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Gender (In)equality in Internet Pornography: A Content Analysis of Popular Pornographic Internet Videos
Abstract
Although Internet pornography is widely consumed and researchers have started to investigate its effects, we still know little about its content. This has resulted in contrasting claims about whether Internet pornography depicts gender (in)equality and whether this depiction differs between amateur and professional pornography. We conducted a content analysis of three main dimensions of gender (in)equality (i.e., objectification, power, and violence) in 400 popular pornographic Internet videos from the most visited pornographic Web sites. Objectification was depicted more often for women through instrumentality, but men were more frequently objectified through dehumanization. Regarding power, men and women did not differ in social or professional status, but men were more often shown as dominant and women as submissive during sexual activities. Except for spanking and gagging, violence occurred rather infrequently. Nonconsensual sex was also relatively rare. Overall, amateur pornography contained more gender inequality at the expense of women than professional pornography did.
... Recent reviews on the matter seem to show an unequivocal relationship between current pornography and unrealistic, sexist, and dangerous beliefs on sex, especially in young people (Barker, Gill & Harvey 2018, Dill & Thill 2007, McCarry 2009. Pornographic content has been proven to distort youths' perception of sex due to the depiction of traditional gender roles with emphasis on the dominant role of men and the submissive one of women (Klaassen & Peter 2015, Peter & Valkenburg 2016, Springate & Omar 2013. More specifically, in the Rapid Evidence Assessment commissioned by the English Office of the Children's Commissioner, it was found that sexual beliefs are indeed affected by exposure to pornographic material, including, but not limited to, conducts such as 'unrealistic attitudes about sex, ' 'beliefs that women are sex objects, ' and 'less progressive gender role attitudes' (Horvath, Alys, Massey, Pina, Scally & Adler 2013: 7). ...
... When trying to empirically analyze whether pornography reflects heteropatriarchal patterns of male oppression, it is control, objectification and initiative which have often been the factors observed and measured (Bridges, Wosnitzer, Scharrer, Sun & Liberman 2010, Klaassen & Peter 2015) -though controversial and hard to define (Smith 2009: 25). These notions are theoretically and methodologically complex to pinpoint, and they are often identified by relying on the presence of absence of particular sex acts and behaviors (McKee 2005: 278). ...
... If we take a more realistic view on sex and on the diverse ways in which sexual partners interact, McKee's (2005) definition of objectification seems a better fit: objectification consists of 'ignoring the wishes of one sexual partner and treating him or her as an object' (McKee 2005: 279). This is the approach taken by most content-analytic studies on the matter (Gorman, Monk-Turner & Fish 2010, Klaassen & Peter 2015, McKee 2005, Prince 1987, Salmon & Diamond 2012, Vannier, Currie & O'Sullivan 2014, which have 'largely found no significant differences between the degree of agency accorded to female and male characters' (Lischinsky 2017: 3). However, agency is 'sometimes impossible to determine in a precise fashion' and '[t]he comparability and validity of measures of sexual agency still raise important concerns' (Lischinksy 2017: 4; McKee 2005). ...
Pornography is commonly criticized for allegedly representing and promoting sexual dominance of men over women. Studies have shown varying results, with no scientific consensus reached on the matter. To contribute to the discussion with empirical discourse analysis evidence, I examine the linguistic choices reflected in a corpus of erotic novels to test whether there are gendered patterns of agency in the representation of sexual interactions. The construal of prominence is correlated to the notion of agency to find which participant specifies the trajector status and agent role in every relational expression. Results show that male participants take prominence over females in an overwhelming majority of the cases, while expressions with plural agency are marginal. The approach of this paper, combining cognitive grammar with linguistic participation roles, provides comprehensive and realistic results by attempting to operationalize agency as the linguistic expression of a particular cognitive pathway.
... Most researchers argued that mainstream pornographic materials tended to objectify women more than men (Cowan et al., 1988;Fritz & Paul, 2017;Klaassen & Peter, 2014). Whereas a few researchers proposed that pornography did not objectify women more than men. ...
... The results were contradictory, however. Male characters typically displayed more orgasms than females (Fritz & Paul, 2017;Klaassen & Peter, 2014;McKee, 2005). Vannier, et al. (2013) found that it was more likely for males to control the pace/direction of sexual activities than females. ...
... Vannier, et al. (2013) found that it was more likely for males to control the pace/direction of sexual activities than females. Nonetheless, some studies observed no gender differences in the initiation of sex (Klaassen & Peter, 2014;Vannier et al., 2013), or more women as the initiators (McKee, 2005). Mukai and collaborators' (2022) examined the top best-selling sex comics in 2010 and 2020. ...
... They conclude by stating that "a significant level of hatred of women is now available for viewing in our living rooms and bedrooms" (Cowan et al. 1988: 308-310). In some more recent research where objectification was operationalised differently, however, it did not significantly differ across genders (Klaassen, Peter 2014). McKee (2005) even found men to be objectified more than women on the whole. ...
... Moreover, violence (including spanking and gagging for instance) would be almost exclusively directed towards the female participant (Carotte, Davis, Lim 2020). Females would also be the more likely participant to be dehumanized and overall portrayed as submissive (Klaassen, Peter 2014). ...
... The amount of physical movement during sex could be a potential variable that could explain more. The same goes for initiating sexual intercourse, where there are differences between pornography (see the studies cited in Klaassen, Peter 2014) and real life (Grøntvedt, Kennair, Mehmetoglu 2015;Kennair et al. 2009). As such, the linguistic evidence could be a reminder that people may take on more roles during a single sexual encounter. ...
Despite the magnitude of its consumption by the general public, online pornography has to date received comparatively very little attention within linguistics. The paper explores the language in video titles on the pornographic site Pornhub using a corpus-driven approach. A corpus of 17,000 titles compiled specifically for the purposes of the study yielded a word list, which, together with an interdisciplinary literature review, was used to formulate two research questions. With gender as a key variable, the first research question focuses on the linguistic representation of agency by looking at verb objects, while the second examines expressions (nouns and adjectives) used to ascribe roles to the participants. A quantitative evaluation of the data indicates an interplay between gender and the observed features in both questions. The lexicalisation of agency was found to be more complex than previously thought; nine categories were found, and the role of passive voice differed depending on gender. As for gender characterisation, descriptions of women’s roles are not only more frequent but also more heterogenous and evaluative compared to those of men.
... La cosificación se divide en dos dimensiones: deshumanización e instrumentalidad (Klaassen y Peter, 2015). Por un lado, la instrumentalidad implica tratar a una persona como medio para conseguir un fin, con independencia de sus experiencias y emociones (Nussbaum, 1995). ...
... En primer lugar, las partes sexuales del cuerpo de la mujer ocupan los primeros planos de los vídeos (Fritz y Paul, 2017;Klaassen y Peter, 2015). Esto implica la reducción de la representación del yo sexual de la mujer a sus genitales, favoreciendo la deshumanización. ...
... En segundo lugar, la función de la mujer se reduce a garantizar el placer masculino (Strager, 2003). Esta instrumentalidad está presente en el énfasis en su cuerpo, la presencia de actos sexuales centrados en el placer masculino y el desequilibrio en la representación de orgasmos (Klaassen y Peter, 2015). Distintos estudios muestran la presencia de la eyaculación en los vídeos (Bridges et al., 2010;Fritz y Paul, 2017;McKee, 2005) en comparación con la infrarrepresentación del placer de la mujer. ...
La enorme presencia, prevalencia y consumo de pornografía en la actualidad la sitúan como un fenómeno susceptible a ser estudiado por múltiples disciplinas. Desde la psicología, se ahonda en los efectos del contenido pornográfico a nivel conductual, cognitivo y emocional. El presente estudio analiza cómo se representa a la mujer en la pornografía convencional y sus implicaciones a nivel psicosocial a través de la compilación y el análisis de distintos estudios e investigaciones realizados hasta el momento. Para ello, se adopta una perspectiva de género y psicosocial a través de la cual se explora la violencia sexual, la cosificación sexual, el canon de belleza femenino, los roles y guiones sexuales, la sexualidad de la mujer, la erotización de la violencia contra la mujer y los mitos, tabúes y creencias sexuales erróneas presentes en la pornografía. Se pretende integrar las aportaciones existentes en todas estas dimensiones para establecer conclusiones acerca de cómo se reviste y representa la figura de la mujer en la pornografía, pues podría tener una potencial influencia en las representaciones, actitudes, expectativas y comportamientos sexuales de los consumidores en sus relaciones con las mujeres. Los resultados permiten considerar que la pornografía reproduce la desigualdad sexual entre hombres y mujeres a través de la construcción de las categorías de “hombre” y “mujer” bajo un modelo dicotómico jerarquizado: agresor-víctima, dominación-subordinación, sujeto deseante-objeto deseado, individuación-deshumanización. La desigualdad de género está arraigada en la pornografía a través de la cosificación, distribución desigual del poder y violencia contra la mujer. De las implicaciones sociales, clínicas y educativas derivadas, se concluye la necesidad de avance en el campo de investigación relativo a la pornografía, de implementación de programas de prevención primaria, secundaria y terciaria y de una educación afectivo-sexual alternativa.
... During the last decades, interest has been generated to understand the influence of media in the process of the development and exploration of the sexuality of individuals, mainly due to the increase in the availability of sexual content through the internet [1][2][3][4]. The "Triple A Engine" affirms that there are three factors for the internet to be a very powerful tool in relation to sexuality: accessibility, affordability, and anonymity. ...
... The use of SEM has become an important source of information and/or "sexual education" for young people [13,14] that influences the processes of sexual socialization, which persist in adulthood [15]. This can lead to problems related to false expectations [4,12], objectification, degradation, and self-objectification [1,15]. Other variables related to the use of SEM, but less studied, are sexual satisfaction and satisfaction with the relationship. ...
... Therefore, the main objective of this study is to analyze the pattern of SEM use and its relationship with sociodemographic variables, sexual satisfaction, and satisfaction with the relationship. The specific objectives are: (1) to analyze the pattern of use of SEM (frequency, format, context, content, and purpose of its use); (2) to examine whether there are statistically significant differences in the pattern of SEM use based on sociodemographic characteristics (sex, age, sexual orientation, educational level, religiosity, partner status, number of sexual partners, and age of first exposure to SEM); and (3) to analyze whether there is a statistically significant relationship between the pattern of SEM use, sexual satisfaction, and partner satisfaction. The following hypotheses are proposed: (1) men will present a lower average than women at the age of first viewing SEM [3,6]; (2) men will use SEM more frequently than women [6,12]; and (3) people who have a higher frequency of SEM use will report lower levels of sexual satisfaction and partner satisfaction [12,19,20]. ...
