ph.D.
Julien Baker, Ph.D.
Tommy Boone, Ph.D.
Lance Dalleck, Ph.D.
Dan Drury, DPE.
Hermann Engels, Ph.D.
Eric Goulet, Ph.D.
Robert Gotshall, Ph.D.
Len Kravitz, Ph.D.
James Laskin, Ph.D.
Jon Linderman, Ph.D.
M. Knight-Maloney, Ph.D.
Derek Marks, Ph.D.
Cristine Mermier, Ph.D.
Daryl Parker, Ph.D.
Robert Robergs, Ph.D.
Brent Ruby, Ph.D.
Jason Siegler, Ph.D.
Greg Tardie, Ph.D.
Lesley White, Ph.D.
Chantal Vella, Ph.D.
Thomas Walker, Ph.D.
Ben Zhou, Ph.D.
Official Research Journal of
The American Society of
Exercise Physiologists
(ASEP)
ISSN 1097-9751
STRENGTH AND POWER DETERMINANTS OF ROWING
PERFORMANCE
CHUN-JUNG HUANG, THOMAS W. NESSER, JEFFREY E.
EDWARDS.
Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Physical Education,
Indiana State University, Terre Haute, USA
ABSTRACT
Chun-Jung Huang CJ, Nesser TW, Edwards JE. Physiological
determinates of rowing performance. JEPonline 2007:10(4):43-50.
Rowing is an activity that involves both the upper and lower body,
making it a total body exercise. The purpose of this study was to
determine which physiological variables account for the most variation in
2000m rowing performance. Ten male (age = 17.4 ± 0.7 yr, weight =
75.2 ± 11.2 kg, height = 181.4 ± 6.1 cm) and seven female rowers (age
= 17.3 ± 0.6 yr, weight = 72.4 ± 14.9 kg, and height = 168.3 ± 6.7 cm)
participated in this study. Performance variables tested include a 2000m
rowing ergometer time trial (8.01 ± 0.69 min), vertical jump (42.6 ± 10.7
cm), inverted row (9.8 ± 6.3 rep), leg press (144.7 ± 25.4 kg), and back
extension (26.3 ± 11.1 rep). Significant correlations (p ≤ 0.05) with
2000m rowing performance were identified for vertical jump (r = -0.736),
inverted row (r = -0.624), leg press (r = -0.536), and height (r = -0.837).
A stepwise multiple regression analysis identified height and leg press
as the strongest predictors of 2000m rowing performance (R2= 0.807, p
≤ 0.05). With height removed as an independent variable, a stepwise
multiple regression was run again, identifying vertical jump, weight, and
age as the best predictors of 2000m rowing performance (R2= 0.842, p ≤
0.05). Height and leg press were identified as the strongest predictors of
2000m rowing performance. With height removed as an independent
variable vertical jump, weight, and age best predicted 2000m rowing
performance. Inverted row, despite its strong correlation, did not further
contribute to either prediction equation. The results of this study support
the importance of strength and anaerobic power development in male
and female club level rowers.
Key Words: Athlete, Endurance, Training,
Rowing Performance
44
INTRODUCTION
Rowing is a continuous movement that requires the production of both aerobic and anaerobic power.
In the drive phase of the rowing cycle, rowers sequentially push with their legs then pull with their
arms and lower back (1,2) requiring both muscular strength and endurance. Previous research has
classified elite and club junior rowers through measurement of upper body strength (3), and
attempted to predict rowing performance via anthropometric variables (4), upper body power (5), and
quadriceps strength (6). However, it remains unclear whether strength and/or muscle endurance are
factors in rowing performance since none of the mentioned studies considered reviewing both
strength and endurance at the same time.
METHODS
Subjects
Ten male and seven female club level rowers (15-18 yr) volunteered for participation in this study.
Physical characteristics can be found in Table 1, 2, and 3.
Procedures
The participants completed a medical history questionnaire and signed an informed consent form
prior to data collection. All experimental procedures were approved by university Institutional Review
Board.
The participants performed five tests on two separate days. The interval between each testing day
was at least three days. They were asked to avoid strenuous physical activity 24 hours prior to
testing. All tests were completed within two weeks.