Previous research that has examined the use of sexually explicit material (SEM) in the Spanish population and its relationship with sociodemographic variables, sexual satisfaction, and satisfaction with the relationship are practically non-existent. Therefore, the main goal was to analyze the pattern of use of SEM (frequency, format, context, content, and purpose of its use) and its relationship with sociodemographic variables (sex, age, sexual orientation, educational level, religiosity, status of partner, number of sexual partners, and age of first exposure to SEM), sexual satisfaction, and relationship satisfaction. The sample consisted of 221 participants, with an average age equal to 29.88 years (SD = 9.73) and of Spanish nationality. All participants completed a sociodemographic questionnaire, as well as the Spanish adaptations of the Sexual Media Questionnaire, Global Measure of Sexual Satisfaction, and Global Measure of Relationship Satisfaction. Based on the results, it was found that men use SEM more frequently than women, that the age of first exposure is 14 years old, the most used pattern of SEM is internet websites with sexual content in which adult men and women appear, and the way to visualize it is alone as private stimulation. In addition, it was shown that a higher frequency of SEM use implies a decrease in sexual satisfaction and vice versa, while there is no association between the frequency of SEM use and satisfaction with the relationship. The importance of considering the use of SEM, both in research on sexual satisfaction and in clinical practice, is discussed.
... Pornography has been found to contribute to the perpetuation of gender stereotypes and roles, through the representation of women as obedient and submissive, as recipients of violence, and as being at the mercy of men's sexual pleasure. Men, in contrast, play an active, dominant, powerful, and violent role (Klaassen & Peter, 2015;Martínez et al., 2021). ...
... According to some studies, the gender hierarchy is the result of patriarchal society-an element of power for men, who are motivated to perpetuate gender inequality and the privileges they obtain from it (Pratto & Sidanius, 1994), including in the sexual sphere. Through its sexist and stereotypical content (Klaassen & Peter, 2015), pornography may be socially acceptable Running Head: SOCIAL PERCEPTIONS OF PORNOGRAPHY 10 among people with highly sexist attitudes, as a tool of punishment toward women who break the mould by being sexually active and thus display non-normative behaviour. In this regard, sexist attitudes are key to understanding prejudice and discrimination against women, as they help to create and sustain inequality and legitimize the status quo of men and women, respectively, in society (Connor, 2017). ...
... Another possible explanation for the more positive perception of actresses compared to actors could be due to the type of pornography consumed. In mainstream pornography, women take on a submissive and compliant role, even experiencing violence from men (Klaassen & Peter, 2015;Martínez et al., 2021). In contrast, in alternative pornography (i.e., feminist, queer), women take on a more proactive role, projecting an image of an empowered, competent, and sexually assertive woman-a Running Head: SOCIAL PERCEPTIONS OF PORNOGRAPHY 15 subject (but not an object) of desire who takes responsibility for her own sexual pleasure (Aguado, 2018). ...
Pornography is the primary means by which young people learn about sex. This, combined with a generalized lack of comprehensive sex education, can contribute to fuelling negative attitudes toward women. This research aimed to examine social perceptions of porn actresses versus porn actors, based on the stereotypes attributed
to them, considering viewer’s sexist ideology. In a sample of 306 individuals (53.9% women; Mage = 27.13; SDage = 9.35), results showed that pornography contribute to stereotyping women, with the discrimination that this entails. This research contributes to a better understanding of how discrimination against women is perpetuated in the realm of pornography.
... A characteristically salient source of objectifying content for men is pornography (Hald et al., 2010). Pornography has become significantly more accessible due to the internet, which some have argued has fostered more diverse and extreme forms of sexual content (Klaassen & Peter, 2015), as well as free, amateur, user-uploaded and niche content. Internet pornography specifically has become one of the most frequently used types of pornography (Hald et al., 2013;Peter & Valkenburg, 2016). ...
... Content analyses of internet pornography evidence that women are often portrayed as objects (e.g. heightened focus on genitals, displayed stripping) and regularly displayed in a submissive and demeaning manner (Fritz & Paul, 2017;Klaassen & Peter, 2015). Pornography also includes high rates of aggression towards women (e.g. ...
... Pornography also includes high rates of aggression towards women (e.g. slapping), with women displayed as recipients of physical aggression more so than men (Fritz & Paul, 2017;Klaassen & Peter, 2015). Most notably, a review found that across 50 pornographic DVD's, roughly 88% contained physically aggressive acts towards women (e.g. ...
Previous research on men has elucidated several correlates of sexually objectifying behaviours towards women. Given increased attention to women’s issues and feminism within the USA, it seems important to not overlook men who identify as feminists and how this identification relates to sexual objectification. Consequently, this cross-sectional study investigated whether feminist identity was associated with sexual objectification (i.e. gazing, commentary), and acceptance of sexual objectification in a sample of 233 heterosexual adult men (Mage = 38.07; SD = 11.94) recruited through MTurk. While including other established correlates of sexual objectification (e.g. pornography use, sexism), hierarchical multiple regression analyses evidenced that feminist identity was negatively associated with acceptance of sexual objectification and sexually objectifying gaze. These findings are the first to demonstrate that identifying with feminism is negatively associated with sexual objectification and perhaps uncovers an important focus for interventions to prevent sexual objectification.
... Consistent with recent psychometric research , self-objectification (Moradi & Varnes, 2017), and eye-tracking research (Hollett et al., 2019), we included validated scales for estimating attitudes toward one's own body (e.g., shame, monitoring, appearance selfesteem), interpersonal sexual objectification experiences, as well as the sexual assault of women (victim and perpetrator blame). Because pornography is largely designed to prime body gaze behavior (Klaassen & Peter, 2015), we also measured pornography use. We also assumed that promoting one's body to others might be a strategy for securing sexual partners and, given that number of sexual partners is positively associated with sensation seeking (Charnigo et al., 2013), we measured sensation seeking to assist in the validation of body gaze provocation. ...
... This association was more consistent for women across the two studies. Because mainstream pornography tends to more often portray women as sexually provocative (Fritz & Paul, 2017;Klaassen & Peter, 2015), the modeling of provocative behavior by men in pornography, compared to women, may be less common, and thus less likely to encourage provocative behaviors in male consumers. ...
... For instance, we found some limited evidence in women that pornography use correlates with self-reported gaze but not objectively measured gaze. Given that pornography is perhaps the most prolific example of body-biased visual media (Fritz & Paul, 2017;Klaassen & Peter, 2015), it would be worthwhile conducting experiments to determine if it is capable of priming body gaze behavior in women and men. ...
Body gaze behavior is assumed to be a key feature of sexual objectification. However, there are few self-report gaze measures available and none capturing behavior which seeks to invite body gaze from others. Across two studies, we used existing self-report instruments and measurement of eye movements to validate a new self-report scale to measure pervasive body gaze behavior and body gaze provocation behavior in heterosexual women and men. In Study 1, participants ( N = 1021) completed a survey with newly created items related to pervasive body gaze and body gaze provocation behavior. Participants also completed preexisting measures of body attitudes, sexual assault attitudes, pornography use, and relationship status. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses across independent samples suggested a 12-item scale for men and women to separately measure pervasive body gaze (5 items) and body gaze provocation (7 items) toward the opposite sex. The two scales yielded excellent internal consistency estimates (.86–.89) and promising convergent validity via positive correlations with body and sexual attitudes. In Study 2, a subsample ( N = 167) of participants from Study 1 completed an eye-tracking task to capture their gaze behavior toward matched images of partially and fully dressed female and male subjects. Men exhibited body-biased gaze behavior toward all the female imagery, whereas women exhibited head-biased gaze behavior toward fully clothed male imagery. Importantly, self-reported body gaze correlated positively with some aspects of objectively measured body gaze behavior. Both scales showed good test–retest reliability and were positively correlated with sexual assault attitudes.
... The topics are diverse, and studies have been conducted, for example, on the prevalence of sexual activities in pornography (Salmon and Diamond 2012;Zhou et al. 2019), differences in portraying male and female orgasms (Séguin, Rodrigue and Lavigne 2018), comparison of the production by female and male directors (Sun et al. 2008), consent communication (Willis et al. 2020), performer representation (Mazandarani 2021), sex crimes (Cusack and Waranius 2012), or construction of 'teen' in pornography (Peters et al. 2014). The largest portion of content studies is devoted to sexual objectification and agency, with a primary focus on sexual aggression or degrading acts (McKee 2005;Bridges et al. 2010;Gorman, Monk-Turner and Fish 2010;Klaassen and Peter 2015;Zhou and Paul 2016;Fritz and Paul 2017;Fritz et al. 2020Fritz et al. , 2021. ...
... While some researchers understand sexual agency and objectification as concepts that are opposed (McKee 2005;Klaassen and Peter 2015), others argue that it is necessary to measure both concepts individually (Fritz and Paul 2017). With regard to previous conceptualizations of objectification and agency, the sexual pleasure of men and women in pornography plays an important role in determining the level of objectification or agency. ...
... Another study on this topic was published a decade later by Marleen Klaassen and Jochen Peter. The authors investigate whether gender inequality differs in amateur and professional pornography (Klaassen and Peter 2015). In the same vein, Niki Fritz and Bryant Paul (2017) followed by comparing levels of sexual objectification and sexual agency in the mainstream, 'for women' and feminist pornography. ...
Building on the feminist ‘sex wars’ debate, content studies of pornography interpret orgasms in pornography to argue for sexual objectification, sexual agency, and unequal power distribution among men and women in porn. While male orgasms are easily coded, female orgasms pose a particularly tricky obstacle due to their ‘invisibility’. I investigated peer-reviewed studies of the content of pornography published in the last 20 years to explore the different coding practices of female orgasms. I assessed the different approaches to measurement, authenticity, and theoretical assumptions connected to the number of orgasms. The analysis shows that methodologies are not always transparent and that researchers do not acknowledge the possible effects of methodologies on their results. This is especially alarming when taking into consideration that most of the studies argue with orgasms for inequality of men and women in pornography. Based on the analysis I offer a ‘best practice’ approach to coding orgasms.
... Multiple studies of online and paid DVD male-female pornography have found fellatio to be commonly depicted, present in 79% to 90% of scenes (Bridges et al., 2010;Gorman et al., 2010). Indeed, fellatio tends to be depicted about twice as often as cunnilingus, suggesting a sexual script that prioritizes fellatio over oral sex reciprocity between male-female partners (Bridges et al., 2010;Gorman et al., 2010;Klaassen & Peter, 2015;Vannier et al., 2014). Additionally, penile-vaginal intercourse has been found in more than 80% of coded scenes (Bridges et al., 2010;Vannier et al., 2014). ...
... Although orgasm is not a universal indicator of pleasurable sex (Chadwick et al., 2019), it is often associated with sexual pleasure and enjoyment (Opperman et al., 2014). Recently, Klaassen and Peter (2015) examined the depiction of orgasm in 400 online pornographic videos and found men appeared to experience orgasm in 76% of coded scenes, compared to only 17% for women. Fritz and Paul (2016) found a similar discrepancy in the depiction of orgasm in a sample of 100 online mainstream videos with 61% of videos depicting male orgasm, compared to just 15% for female orgasm. ...
... The most likely explanation for the low prevalence of orgasms included in scenes-even in contrast to older pornographic images from DVDs or videotapes-is that contemporary Internet-based pornographic scenes tend to be cut into much shorter scenes taken from longer videos. Yet, findings are generally consistent with prior content analyses of pornography (Klaassen and Peter, 2015) as well as past population-level studies of sexual behavior that have found male orgasm to be more prevalent than female orgasm in male-female partnered sex . These findings may be useful for clinicians to use in support of clients who are working to understand how to create more equitable and reciprocal sexual partnerships; they may also be useful for sexuality educators in addressing gendered experiences of sex in and outside of pornographic imagery. ...
Using data from a 2014 U.S. nationally representative probability survey and a 2014 content analysis of 2562 male–female videos from two popular pornographic websites, this study aimed to: (1) compare the prevalence of survey respondents’ event-level sexual behaviors with those depicted in mainstream pornography online videos; (2) compare event-level condom use with condom use prevalence in pornographic videos; (3) compare event-level orgasm with prevalence of orgasms in pornographic videos; and (4) assess whether respondents’ partnered use of pornography was associated with the sexual behaviors in which they report engaging. We found that kissing, male orgasm, female orgasm, and condom use were significantly less prevalent in the pornographic videos than in survey respondents’ most recent sexual experiences. Conversely, penile–anal intercourse and fellatio were significantly more prevalent in the pornographic videos than in participants’ reports of their most recent sexual experience. There were no significant differences between the prevalence of cunnilingus or sex toy use represented in the videos as compared to survey respondents’ reports. Finally, we found that individuals who reported partnered pornography use during their most recent sexual experience were more likely to report having engaged in oral sex, penile–anal intercourse, and sex toy use and were also more likely to report female orgasm during their most recent sexual experience.
... Although IP is far from homogeneous, depictions of sexual coercion and violence against women and young girls are both common in mainstream (i.e., mass marketed, heterosexual) IP, as are decontextualized sexual interactions, a disproportionate focus on the female body as object, and sex acts that focus on the degradation and humiliation of vulnerable individuals (e.g., unsuspecting "teens," mothers, and racial minorities; Gorman, Monk-Turner, & Fish, 2010;Klaassen & Peter, 2014;Shor & Golriz, 2019;Vannier, Currie, & O'Sullivan, 2014). Such gendered and racialized codes of sexual availability, submission, and bodily fragmentation (see Kuhn, 1985) in IP today may reflect, express, re (produce), and extend dominant ideologies of inequality. ...
... Of particular interest in this study were participants' perceptions of IP and its representations of women. Given that research has concluded pornography commonly shows women in degrading and objectifying ways (Bridges, Wosnitzer, Scharrer, Sun, & Liberman, 2010;Klaassen & Peter, 2014), we wanted to determine whether emerging adults perceive this characterization of IP to be accurate. Indeed, 67% of individuals in the current study agreed that IP is degrading to women, indicating that a clear majority of participants believe that mainstream Internet pornographic materials portray women poorly. ...
... Importantly, these studies found that attitudes do not initially predict pornography use, indicating people do not necessarily seek out pornography due to their pre-existing attitudesinstead, it appears that individuals' attitudes are influenced by pornography over time. Although these longitudinal studies do not specifically examine attitudes related to pornography itself, it is reasonable to draw parallels between attitudes toward gender roles and women and attitudes about IP in general, which is replete with stereotypical gender dynamics (Klaassen & Peter, 2014). ...
Research suggests that Internet pornography (IP) plays an important role in the lives of emerging adults, particularly when it comes to their attitudes and beliefs about sex. However, surprisingly little work has explicitly examined attitudes toward IP among this population. Even fewer studies have assessed the relationship between such attitudes and other aspects of emerging adults' beliefs about sex, especially those that contribute to the persistence of sexual violence. To fill this gap, we investigated the relationship between emerging adults’ attitudes toward IP and rape myth acceptance using the Internet Pornography Questionnaire (IPQ), a new self-report measure designed to evaluate IP consumption patterns, attitudes toward IP, and knowledge about IP in adults. Descriptive analyses indicate emerging adults in this study endorsed diverse and sometimes contradictory patterns of attitudes toward IP. Specifically, participants reported high agreement with both negative and positive statements about IP. After controlling for gender, we found that both positive and neutral attitudes about IP (and not frequency of pornography masturbation) predicted rape myth acceptance, such that more positive or more neutral attitudes were associated with higher rape myth acceptance. Moreover, participants who demonstrated more accurate knowledge about IP endorsed rape myths at significantly lower levels. Study limitation and directions for future research and sexual violence prevention are discussed.
... People learn about sexual norms when they view sexually explicit content (Brown & L'Engle, 2009;Rothman et al., 2015). Regarding the sexual norms perpetuated by pornography, several content analyses have reported that this sexual medium regularly presents sexually objectifying depictions of women (Bridges et al., 2010;Fritz & Bryant, 2017;Klaassen & Peter, 2015). For decades, pornographic content in videos, DVDs, magazines, and on the internet have primarily positioned women's bodies-especially their genitals-as the center of attention (e.g., Cowan et al., 1988;Klaassen & Peter, 2015;Monk-Turner & Purcell, 1999). ...
... Regarding the sexual norms perpetuated by pornography, several content analyses have reported that this sexual medium regularly presents sexually objectifying depictions of women (Bridges et al., 2010;Fritz & Bryant, 2017;Klaassen & Peter, 2015). For decades, pornographic content in videos, DVDs, magazines, and on the internet have primarily positioned women's bodies-especially their genitals-as the center of attention (e.g., Cowan et al., 1988;Klaassen & Peter, 2015;Monk-Turner & Purcell, 1999). As another illustration, Bridges et al. (2010) noted that the location of male ejaculation may be a component of female sexual objectification; in their content analysis, they found that male ejaculation "almost always occurred outside the female character's vagina" (p. ...
... The significant associations between pornography use and sexual objectification in our multinational study corroborated previous research in individual countries (e.g., Mikorski & Szymanski, 2017;Peter & Valkenburg, 2007. In each of the four countries sampled, participants who more frequently used pornography-a medium that models sexual objectification (e.g., Bridges et al., 2010;Klaassen & Peter, 2015)-more strongly endorsed sexually objectifying thoughts and behaviors. There were also consistent main effects of gender across all countries in that men both used pornography more frequently and had higher sexual objectification scores. ...
Pornography promotes sexual objectification by depicting people as bodies that are used primarily for sexual gratification. Across various methodologies, previous research has found positive associations between pornography use and sexually objectifying attitudes. However, there remains a need for multinational data collections to assess potential cross-cultural differences. In the present study, we collected data from heterosexual participants in four countries: Germany (n = 640), Korea (n = 799), Taiwan (n = 488), and the United States (n = 888). Using multigroup structural equation modeling, we found that gender and pornography use were significantly associated with sexually objectifying behaviors in each country evaluated. Specifically, people who more frequently watch pornography were more likely to endorse engaging in types of sexual objectification. Because these four countries were relatively homogenous regarding gender inequality, future studies should collect data from more diverse countries to investigate potential moderating effects of related cultural variables on the association between pornography use and sexual objectification.
... A content analysis of top selling IP videos by Bridges et al. [5] found that male actors ejaculated on their female partner's face in 63% of scenes, and 19% of scenes included the depiction of double penetration. Similarly, a comparative study of the objectification of males and females in 400 amateur and professional IP videos found that close-ups of female genitalia occurred in 61% of scenes, whilst a similar focus on males occurred only 19% of the time [146]. ...
... Thus, the sexual objectification of women may lead to violence both via the acquisition and activation of violent sexual scripts and by altering the prevailing cultural expectations of how women should be treated [40,123,[150][151][152]. The deindividuation that occurs as a part of objectification also effectively facilitates dehumanization [70,139,146]. Studies have shown that objectified women are perceived as less human than non-objectified women, and they are consequently accorded less moral concern and acknowledgment of their cognitive capacities [123,145]. ...
... Given the ubiquity of IP, it is not unreasonable to suggest that online depictions of violence, coercion and degradation also have the potential to seep into real-life attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. Secondly, this review has shown how the objectification and dehumanization of women in IP can lead to real world violence both through the acquisition of violent and coercive sexual scripts and by creating cultural expectations that women are fungible objects that may be abused and violated with impunity [70,146,150]. Dehumanization and objectification in IP are also mutually reinforcing, in that, together, they permit the displacement of responsibility for the harms being perpetrated, whilst allowing viewers to eschew any of the cognitive discomfort or guilt they might experience whilst viewing this behavior [121]. In terms of psychological mechanisms, there is no evidence that media depictions of sexualized violence are somehow psychologically quarantined in a way that reduces or negates their influence on the feelings, thoughts, or actions of those who regularly watch such material. ...
This theoretical review explores the possibility that the consumption of internet pornography (IP) represents a credible risk factor in the perpetration of aggression and violence against women. Sexual violence, abuse, and degradation of women is commonly depicted in mainstream heterosexual IP. Despite the violent tenor, the effect this material may have on beliefs, attitudes and behaviors is understudied, as are the reasons why violent and degrading IP is so widely viewed, enjoyed, and accepted. Both theory and empirical findings support the contention that depictions of violence in IP may contribute to real world aggression and violence against women, with two relevant spheres of inquiry proposed in this theoretical review. The first considers IP as a ‘zone of cultural exception’, in which the perpetration of violent and degrading acts against women are eroticized and celebrated, despite such behaviors being considered antisocial in wider society. It is suggested that this excepted status is enabled by the operation of the third person effect to negate the detrimental effects of IP. The second explores the objectification and dehumanization of women in IP and the use of moral disengagement by viewers to enable their disavowal of any harm in the depicted violence.
... ex., statut inégal entre l'homme et la femme, insultes et dénigrements, coups, cheveux tirés, étranglement). Ces études ont aussi démontré que les personnes plus vulnérables ou marginalisées, comme les femmes (Carrotte et al., 2020;Klaassen et Peter, 2015) et les personnes racisées (p. ex., personnes noires, hispaniques;Cowan et Campbell, 1994;Monk-Turner et Purcell, 1999) sont plus souvent victimes de violence dans les scènes pornographiques analysées, peu importe la façon dont la violence est définie. ...
... ex., personnes noires, hispaniques;Cowan et Campbell, 1994;Monk-Turner et Purcell, 1999) sont plus souvent victimes de violence dans les scènes pornographiques analysées, peu importe la façon dont la violence est définie. À titre d'exemple, une étude réalisée par Klaassen et Peter (2015) a analysé les 400 vidéos pornographiques les plus populaires sur certains sites Internet. Il et elle ont démontré, entre autres, que les femmes étaient significativement plus susceptibles d'être victimes de violence et d'être instrumentalisées que les hommes (p. ...