On day 1, the participants completed a counter movement vertical jump on a Vertec vertical height
measuring device (MF Athletic Corp, Cranston, RI) to measure lower body power and a 2000-m
rowing ergometer test on a Concept II rowing ergometer (Model C, Concept II, Morrisville, VT) to
measure rowing performance. Participants were required to warm up for 500m at the stroke rate of
18-20 strokes·min-1 on a rowing ergometer.
On day 2, the participants first performed a maximum number of inverted rows on a squat rack (MF
Athletic Corp., Cranston, RI) with a standard barbell to measure upper body muscle endurance, then
a 1-repetition maximum (1 RM) leg press (Cybex International Corp., Medway, MA) to measure lower
body strength, and finally a maximum number of back extensions (PFW-560 Roman Bench,
Paramount Corp., Los Angles, CA) to measure lower back muscle endurance. Participants were
required to warm up by jogging for five minutes. All tests were performed at the St. Vincent Sports
Medicine Center in Indianapolis.
The counter movement vertical jump was used to measure lower body power. Participants faced the
Vertec with both feet flat on the floor, and reached as high as possible with either hand to determine
reach height. Then, they jumped vertically as high as possible with one arm swing but no step, and
touched a vane at the highest point of the jump. Reach height was subtracted from jump height to
determine vertical jump height. Each participant completed three trials, while the best performance
was used for data analysis.
The 2000-m rowing ergometer test was a timed test to measure muscle endurance. Participants were
asked to complete the 2000 meter distance in as short a time as possible. Participants worked at a
setting of 1 on a Concept II ergometer. The final time was recorded.
Rowing Performance
45
For the inverted rows, participants lied in a supine position under a bar on a squat rack. The bar was
set at a height of 3 feet. Their feet were placed on a bench approximately 24 inches high. The
beginning position consisted of the arms fully extended with a pronated grip on the bar. Subjects
pulled themselves up until their chest touched the bar. A new repetition began as soon as the
participant reached the bottom position. Subjects maintained a rigid, supine position throughout the
test (6). If a participant held the bottom position for more than 2 seconds or failed to maintain a rigid
position, the test was terminated. The maximum number of inverted rows was recorded and used for
data analysis.
Next, the leg press was used to evaluate lower body strength. Participants grasped the seat’s handle,
and their back needed to be kept straight. Also, participants placed their feet on the machine rests,
and they were required to flex the knee to 90 degrees. Individuals were allowed to warm-up with a
light weight for 5 repetitions. Following a one minute rest period, a weight was estimated to allow 3
repetitions. Weights were increased as necessary (30 ~ 40 pounds) until a 1-repetition maximum (1
RM) had been determined. Three minute rest periods followed each set. If the participant failed, the
load was decreased 15 ~ 20 pounds for the next attempt. By increasing or decreasing the load, the
participants were able to complete a 1 RM within five sets. The maximum load was used for data
analysis.
Finally, the back extension was completed with the subjects in a prone position on a back extension
bench, and their hips aligned with the front edge of the pad. They flexed their torso forward to a 90
degree angle at the hip, and then raised the trunk until their torso is parallel to the floor (7). Hands
were kept clasped behind their head. A new repetition began as soon as the participant reached the
bottom position. If a participant kept the bottom position for more than 2 seconds or failed to reach
parallel, the test was terminated. The maximum number of back extension was recorded and used for
data analysis.
Statistical Analyses
The dependent variable was the 2000-m time trial, and the independent variables were vertical jump,
leg press, back extension, and inverted rows. A stepwise multiple regression analysis was used to
determine predictors of 2000-m rowing time. Pearson correlation coefficient (r) was used to establish
a relationship between 2000-m rowing performance and the independent variables. Statistical
significance was set at P ≤ 0.05.
RESULTS
Physiological and performance variables are presented in Tables 1 and 2. Pearson correlation
coefficient (r) was used to compute the correlation between 2000-m rowing performance and age,
height, weight, experience, vertical jump, inverted row, leg press, and back extension (Table 4).