... A plethora of studies attest to the typically objectifying, aggressive, and sexist nature of most mainstream pornography (Bridges et al., 2010;Carrotte et al., 2020;Fritz et al., 2020;Klaassen & Peter, 2015;Shor, 2019). Given the nature of most pornographic content, scholars and public health officials have expressed concern regarding the frequency with which adolescents view pornography and consult it as a source for sexual information and education (Albury, 2014;Litsou et al., 2021). ...
... Given the nature of most pornographic content, scholars and public health officials have expressed concern regarding the frequency with which adolescents view pornography and consult it as a source for sexual information and education (Albury, 2014;Litsou et al., 2021). The aggression in pornography is typically perpetrated by men against women (Bridges et al., 2010;Fritz et al., 2020;Klaassen & Peter, 2015), and aggression may be more prevalent in videos that depict younger women (Shor, 2019;Vannier et al., 2014). Furthermore, depictions of consent practices, relational intimacy, and sex safe practices are rare (Antevska & Gavey, 2015;Vannier et al., 2014;Willis et al., 2020). ...
Research into adolescent pornography use has identified numerous individual-level behavioral and attitudinal correlates. However, associations between adolescents' pornography viewing and their romantic relationships remain understudied. Furthermore, very little is known about adolescents' watching pornography with their romantic partners (i.e., joint pornography use). The present study of adolescents (n = 755, 59.9% girls, M age = 15.72 years old [SD = 1.34]) is among the first attempts to link adolescents' pornography viewing behaviors to their romantic relationship attitudes and behaviors. We hypothesized that adolescents' viewing would be associated with poorer self-reported relationship skills, more negative relationship behaviors, and increased involvement in sexual activity, such as sexting. Partial support for these hypotheses was found. Frequency of overall viewing was associated with lower relationship and refusal skills. Lifetime joint pornography viewing was associated with higher rates of dating violence victimization and perpetration in the past six months and with more abusive behaviors from one's partner and more verbal conflict in the current dating relationship. Results, though cross-sectional, suggest that pornography viewing in adolescence is associated with poorer romantic outcomes. Implications for adolescent development and for healthcare providers and educators are discussed.
... She describes viewing IP to learn about "what was kind of expected of me as well as a sexual partner […] It was just more the curiosity of, what I'm supposed to do, essentially". Accordingly, since IP generally centres on male pleasure and portrays women as providing pleasure to men (Klaassen & Peter, 2015), young women discursively constructed IP as a cultural resource to learn about how to perform sex in ways that please male partners. ...
... Youth were at pains to demonstrate that they themselves could navigate IP, and expressed their knowledge of the way IP makes more explicit, for example, broader constructions of 'ideal' femininity as dainty, hairless (i.e., childlike), and displays incestuous relationships such as between step siblings/parents. Youth demonstrated an awareness that-although arguably not inherently detrimental-IP can depict idealistic images of women and men's bodies, and sexually unsafe practices (Bridges et al., 2010;Klaassen & Peter, 2015). Youth talk illuminated how sex and sexuality are social and cultural constructs that dictate what constitutes 'normal' sex (e.g., the coital imperative), 'Porn Literacy' as Pedagogy? ...
Youth encounters with Internet pornography (IP) have led to global concern
regarding the healthy sexual socialisation of youth. A growing body of critical research
recognises young people as agentic political actors in their sexual socialisation with
legitimate knowledge of their own experiences, and seeks to understand their
perspectives alongside those of influential adults in their lives. Grounded in social
constructionist thinking, my research extends this emerging body of knowledge. I
investigate how key stakeholders (16-18-year-olds, caregivers, and educators) account
for and discursively construct youth engagement with IP, and explore their perspectives
on porn literacy education. The central premise of this scholarship is to determine how
such knowledge might translate positively for young people through sexuality education
that recognises their lived realities.
Key stakeholders were recruited from nine schools across the North Island of
Aotearoa, New Zealand. A mixed-methods design was employed over sequential
phases, comprising an online survey (N = 484), a Q-sort (N = 30), and semi-structured
interviews (N = 24). Descriptive statistical analyses of the survey data provided a
preliminary understanding of youth engagement with IP; a specialised software
programme assisted with factor analysis for the Q-methodological study investigating
perspectives towards porn literacy education; and interview data were analysed by
means of a critical thematic analysis, drawing on a feminist discursive approach to
sexual scripting theory.
Key research findings are presented across four research articles and indicate
that; (i) (gendered) youth engagement with IP is commonplace, and there are varied
understandings between stakeholder groups and across genders as to why and how these encounters occur, (ii) youth take up agentic positions that suggest they are active,
legitimate sexual citizens, and adults generally harbour concerns about recognising
youth in this way, and (iii) the construction of childhood innocence dubiously positions
youth as uncritical, ‘at risk’ viewers of IP. Accordingly, protectionist adult intervention
is justified and conceptualised in accordance with this construction of youth.
My research highlights dominant and alternative constructions about youth
sexuality, and describes the synergies and discrepancies across key stakeholder
perspectives about youth engagement with IP. Importantly, my findings suggest some
youth engage with IP in a more nuanced manner than typically assumed. Through
gaining a comprehensive understanding of stakeholders' perspectives, the findings of
my research expand scholarly knowledge by providing practical inquiry into the
potential of porn literacy as pedagogy.
... An available source to study sexual activity while driving is sexually explicit media (SEM). Sexually explicit media has for many years been an effective source of studying sexual behaviours and the sexual scripts that viewers are exposed to (Klaassen and Peter, 2015;Fritz & Paul, 2017;Willis et al., 2020). Some studies using content analysis methodology have shown that SEM can be used to study behaviour, given that some videos can be considered an observational record of real-life sexual activity (Klaassen and Peter, 2015;Newton et al., 2021;Willis et al., 2020). ...
... Sexually explicit media has for many years been an effective source of studying sexual behaviours and the sexual scripts that viewers are exposed to (Klaassen and Peter, 2015;Fritz & Paul, 2017;Willis et al., 2020). Some studies using content analysis methodology have shown that SEM can be used to study behaviour, given that some videos can be considered an observational record of real-life sexual activity (Klaassen and Peter, 2015;Newton et al., 2021;Willis et al., 2020). Notably, sex researchers have argued that the sexual scripts that viewers consume could influence their real-life behaviours independently of watching real (amateur) or studio-produced SEM (McCormack & Wignall, 2017;Sun et al., 2016). ...
Sexual activity while driving has been reported in emerging research. Sexual activity while driving is a form of distracted driving because it includes an individual (the driver) who deviates resources from the primary task (driving) towards a secondary task (sexual activity). However, most of our current knowledge about the range of sexual activities while driving is based on self-reported data or media reports. Thus, an in-depth understanding of sexual activities while driving and their interactions with non-sexual driving behaviours and vehicle control is missing. Additionally, there is limited information on the context of where sexual activities while driving occurs and the influence of factors such as the environment, the vehicle, interactions with other road users, and other in-vehicle distractions. To cover this gap, a content analysis of sexually explicit media (SEM) was conducted on a sample of 270 videos depicting real driving. We conducted descriptive analyses and used decision tree analysis to explore the association between sexual activities while driving and their interactions with non-sexual driving behaviours and vehicle control. The videos portrayed a naturalistic driving situation of a driver of a moving vehicle engaging in sexual activity. The results show that when engaging in sexual activity, drivers do not present safe vehicle control. Sexual activity imposes additional cognitive, physical, and visual demands on the driver, thereby decreasing safety. Similar to other distractions, drivers engaging in sexual activity while driving appear to mitigate risks. Concerning the potential for legal sanctions, it appears that drivers may attempt to conceal sexual activity by reducing their visible nudity and minimising interactions with other road users. Finally, mobile phones and cameras appear to interact with sexual activities while driving, by imposing potential restrictions on the range of sexual activities. Implications for policymakers and practitioners are discussed.
... Currently, pornographic material contains depictions of a sheer variety of sexual behaviors and sexual activities (Klaassen & Peter, 2015;McKee, 2005). Most commonly, two actors are featured, and the depicted behaviors include genital stimulation, oral stimulation, or vaginal intercourse (Gorman et al., 2010;Vannier et al., 2014). ...
... In most heterosexual portrayals of sexual activity, women experience degradation or objectification (McKee, 2005). Additionally, domination and exploitation can be common themes in pornographic materials (Gorman et al., 2010), whereby women are more frequently portrayed as submissive, whereas men are more frequently portrayed as dominant (Klaassen & Peter, 2015). Such portrayals of domination and submissiveness can also include aggression (Shor & Seida, 2019). ...
To date, only a few studies have examined the associations between pornography consumption and sexual functioning. The Acquisition, Activation, Application Model (3AM) indicates that the frequency of pornography consumption and the perceived realism of pornography may influence whether sexual scripts are acquired from viewed pornography. Having sexual scripts that are alternative to their preferred sexual behaviors may help people switch to alternative sexual behavior when sexual problems arise. The current study analyzed whether frequent pornography consumption was associated with greater sexual flexibility and greater sexual functioning. Additionally, the perceived realism of pornography consumption was tested as a moderator of those associations. At an Austrian medical university, an online cross-sectional questionnaire study was conducted among 644 medical students (54% women and 46% men; Mage = 24.1 years, SD = 3.8). The participants were asked about their pornography consumption, partnered sexual activity, sexual flexibility, perceived realism of pornography, and sexual functioning. Manifest path analyses revealed direct and indirect associations between frequent pornography consumption and greater sexual functioning through greater sexual flexibility in women but not in men. Perceived realism did not moderate those associations. In conclusion, our study was in line with previous studies that found no significant associations between men’s pornography consumption and sexual functioning in men. However, some women may expand their sexual scripts and learn new sexual behaviors from pornography consumption, which may help with their sexual functioning.
... Other content analyses of pornography (Jozkowski et al., 2019;Klaassen & Peter, 2015) showed that 6-7.4% of women are portrayed as non-consenting to the sexual act, communicating a message of women accepting verbal and physical abuse as well as degrading acts (Harsey, 2021). Hanson (2022) findings suggest that doll owners do not conform to certain social norms, including the expectation that individuals seek romantic partners or that heterosexual men desire regular sexual encounters with women. ...
It is a growing concern that the use of sex dolls and robots could affect human sexuality. This concern has led to a ban of childlike sex dolls in several countries and a call to ban adult-like sex dolls and robots by some scholars. However, empirical data is largely missing supporting this claim. Here, we present retrospective self-reported quantitative and qualitative data of a large sample (N = 224, 90.5% men, Mean age = 31 years, SD = 14.2) of teleiophilic (i.e., sexual orientation toward adults) and pedo-hebephilic participants. Using an online survey, we found that users reported an overall reduction in sexuality-related behaviors (e.g., porn consumption or visiting of sex workers) in response to doll ownership. Users in a relationship with a human were less affected by doll use, while those in a relationship with a doll reported greater effects. Interestingly, pedo-hebephilic users reported a greater reduction of sexual compulsivity compared to teleiophilic participants following doll use. Additionally, pedo-hebephilic participants more often reported acting out of illegal sexual fantasies with their dolls and a loss of interest in (sexual) intimacy with real children through doll use in the qualitative data. These self-reported data challenge the view that doll use is dangerously affecting human sexuality and instead suggest that dolls may be used as a sexual outlet for potentially dangerous and illegal (sexual) fantasies.
... However, research shows that much of pornography centers on violence and aggression towards women, and is targeted towards a (presumed) male audience (Carrotte et al., 2020;Bridges et al., 2010;Klaassen & Peter, 2015). Studies have also found that there is an entire genre of "lesbian porn" that is created and consumed by heterosexual men at the expense of queer women; this particular "lesbian porn" perpetuates stereotypes surrounding queer women, and leads to the sexualization and violence against queer women by cishet (cisgender and heterosexual) men (DeGenevieve, 2007;Russo, 2007). ...
Queer pornography encompasses varying gender identities and sexual orientations exploring sexual pleasures and desire in multiple ways. Much of queer porn creates a "democratization of desire" where feminist, queer, LGBTQIA+ visibility contributes to a shift in the boundaries surrounding and regulating sexuality (McNair, 2002). Utilizing a queer feminist perspective, the present study examines how women and AFAB (Assigned-Female-At-Birth) individuals who have had queer sexual experiences may navigate their experiences of porn and their own sexual pleasures. The present study drew from qualitative life story data collected in 2019-2020 from 30 women and AFAB individuals (mean age= 30.8, SD= 6.63). 26 out of 30 participants (87%) identified within the LGBTQIA+ community. In this study, porn is an important part of many women and AFAB folk's sexual lives, as 29 out of 30 participants in the study remarked using it. Findings suggest that the representation of self in porn is a form of sexual liberation for many participants. That is, that queer porn in particular, encourages participants to deconstruct traditional sexual scripts and gendered norms around what "typical" or "appropriate" sex may look like, and in fact encourages 1) sexual discovery and education, 2) communication with sexual partners, and 3) sexual fantasy. Therefore, participants utilize queer porn as a tool to create their own form of sexual liberation and active resistance to heteronormativity. However, this data also stresses the importance of creating accessible, queer inclusive sex education resources, as many participants found themselves relying on porn sites to learn about their bodies and sexual behavior. Furthermore, participants problematize the larger porn landscape, which perpetuates particular standards of beauty and attraction (e.g. white, cisgender, straight, thin). Consequently, these narratives point to the importance of finding porn that is representative of queer identified women and AFAB individual's interests and sexual desires.
... A few studies have found that male and female characters are equally likely to initiate sex in pornography, 18,19 equally likely to be of a higher social status, 20 and typically share control of the direction of the sexual encounter. 21 When power is not shared equally, men are more likely to be depicted as the dominant partner, and women are more likely to be depicted as submissive. ...
This chapter reviews research into the contents and consumption of pornography to provide sex educators with a picture of the average porn consumer and the messages they would receive through their consumption. Such information has the potential to inform both programs designed to bolster porn literacy and the use of pornography to promote sexual learning. Research into the contents of pornography is varied and, at times, complicated to parse. For example, answering the question of whether pornography is degrading requires a nuanced consideration of ways in which agency and objectification may be expressed. Some aspects of pornography are more plainly problematic from a sexual education perspective (e.g., infrequent depictions of condom use, minimal overt discussion of consent). Pornography use is close to ubiquitous, especially among younger men. Around half of younger men are frequent porn users. Pornography is most frequently used for solitary masturbation, although use with a sexual partner is not uncommon (especially among female porn users).
... In the current perspective, we explore the role of heightened sexual arousal and intrasexual differences in the mating motivation of men. In view of gender-specific responses to sexually arousing stimuli (Klaassen & Peter, 2015;Paul & Shim, 2008), the influence of ovulation on women's mate preferences (Durante et al., 2012;Provost et al., 2008;Gangestad et al., 2004), and gender-divergent sexual mating strategies (Baumeister, 2000;Buss & Schmitt, 1993;Gangestad & Simpson, 2000), we will focus on the role of heightened sexual arousal in mating motivation of women in a separate paper. ...
Individual differences in men’s short-term mating interest are well studied, both at state and trait levels. Yet, the role of sexual arousal as a source of intra-individual variation has been neglected. This research represents the first attempt to integrate sexual arousal into the human mate plasticity literature. We argue that sexual arousal directly impacts the short-term mating motivation among men regardless of their personality, relationship status, and sociosexuality. Across four experiments, we found that heightened sexual arousal consistently increased men’s short-term mating motivation relative to participants in neutral and arousing control groups. Experiments 1 and 2 revealed that sexual arousal increased participants’ general short-term mating motivation and their preference for a short-term relationship over a long-term one. Experiment 3 replicated the findings of the first two experiments whilst also demonstrating that this effect was not moderated by personality (i.e., Dark Triad, Big Five) or relationship status. Heightened sexual arousal also led to decreased “state” long-term mating motivation. Finally, Experiment 4 showed that sexual arousal increased the participants’ preference for a short-term relationship over a long-term one, an effect that was not moderated by sociosexuality. Together, the results suggest that sexual arousal has a powerful effect on men’s short-term mating motivation, and that this effect is independent of intrasexual differences in personality, relationship status, and sociosexuality.
... Analysis of pornography clearly shows it lacks depiction of relational qualities and positive behaviours, such as kissing, laughing, embracing, and verbal compliments, and reinforces gender inequalities (e.g. Bridges et al. 2010;Klaassen and Peter 2015). It is then assumed that adolescents have difficulty reflecting on such unrealistic scripts and uncritically adopt similar stereotypical attitudes and expectations (Braun-Courville and Rojas 2009;Wright and Štulhofer 2019). ...
This critical conceptual article focuses on how adolescent pornography use is commonly researched, examining the key assumptions made in researching pornography and its potential harm. The article first considers the contextual foundations involved in researching adolescents and pornography, which has a long history steeped in notions of indecency and protection. We examine empirical research in the field and how findings translated into media and policy outlets. This leads to the identification and critical discussion of three dominant assumptions in the field: that exposure leads to continued viewing; that increased viewing leads to harm; and that pornography provides the template for sexual practice. This analysis suggests that research has functioned under highly homogenized presumptions about adolescent pornography use and its effects. We argue that there is a fundamental need to broaden pornography research by directly engaging adolescents to include their perspectives in research and in the translation of research into policy and education.
... Although content analysis of sexual materials is emerging as a novel field of study Klaassen & Peter, 2015;Kopacz & Bajka-Kopacz, 2012), to the best of the author's knowledge, no quantitative analysis investigating the content of sexual media has been published in non-Western societies. As discussed below, the sexual script theory emphasizes the role of contexts (i.e., scripts) in determining sexual norms and behaviors. ...
This study aimed to investigate how sexual consent is depicted in sex comics published in Japan. Twenty best-selling comics from 2010 and 2020 were set as objects of analysis and separated into 277 scenes. A codebook developed after five rounds of trials was utilized by four coders to code the materials. First, the results showed that explicit communication was not rare: among all materials, 39.9–57.3% of scenes were initiated by an explicit approach, while only 5.2–19.4% of scenes were coded as depicting non-explicit initiation. Further, as for the act of gatekeeper, 21.6–35.5% and 6.5–9.7% of scenes depicted explicit consent and refusal, while 20.3–28.2% of scenes were coded as expressing non-explicit consent/refusal. Second, in the comparison between 2010 and 2020, there were fewer scenes in which more than three characters were involved and sexual acts were initiated by non-explicit forms in 2020. Contrastingly, there were more scenes in which sexual acts were initiated by assault or intimidation. Based on these findings, social implications and future research orientations are discussed.
... In conclusion it must be recognized that gender relations in pornographic films are, as Klaassen and Peter (2015) state, complex. Moreover, similar to what Klaassen and Peter note in their research, a differential in power between receptive and insertive partners in gay pornography might indicate subordination but does not indicate dehumanization. ...
This paper analyzes the discursive patterns of discourse in gay pornography and theorizes how masculinities theories are involved in the interactions. In pornography, discourse can frame the notion of the sexual situation, but can also demonstrate an interaction between the actors who participate. I analyze gay pornography scenes from the company Men.com which take place between January and November of 2019. Data are collected on conversations that occur during the act of anal penetration, and who participates. I theorize the conversation that occurs represents a sort of hegemonic soundtrack, between the insertive/top partner and the bottom/receiver. I argue that in both cases, the insertive partner is always the ‘leader’ and the focus of the interchange. The interaction reflects the notion of a patriarchal interchange that serves as a background music, acknowledged implicitly by the viewer.
... Furthermore, perhaps men (and straight men in particular) are less likely to share nudity on Reddit because the vast majority of NSFW subreddits are created for them to be the spectator, not the creator. This fits with the fact that adult content is most often created for the male spectator (Klaassen & Peter, 2015). While sexual minority men are known to engage in high amounts of self-objectification (e.g., Kozak et al., 2009;Wiseman & Morardi, 2010), homosexuals and pansexuals were not overrepresented in their likelihood to post nude photographs online. ...
While many scholars have explored the sharing of nude photographs one-to-one (i.e., sexting), few have examined the sharing of nudity in a one-to-many context. The current study examined the sharing of nude photographs on Reddit, framing the practice as an act of disinhibited online behavior. A survey (n = 628) was conducted to assess whether Redditors levels of sensation seeking, self-esteem, perceived attractiveness, and narcissism would be related to whether or not they posted nude photographs on the site. Results indicated that posting nudity on Reddit was significantly associated with higher perceived attractiveness and narcissism, but not sensation seeking or self-esteem. The role of gender and sexual orientation in the posting of nudity online was also assessed, and an overrepresentation of nude content produced by females and bisexual persons, as well as an underrepresentation of nude content produced by males and heterosexuals, was found. Findings are discussed in relation to self-concept, sexual health, and the online disinhibition effect.
... Content studies of sexual aggression in pornography have primarily focused on aggression against women. Studies have varied in their findings ranging from finding that 37% of scenes included at least one act of aggression against women to 88% of scenes included aggression (Fritz et al., 2020;Bridges et al., 2010;Klaassen, & Peter, 2015). In addition to the 9 most frequent behaviors, it is also worth investigating more deviant sexual behaviors that are not reported in the general population. ...