Significant correlations (P ≤ 0.05) were identified between 2000-m rowing performance and height (r
= -0.837), vertical jump (r = -0.736), inverted row (r = -0.624), and leg press (r = -0.536). There were
no significant correlations for age, weight, experience, or back extension.
Stepwise multiple regression analysis identified height and leg press as the two variables to best
predict 2000-m rowing performance. Since height cannot be trained it was removed as a performance
predictor. When height was removed as an independent variable, vertical jump, weight, and age were
identified as the best predictors of 2000-m rowing performance. Results are shown in Table 5.
Rowing Performance
46
Table 1. Male Physiological and Performance Variables (n = 10) DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to
examine male and female
rowers on a number of
physiological variables to predict
which may account for variation
in 2000-m rowing performance.
A stepwise multiple regression
identified height as the strongest
predictor of 2000-m rowing
performance (P ≤ 0.05 and R2 =
0.70 ).
This supports the importance of
height for success in rowing
performance as suggested by Shephard and Astrand (4) who stated that endurance is affected by
body dimension. They demonstrated that when standing height increases so does muscle leverage
and body mass. As height increases so does sitting height (trunk length), which is significantly related
to rowing performance.
Variables Mean Minimal Maximal
Age (years) 17.4±0.7 15.8 18.3
Height (cm) 181.4±6.1 172.7 193
Weight (kg) 75.2±11.2 64.4 99.8
Experience
(months) 23.2±11.2 6 36
Vertical Jump
(cm) 49.5±7.1 36.8 63.5
Inverted Row
(repetitions) 13.9±4.0 8 20
Leg Press (kg) 154.6±26.9 95.5 186.4
Back Extension
(repetitions) 29.5±13.5 13 57
2000-m Time (s) 452.2±25.3 416 494
Table 2. Female Physiological and Performance Variables (N = 7)
Variables Mean Minimal Maximal
Age (years) 17.3±0.6 16.7 18.1
Height (cm) 168.3±6.7 160.0 180.3
Weight (kg) 72.4±14.9 61.2 99.8
Experience
(months) 28.4±8.9 13 37
Vertical Jump
(cm) 32.6±6.0 25.4 43.2
Inverted Row
(repetitions) 3.9±3.4 0 9
Leg Press (kg) 130.5±15.3 113.6 159.1
Back Extension
(repetitions) 21.7±3.6 16 27
2000-m Time (s) 521.4±19.2 486.0 551
Additionally, Hirata (8)
mentioned gold medal winners
were consistently taller than
national champions in the
single sculls and Bourgolis et
al. (9) found that during the
1997 International World Junior
Rowing Championships,
finalists were taller than non-
finalists. Other researchers
have stated that body height
correlates well with 2000-m
rowing performance (10, 11),
as taller rowers have the
advantage of producing greater
rowing performance (12), since
their greater height allows a
longer stroke.
The second variable identified as a predictor of 2000-m rowing performance was leg press. Leg press
was used to evaluate the lower body strength due to its similarity to the rowing leg drive. Jensen et al.
(13) found that leg extension strength was correlated with 2000-m rowing power. Hagerman (6) has
also shown a correlation between quadriceps’ strength and rowing performance due to the power
provided during the leg drive in the rowing stroke. These studies support the result that leg strength is
vital to rowing performance.
Rowing Performance
47
Table 3. Combined Physiological and Performance Variables (N = 17)
Variables Mean Minimal Maximal
Age (years) 17.4±0.6 15.8 18.3
Height (cm) 176.0±9.0 160.0 193.0
Weight (kg) 74.0±12.5 61.2 99.8
Experience (months) 25.4±10.3 6 37
Vertical Jump (cm) 42.6±10.7 25.4 63.5
Inverted Row
(repetitions) 9.8±6.3 0 20
Leg Press (kg) 144.7±25.4 95.5 186.4
Back Extension
(repetitions) 26.3±11.1 13 57
2000-m Time (s) 480.7±41.6 416.0 551
To examine other independent variables, height was removed as a possible predictor to 2000-m
rowing performance. This second analysis identified vertical jump, weight, and age as additional
predictors of 2000-m rowing performance.