Previous studies have suggested a substantial number of men who have sex with men (MSM) have consumed and used pornography to learn about same-sex sexual behaviors. Yet, past research has focused almost exclusively on condom-use in the category of Gay pornography and ignored the types of sexual behaviors and aggression depicted within the content. This study examined aggression and sexual behaviors depicted in Gay online pornography (N = 415). We found fellatio and anal sex were the most common behaviors, occurring in roughly two-thirds of scenes, while kissing occurred in less than a third of scenes. Additionally, sexual aggression occurred in 31% of scenes, with spanking being the most common, occurring in 20% of scenes. Anal sex and forced fellatio were found to be predictors of physical aggression. These findings point to normalization of aggression and narrow sexual behaviors in Gay pornography, which may have implications for MSM's norm perceptions related to sexuality.
... Lamb (2010) argued that contemporary SEIM sets an impossible distance from actual sexual experiences because female performers' appearances are unrealistic and the sexual attitudes and behaviors toward women depicted by male performers are degrading yet are usually received enthusiastically or at least without protest (Zhou et al., 2019). The gendered dynamic of this impossible distance is ubiquitous, with over 30% of pornographic films depicting violence against women, yet only 3% displaying violent behaviors and attitudes that target men (Klaassen & Peter, 2015). These gendered sexual interactions (i.e., male-pleasure centric themes) depicted in SEIM have manifested in the enjoyment of degrading (to women) sex in real-life heterosexual relationships. ...
Contemporary sexually explicit Internet materials (SEIM) are commonly unrealistic. Following from self-discrepancy theory, we proposed that discrepancies between ideal and actual sexual experiences depicted in SEIM (ideal-actual sexual discrepancy; IASD) may be important in understanding the association between SEIM consumption, sexual satisfaction, and general well-being for heterosexual men. Participants from a general online community ( n = 195) were assessed via an online survey. Path analysis showed that the relationships between SEIM consumption and outcomes were not homogenous across age cohorts. While SEIM consumption and IASD contributed to sexual dissatisfaction for men in their 20s, only IASD had a direct relationship for men in their 30s. Higher IASD accounted for lower sexual satisfaction for men across age cohorts, suggesting that IASD may be a more stable factor as compared to quantity of consumption alone for explaining the negative association between SEIM consumption, sexual satisfaction, and all measured aspects of well-being.
... One explanation for this inconsistency may be that many women experience a degree of ambivalence in relation to their IP viewing, as a consequence of both how realistic and acceptable they perceive IP to be, given the prevailing heterosexual IP narrative (Häggström-Nordin et al., 2006;Peter & Valkenburg, 2006). Mainstream heterosexual IP often depicts a narrative of males as sexually dominant and females as submissive participants, often manipulated or coerced into sexual activity (Gorman et al., 2010;Gossett & Byrne, 2002;Klaassen & Peter, 2015;Whisnant, 2016). Thus, some young women may experience a degree of cognitive dissonance as they attempt to reconcile imagery that they may find simultaneously arousing and debasing of their gender (Galatzer-Levy, 2012;Martellozzo et al., 2016). ...
Introduction
Characterised by both exploration and engagement in risky behaviours, late adolescence and emerging adulthood are periods of particular vulnerability to dysregulated behaviours. One such behaviour less well explored is that of problematic Internet pornography (IP) viewing, despite viewing explicit online material becoming increasingly pervasive and normative.
Method
In 2020, 385 (270 females, 110 males) Australian undergraduate students (aged 17–25 years) completed an online survey assessing exposure to IP, affective and cognitive responses to IP, IP-related sexual beliefs, self-assessed problematic IP viewing and key psychological vulnerability factors. Correlational and regression analyses were utilised to assess the relationships between variables.
Results
Most male (57.3%) and female (33.7%) respondents recalled their first exposure to IP as occurring between 12 and 14 years; however, 28.2% of males and 23.7% females recalled their exposure as occurring between 9 and 11 years, and a small proportion were exposed even earlier. Higher IP viewing frequency, positive affective responses to IP at current exposure, elevated sexual impulsivity and the endorsement of IP-related sexual beliefs were all found to be associated with self-assessed problematic IP viewing.
Conclusions
Findings suggest that both person and situational factors may contribute to problematic IP viewing patterns. IP viewing may also be shaping the sexual beliefs and behaviours of some viewers.
Policy Implications
There is little consensus on the factors that may lead IP viewing to become problematic, which limits the ability of clinicians to identify more susceptible individuals. These findings suggest that in addition to dysregulation factors such as sexual impulsivity, dissociation and depression, affective responses to IP and IP-related beliefs may also be important to consider when assessing for whom IP viewing may become problematic.
... Representations of penile-vaginal intercourse in the broader cultural consciousness emphasize penile stimulation and de-emphasize clitoral stimulation. Cultural representations of sex-in sexually explicit materials such as pornography and romance novels, as well as sexually suggestive materials such as mainstream film, television, and magazine articlesoften portray sexual encounters in which women easily reach orgasm from penile-vaginal intercourse alone (Klaassen and Peter 2015;Porter, Douglas, and Collumbien 2017;Séguin, Rodrigue, and Lavigne 2018). Penilevaginal intercourse is portrayed-and understood-as the main event in heterosexual encounters. ...
Gender scholars have addressed a variety of gender gaps between men and women, including a gender gap in orgasms. In this mixed-methods study of heterosexual Canadians, we examine how men and women engage in gender labor that limits women’s orgasms relative to men. With representative survey data, we test existing hypotheses that sexual behaviors and relationship contexts contribute to the gender gap in orgasms. We confirm previous research that sexual practices focusing on clitoral stimulation are associated with women’s orgasms. With in-depth interview data from a subsample of 40 survey participants, we extend this research to show that both men and women engage in gender labor to explain and justify the gender gap in orgasms. Relying on an essentialist view of gender, a narrow understanding of what counts as sex, and moralistic language that recalls the sexual double standard, our participants craft a narrative of women’s orgasms as work and men’s orgasms as natural. The work to produce this gendered narrative of sexuality mirrors the gender labor that takes place in the bedroom, where both women and men engage in sexual behaviors that emphasize men’s pleasure to a greater extent than women’s.
Abstrac: This article is to find out in the study of Islamic normativism about pornography as a social phenomenon caused by technological advances and the development of social media in people's lives. In the Islamic view, pornography is certainly strictly prohibited because it has an impact on moral decadence for the perpetrator. In Islamic studies, there is no clear mention of pornography because what is explained is only the issue of aurat and the consequences of adultery behavior that can damage the cultivation of life if not anticipated. Analysis of pornography in the current context must get answers from religious teachings so that the problems faced can be solved humanely so that the interpretation developed is not based on assumptions but through Islamic normative studies. Keywords: Reinterpretation, Islamic, Pornography, Social Media, TechnologicalAbstrak: Artikel ini untuk mengetahui dalam kajian normativisme Islam soal pornografi sebagai sebuah fenomena sosial yang diakibatkan salah satunya karena kemajuan teknologi dan perkembangan media sosial dalam kehidupan masyarakat. Dalam pandangan Islam, pornografi tentu sangat dilarang karena berdampak pada dekadensi moral bagi pelakunya. Dalam kajian keislaman tidak disebutkan secara jelas tentang pornografi karena yang dijelaskan hanya persoalan aurat dan akibat yang ditimbulkan dari perilaku perzinahan yang dapat merusak tatanam kehidupan apabila tidak diantisipasi. Analisis tentang pornografi dalam konteks kekinian harus mendapat jawaban dari ajaran keagamaan agar persoalan yang dihadapi dapat diselesaikan secara manusiawi sehingga interpretasi yang dikembangkan bukan atas dasar asumsi akan tetapi melalui kajian normatif keislaman. Kata Kunci: Reinterpretasi, Islam, Pornografi, Media Sosial, Tekhnologi
Adolescents/Teenagers are exposed to pornography due to a variety of factors and it is accepted as a process of sexual exploration/normal development of sexuality. However, early exposure to pornography and unregulated/excess exposure to pornography during the formative years of adolescence has been seen to have various long-term deleterious effects on sexual maturation, sexual behavior, Internet addiction, and overall personality development. To safeguard the growing minds of the teens from the harmful effects of pornography, few rules/regulations have been passed in India as well as banning of porn sites. However, there are very limited research on the impact of pornography on various aspects of adolescents’ growth and development. This mini-review covers the issues pertinent to the effect of pornography with regard to adolescent sexuality.
Recent reviews of the pornography literature have called for the development of valid and reliable measures that assess multiple facets of pornography use. Moreover, despite pornography use having important implications for romantic relationships, there are currently no self-report assessments of pornography use specifically within the context of romantic relationships. To address these limitations, the current paper reports on two studies regarding the development and psychometric evaluation of a 38-item multidimensional measure of pornography use within the context of romantic relationships: the Pornography Use in Romantic Relationships Scale (PURRS). Study 1 (n = 739) reports on an Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analytic approach to determine the factor structure of the PURRS. Study 2 (n = 765) reports on the cross-validation of the factor structure of the PURRS, before assessing the criterion validity of the measure. The PURRS exhibited good internal consistency, construct validity, and criterion validity. The findings suggest that the PURRS is best modeled by 13 first-order factors, though a higher-order factor structure comprising four broad factors may also be used. The PURRS significantly extends on past assessments of pornography use, and in particular, advances the assessment and study of pornography use within the context of romantic relationships.
Pornography use is multidimensional, yet most studies of the topic use variable-oriented methods (e.g., frequency of use) that reduce the experience to a single dimension. In this study, we sought to identify different multidimensional patterns of pornography genre preferences among a sample of women (n = 206) and examine how those patterns are differentially associated with sexual experiences and beliefs examined in previous literature. Latent Class Analysis uncovered four patterns (or classes): Heterogeneous (39%), Traditionally Feminine (27%), Female Pleasure (23%) and Rough/violent (11%). Class membership was differentially predicted by prior sexual victimization, sexual esteem, and diverse sexual experiences while controlling for frequency of use. These findings suggest that genre preference could account for much of the mixed findings of prior work that measured pornography use with unidimensional approaches.
Studies have found that pornography consumption is associated with a higher likelihood of having condomless sex. Past research was primarily conducted with Western populations from developed countries. Consequently, less is known about sexual and reproductive health in developing countries and regions. A national sample of 11,957 university-level students was used to investigate the association between pornography consumption, sexual attitudes, and condomless sex. Our findings suggest that a higher frequency of pornography consumption is associated with an increased likelihood of having condomless sex and more positive attitudes toward premarital sex and one-night stand.
Decades of research and theoretical development has suggested that the media can exert a significant influence on children and adolescents’ gender identities and beliefs. Such effects may be problematic given the stereotypical nature of media content. This chapter focuses on the gender related content of different types of media that are frequently used by children and adolescents (i.e., television and movies, social and online media, videogames), and reports findings from research on how such content can affect the development of gender beliefs, directly as well as in interaction with other biopsychosocial factors.
The interface of sexual behavior and evolutionary psychology is a rapidly growing domain, rich in psychological theories and data as well as controversies and applications. With nearly eighty chapters by leading researchers from around the world, and combining theoretical and empirical perspectives, The Cambridge Handbook of Evolutionary Perspectives on Sexual Psychology is the most comprehensive and up-to-date reference work in the field. Providing a broad yet in-depth overview of the various evolutionary principles that influence all types of sexual behaviors, the handbook takes an inclusive approach that draws on a number of disciplines and covers nonhuman and human psychology. It is an essential resource for both established researchers and students in psychology, biology, anthropology, medicine, and criminology, among other fields. Volume 4: Controversies, Applications, and Nonhuman Primate Extensions addresses controversies and unresolved issues; applications to health, law, and pornography; and non-human primate evolved sexual psychology.
Sexually oriented digital media use is important in adolescents’ sexuality development. The literature points to affordances of media uses (e.g., accessibility), inviting adolescents to use media for sexuality construction and engagement in sexual behaviors. Different theories on sexually oriented digital media use (e.g., Uses and Gratifications and Self-effects) explain why adolescents use media and how it shapes adolescents’ sexuality. Research has documented motivations of sexually oriented digital media use (e.g., sexual exploration) and how they relate to sexual self-development outcomes (e.g., sexual certainty), attitudinal outcomes (e.g., gender stereotypical beliefs), relationship quality indicators (e.g., commitment), and sexual behavioral outcomes (e.g., risky sexual behavior). The literature suggests challenges and future directions of sexually oriented digital media use research. Future research should explore the beneficial implications of digital media uses for adolescents’ sexuality. More attention should cover processes explaining the link between adolescents’ digital media uses and sexuality-related outcomes, and their bidirectional nature.
Pornography has long been a subject of interest to researchers, policy makers, and the general public. This chapter provides an overview of recent findings in pornography research with an emphasis on male sexuality. First, we present a brief summary focused on the definition of pornography. Then we outline the results of studies on pornography use along with details about how often men and women consume pornography, what type of pornography they prefer, and other aspects of pornography use. Finally, we address the results of some of the most significant research on the effects of pornography use on male sexuality, such as risky sexual behavior, sexual self-esteem and well-being, sexual dysfunction, sexuality in couples, and pornography addiction. The findings of current research on pornography are limited by methodological and theoretical shortcomings which compromise their generalizability. We provide a short overview of some limitations in the measurement of pornography use. All in all, many findings on pornography, its use, impact, and long-term effects are preliminary and should be interpreted with caution.
Research on parental knowledge and positive adolescent adjustment suggests that more accurate levels of the former increase the likelihood of the latter. Despite a significant body of literature correlating adolescent pornography use with negative adolescent adjustment, however, only a handful of studies have compared parents’ beliefs about their children’s pornography use with adolescents’ reports and just a few of these have been carried out in the U.S. The present study employed national probability data gathered from 614 parent–adolescent dyads in the U.S. as a further step toward bolstering this important area of parent–child research. Parents were 44.78 years old on average (SD = 7.76). Mothers comprised 55.80% of parents (fathers were 44.20%). Children were 15.97 years old on average (SD = 1.38). Daughters comprised 50.20% of children (sons were 49.80%). Boys were more likely to report pornography use and learning across a range of pornography genres and sexual domains. Parents accurately estimated the direction of many of these gender differences, but still consistently underestimated both sons’ and daughters’ exposure to and socialization from pornography. Interestingly, although parents were more likely to believe that sons than daughters had viewed and learned from pornography, their degree of underestimation was larger for sons. Mothers’ and fathers’ beliefs were consistently indistinguishable at the main effect level and interacted with child gender in only one instance. Results are discussed in relation to the moral panic and risk underestimation perspectives on youth and media effects.
The chapter addresses whether and how international human rights law applies to select forms of harmful speech and conduct on the Internet. It focuses on sexual violence, harassment—including sexual harassment, threats, defamation and disclosure of private information—sexist hate speech and harmful pornography. As noted, international human rights law regulations apply equally to the Internet, including both explicit and general provisions encompassing protection against gender-based harm and gender stereotypes. Nevertheless, challenges arise in applying these standards to the online environment, both in relation to new types of offences and pre-existing violations in online forms. While assessing specific violations, the chapter also connects to the questions broadly examined in previous chapters, on the approach to harm, the scope of rights and liability. Feminist legal theories are intersected throughout the chapters, to consider potential gendered effects arising from gaps, silences and inconsistencies in the regulation of the selected offences in international human rights law per se, as well as in the transposition of human rights law provisions to the Internet.
Compelling evidence suggests that majority of young men who engaged in harmful sexual behaviour (HSB) were subjected to various forms of trauma and adverse childhood experiences. This research explores lived experience of a group of young men who engaged in HSB, what sense they made of it and how their positioned themselves towards these events including HSB, so they are able to maintain their self-integrity. It also explores impact of lived experience with consideration for broader family and cultural discourses. Transition to Adulthood Attachment Interview and Semi-structured interview were employed and Dynamic- Maturation Model of attachment were utilised for this research since it differentiates for dismissed and pre-occupied trauma spectrums. Findings highlighted that all of the young men presented mainly with complex unresolved dismissed trauma or loss and some with both types of trauma. Furthermore, they employed dominant hegemonic culturally shared discourses of masculinity to make sense of their lived experience. The ways in which experiences of trauma shaped the HSB pathway that developed is discussed.
This paper contributes to the emerging debate and revaluation of the growth and membership of the Church of Nigeria (Anglican Communion). Building on literature which has shown that the Church is unlikely to have nearly the membership of more than 18 million that it usually claims, this paper considers evidence of conversion to and defection from Anglican identification in Nigeria. The analysis uses data from the Pew Research Centre Tolerance and Conflict survey (2010), the only high quality nationally representative survey that asks about religious identification in which the respondent was raised and their current identification. It examines converts to Anglican identities in Nigeria, as well as the adopted identities of those who leave Anglicanism behind them. The study finds evidence of a net loss, primarily to Pentecostalism. This lends added weight to the argument that the growth of the Church of Nigeria in the past few decades has been primarily through natural increase (surplus of births over deaths) and not from converts, which are a net loss to the church.
This article analyzes Google SafeSearch's use of machine vision to automate censorship. I first provide a history of SafeSearch, followed by an overview of Google's machine vision system and the datasets it is built atop. Next I examine its political implications from four perspectives. First, I demonstrate how English-language semantic biases about sexuality are embedded in WordNet's ontology. Second, I outline how ImageNet embeds the biases of both image makers and labellers and examine the possibility for automatically outing ‘closeted’ LGBTQIA+ people. Third, I look at instances where explicitness is blurry, focusing on Google understanding the term ‘bisexuality’ as indicative of pornography. Lastly, I analyze the post-2012, always-on SafeSearch model that requires explicit keywords to trigger pornographic results, which reifies mainstream heteroporn's dominance online. In closing, I suggest some tactics of resistance.
As middle and high school students consume and create their own pornography or use it as a form of violence perpetration known as image-based sexual abuse, school staff struggle to find appropriate responses to these issues. As pornography use becomes more prevalent, and discourse on sexual violence more public, pornography education could become a tool for preventing sexual violence and promoting sexual health. In response, we explored the feasibility and preliminary efficacy of PopPorn, a 4-module pornography and IBSA professional development training program in a sample of staff who work for Midwestern public schools (i.e., schools providing free public education funded by tax dollars and maintained by local government). Results indicate that the majority of staff perceive student pornography use and IBSA perpetration to be critical problems that negatively impact school climate. Results also indicate that the PopPorn brief intervention increases staff knowledge of and efficacy in addressing pornography and IBSA-related problems and reduces harmful sexual double standard attitudes that have been linked to victim blaming in instances of sexual violence. This promising pro- gram adds to a growing number of media and pornography literacy interventions aimed at improving sexual violence prevention and response.
The ills of modeling variables substantively involved in a causal process as “controls” have been discussed extensively by social scientists who do not study media. Until recently, Slater was one of the few communication scientists to suggest that media effects scholars engage in overcontrol. Bushman and Anderson have now echoed this concern in the context of a broader treatise on research trends in the media violence literature. The present study responded to Wright’s recent discussion of control variable usage in the pornography literature. Specifically, using a national probability sample of approximately 1,900 U.S. adults, the present study assessed whether multiple demographic variables routinely modeled as controls in the pornography effects literature may be better conceptualized as initiating predictors. Results were inconsistent with the confounding approach but consistent with the hypothesis that individual differences predict cognitive response states that increase or decrease the likelihood of media effects.
Viewing free online pornographic videos has increasingly become a common behavior among young people, although little is known about the content of these videos. The current study analyzed the content of two popular female-age-based types of free, online pornography (teen and MILF) and examined nuances in the portrayal of gender and access to power in relation to the age of the female actor. A total of 100 videos were selected from 10 popular Web sites, and their content was coded using independent raters. Vaginal intercourse and fellatio were the most frequently depicted sexual acts. The use of sex toys, paraphilias, cuddling, and condom use were rare, as were depictions of coercion. Control of the pace and direction of sexual activity was typically shared by the male and female actors. Moreover, there were no gender differences in initiation of sexual activity, use of persuasion, portrayals of sexual experience, or in professional status. However, female actors in MILF videos were portrayed as more agentic and were more likely to initiate sexual activity, control the pace of sexual activity, and have a higher professional status. Implications regarding the role of pornography in generating or reinforcing sexual norms or scripts are discussed.
This investigation uses dyadic power theory (Dunbar, 2000, 2004; Rollins & Bahr, 1976) to examine the relationship between dominance and power and the behavioral manifestations of power in close relationships. Ninety-seven couples (58 married, 39 cohabiting) completed a problem-solving task together while being videotaped. The videotapes were coded for a variety of verbal and nonverbal dominant control attempts including dysfluencies, interruptions, frequency of adaptor and illustrator gestures, vocal characteristics, and general perceptions of dominance. The results revealed that individuals’ perceptions of power led to more dominant communication behavior during discussions with their partner. Comparisons between the perceptions of participants and observers and the implications for future research are also discussed.
This article offers objectification theory as a framework for understanding the experiential consequences of being female in a culture that sexually objectifies the female body. Objectification theory posits that girls and women are typically acculturated to internalize an observer's perspective as a primary view of their physical selves. This perspective on self can lead to habitual body monitoring, which, in turn, can increase women's opportunities for shame and anxiety, reduce opportunities for peak motivational states, and diminish awareness of internal bodily states. Accumulations of such experiences may help account for an array of mental health risks that disproportionately affect women: unipolar depression, sexual dysfunction, and eating disorders. Objectification theory also illuminates why changes in these mental health risks appear to occur in step with life-course changes in the female body.