Table 4. Pearson Correlation Coefficients Between 2000-m Rowing Performance and Physical and Physiological
Variables (N = 17) *P ≤ 0.05
Variables r
Age -0.407
Height -0.837*
Weight -0.471
Experience 0.091
Vertical Jump -0.736*
Inverted Row -0.624*
Leg Press -0.536*
Back Extension -0.210
Vertical jump was used to measure lower body power. Yoshiga and Higuchi (10) examined 332
young rowers (age 21±2 yrs) in bilateral leg extension power on a 2000-m rowing ergometer. They
emphasized that rowing involved the most muscles in the body, and the bilateral leg extension power
is very important during rowing performance. Gayer (14) demonstrated that peak power was one of
the physiological characteristics that provided the best way to differentiate between successful and
unsuccessful rowers. Furthermore, in a study of female rowers, 75.7 % of the variation in 2000-m
indoor rowing performance time was predicted by mean power during a rowing Wingate test (5). This
information deems it necessary to emphasize the development of peak power in the training of
rowers.
Rowing Performance
48
Table 5. Regression Equations Predicting 2000-m rowing Performance (N = 17)
Variables R
2
R
2
X 100 SEE
Height 0.700 49 23.53
Leg Press 0.807 65.1 19.53
Y’ = 1168.769 – 3.452 (X1) – 0.556(X2)
Y’ = 2000-m row time
X1= height (cm)
X2 = leg press (kg)
Variables R
2
R
2
X 100 SEE
Vertical Jump 0.541 29.3 29.11
Weight 0.775 60 21.10
Age 0.842 70.9 18.33
Y’ = 1009.321 – 2.865 (X1) – 1.328 (X2) – 17.739 (X3)
Y’ = 2000-m row time
X1= Vertical Jump (cm)
X2 = Weight (kg)
X3 = age (years)
The second variable in the second regression equation identified as a predictor of 2000-m rowing
performance was weight. Russell et al. (15) stated that body mass was correlated with 2000-m
performance time (r = -0.41) and was also a predictor of 2000-m rowing performance. Many studies
have shown that typically open class rowers are tall, lean and have a high percentage of lean body
mass (particularly slow twitch muscle fibers (6, 16, 12, 17). Even though there was no significant
correlation between weight and 2000-m rowing performance (r = -0.471) in the current study, weight
improved the prediction of 2000-m rowing performance by 23.4%.
The third variable identified in the second regression as a predictor of 2000-m rowing performance
was age. Few studies reviewed for the present research identified a relationship between age and
rowing performance. Seiler at al. (18) examined 2487 male rowers (age 24 to 93 yrs) and 1615
females rowers (age 24 to 84 yrs), and found that there was a moderate correlation between age and
rowing performance (r=-0.58 for males and r = 0.46 for females). Since age is related to many
anthropometric characteristics, it is very much dependent on the population of rowers as being a
predictor of rowing performance.
Rowing Performance
49
The inverted row was used to measure strength in the upper back. Even though the inverted row was
not a predictor of rowing performance, it did have a significant negative correlation with 2000-m
rowing performance (r = -0.624) suggesting upper back strength may very well contribute to 2000-m
rowing performance.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of this study identified height and 1RM leg press as the best predictors of 2000-m rowing
performance. The identification of height and leg strength indicates the importance of leg and trunk
length that could extend the driving phase. This could be used to identify success in potential rowers
though it is not a factor that can be trained. Leg strength can be trained and improved in rowers with
an expectancy of increasing rowing performance. Which type of training is necessary to improve leg
strength and ultimately rowing performance is up to the individual coach and/or athlete. It is important
to note a limitation to this study is subject size. Due to the low number of subjects, genders had to be
combined for statistical analysis. Had numbers been higher, analysis would have been completed for
each gender thus the results may have been different.
Address for correspondence: Nesser, TW, PhD., Department of Physical Education, Indiana State
University, Terre Haute, IN, USA, 47885. Phone (812)237-2901; FAX: (812)237-4338; Email.
tnesser@indstate.edu.
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