Using a probability-based sample of young Danish adults and a randomized experimental design, this study investigated effects of past pornography consumption, experimental exposure to nonviolent pornography, perceived realism of pornography, and personality (i.e., agreeableness) on sexist attitudes (i.e., attitudes toward women, hostile and benevolent sexism). Further, sexual arousal mediation was assessed. Results showed that, among men, an increased past pornography consumption was significantly associated with less egalitarian attitudes toward women and more hostile sexism. Further, lower agreeableness was found to significantly predict higher sexist attitudes. Significant effects of experimental exposure to pornography were found for hostile sexism among low in agreeableness participants and for benevolent sexism among women. These experimental exposure effects were found to be mediated by sexual arousal. In the controversy about effects of pornography, attitudes have long held a central role, with concerns about exposure to such materials increasing sexist and related attitudes. Given consistent cross-cultural findings of high prevalence rates of pornog-raphy consumption among the general population (Hald, Seaman & Linz, 2012), investigating the extent to which pornography consumption may adversely affect sexist attitudes is highly important in order to qualify the debate on effects of pornog-raphy and efforts being made to effectively reduce such or related attitudes. This study was specifically designed to investigate effects of exposure to pornography on sexism as it is present in current society (see also Glick & Fiske, 1996) and elucidate some of the mechanisms by which pornography may influence some individuals, thereby rectifying important shortcomings of available research in the area. In this introduction, we begin by presenting a definition of sexism and reviewing core relevant research on effects of pornography on sexist attitudes (for a more
Russell (Dangerous relationships: Pornography, misogyny, and rape, 1988) argued that essential features of pornography were
the inclusion of more female than male nakedness and the portrayal of men in dominant roles. Utilizing a sample of 45 Internet
adult web sites, a content analysis was conducted to see if free and easily available Internet adult videos may generally
be described as pornography in line with Russell’s (1988) work. A majority of videos in our sample portrayed more female than
male nakedness as well as much higher representations of men in sexually dominant positions. The prevalence of violence in
this sample of video and the presence of various acts (name calling, ejaculating on the face, submission, and eagerness to
participate in any sex act) were also content analyzed and used to establish prevalent themes. We found a significant difference
in the likelihood of a video having a theme of exploitation or domination and whether or not the video portrayed one of these
acts. If the video had a theme of exploitation or domination, 92% of the videos also included a minimum of one of these acts
while those videos that had themes of reciprocity or autoeroticism were significantly less likely to contain such acts. This
study contributes to the literature on gender and pornography by examining issues of degradation and power relations within
the context of a rapidly expanding cybersex industry.
Introduction
Concerns have been voiced that the use of sexually explicit materials (SEMs) may adversely affect sexual behaviors, particularly in young people. Previous studies have generally found significant associations between SEM consumption and the sexual behaviors investigated. However, most of these studies have focused on sexual behaviors related to sexually transmitted infections or sexual aggression and/or failed to adequately control for relevant covariates. Thus, research more thoroughly investigating the association between SEM consumption and a broader range of sexual behaviors is needed.
Aims
The study aims to investigate SEM consumption patterns of young people, and to assess the strength of the association between SEM consumption and a range of sexual behaviors, controlling for a comprehensive array of variables previously shown to affect these relationships.
Methods
Online cross‐sectional survey study of 4,600 young people, 15–25 years of age, in The Netherlands was performed.
Main Outcomes Measures
The main outcome measures were self‐reported SEM consumption and sexual practices.
Results
The study found that 88% of men and 45% of women had consumed SEM in the past 12 months. Using hierarchical multiple regression analyses to control for other factors, the association between SEM consumption and a variety of sexual behaviors was found to be significant, accounting for between 0.3% and 4% of the total explained variance in investigated sexual behaviors.
Conclusions
This study suggests that, when controlling for important other factors, SEM consumption influences sexual behaviors. The small to moderate associations that emerged between SEM consumption and sexual behavior after controlling for other variables suggest that SEM is just one factor among many that may influence youth sexual behaviors. These findings contribute novel information to the ongoing debates on the role of SEM consumption in sexual behaviors and risk, and provide appropriate guidance to policy makers and program developers concerned with sexual education and sexual health promotion for young people. Hald GM, Kuyper L, Adam PCG, and de Wit JBF. Does viewing explain doing? Assessing the association between sexually explicit materials use and sexual behaviors in a large sample of Dutch adolescents and young adults. J Sex Med 2013;10:2986–2995.
A qualitative content analysis was conducted on lyrics to identify predominant themes in popular music. The songs for analysis were determined by “The Hot 100” list generated by Billboard Chart Research Services. Feminist and cognitive social learning theories provided a foundation to identify themes. Power over, objectification of, and violence against women was the overall framework that emerged from the lyrics. Within this framework, six themes were identified: men and power, sex as top priority for males, objectification of women, sexual violence, women defined by having a man, and women as not valuing themselves. These themes send gender and relationship messages to music listeners, who are predominantly adolescents. As marriage and family therapists, we can utilize these deconstructed lyrical messages to teach clients about power socialization and its negative effects on relationships.
La communication dite «relationnelle» est traditionnellement reputee se deployer selon deux ou trois dimensions. On presente ici, a partir d'une analyse multidisciplinaire (anthropologie, psychotherapie, expression des emotions, analyse de contenu...) un schema en douze dimensions: dominance/soumission, intimite, affection/hostilite, implication personnelle, inclusion/exclusion, confiance, profondeur/superficialite, vivacite des emotions, sang-froid, ressemblance, formalisme, socialite
This research examined the role of mechanisms of moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency. Regulatory self-sanctions can be selectively disengaged from detrimental conduct by converting harmful acts to moral ones through linkage to worthy purposes, obscuring personal causal agency by diffusion and displacement of responsibility, misrepresenting or disregarding the injurious effects inflicted on others, and vilifying the recipients of maltreatment by blaming and dehumanizing them. The study examined the structure and impact of moral disengagement on detrimental conduct and the psychological processes through which it exerts its effects. Path analyses reveal that moral disengagement fosters detrimental conduct by reducing prosocialness and anticipatory self-censure and by promoting cognitive and affective reactions conducive to aggression. The structure of the paths of influence is very similar for interpersonal aggression and delinquent conduct. Although the various mechanisms of moral disengagement operate in concert, moral reconstruals of harmful conduct by linking it to worthy purposes and vilification of victims seem to contribute most heavily to engagement in detrimental activities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Racism and sexism were examined in interracial (Black/White) X-rated pornography videocassettes. Five female coders coded 476 characters in the sexually explicit scenes in 54 videos. Characters were coded on aggregate measures of physical and verbal aggression, inequality cues, racial cues, and intimacy cues, as well as other specific indices. Sexism was demonstrated in the unidirectional aggression by men toward women. Racism was demonstrated in the lower status of Black actors and the presence of racial stereotypes. Racism appeared to be expressed somewhat differently by sex, and sexism somewhat differently by race. For example, Black women were the targets of more acts of aggression than were White women, and Black men showed fewer intimate behaviors than did White men. More aggression was found in cross-race sexual interactions than in same-race sexual interactions. These findings suggest that pornography is racist as well as sexist.
This study analyzed 40 Music Television (MTV) music videos across gender role based content categories. Videos were rated at 30-second intervals by four trained raters using a consensus model. Results included the following: (a) men appeared nearly twice as often as women; (b) men engaged in significantly more aggressive and dominant behavior; (c) women engaged in significantly more implicitly sexual and subservient behavior; and (d) women were more frequently the object of explicit, implicit, and aggressive sexual advances. Overall, MTV video content primarily included implicit sexuality, objectification, dominance, and implicit aggression. Implications of these findings with respect to sex role stereotyping and the development of negative attitudes toward women were discussed.
This study was designed to investigate whether adolescents’ exposure to a sexualized media environment is associated with
stronger beliefs that women are sex objects. More specifically, we studied whether the association between notions of women
as sex objects and exposure to sexual content of varied explicitness (i.e., sexually non-explicit, semi-explicit, or explicit)
and in different formats (i.e., visual and audio-visual) can be better described as cumulative or as hierarchical. Further,
we investigated whether this association was contingent on gender. Based on data from an on-line survey of 745 Dutch adolescents
aged 13 to 18, we found that the relationship between exposure to a sexualized media environment and notions of women as sex
objects followed a hierarchical pattern: Starting with adolescents’ exposure to sexually semi-explicit content, the statistical
significance of the relationship with notions of women as sex objects moved from semi-explicit to explicit sexual content
and from visual to audio-visual formats. Exposure to sexually explicit material in on-line movies was the only exposure measure
significantly related to beliefs that women are sex objects in the final regression model, in which exposure to other forms
of sexual content was controlled. The relationship between exposure to a sexualized media environment and notions of women
as sex objects did not differ for girls and boys.
The common approach to the multiplicity problem calls for controlling the familywise error rate (FWER). This approach, though, has faults, and we point out a few. A different approach to problems of multiple significance testing is presented. It calls for controlling the expected proportion of falsely rejected hypotheses – the false discovery rate. This error rate is equivalent to the FWER when all hypotheses are true but is smaller otherwise. Therefore, in problems where the control of the false discovery rate rather than that of the FWER is desired, there is potential for a gain in power. A simple sequential Bonferroni-type procedure is proved to control the false discovery rate for independent test statistics, and a simulation study shows that the gain in power is substantial. The use of the new procedure and the appropriateness of the criterion are illustrated with examples.
According to models of objectification, viewing someone as a body induces de-mentalization, stripping away their psychological traits. Here evidence is presented for an alternative account, where a body focus does not diminish the attribution of all mental capacities but, instead, leads perceivers to infer a different kind of mind. Drawing on the distinction in mind perception between agency and experience, it is found that focusing on someone's body reduces perceptions of agency (self-control and action) but increases perceptions of experience (emotion and sensation). These effects were found when comparing targets represented by both revealing versus nonrevealing pictures (Experiments 1, 3, and 4) or by simply directing attention toward physical characteristics (Experiment 2). The effect of a body focus on mind perception also influenced moral intuitions, with those represented as a body seen to be less morally responsible (i.e., lesser moral agents) but more sensitive to harm (i.e., greater moral patients; Experiments 5 and 6). These effects suggest that a body focus does not cause objectification per se but, instead, leads to a redistribution of perceived mind.
This study had three goals: first, to investigate whether sexually explicit Internet material (SEIM) affects sexual risk behavior; second, to study whether these effects differ between adolescents and adults; and third, to analyze, separately for adolescents and adults, whether gender and age moderate an influence of SEIM on sexual risk behavior. The authors conducted a 2-wave panel survey among nationally representative random samples of 1,445 Dutch adolescents and 833 Dutch adults. SEIM use increased sexual risk behavior among adults, but not among adolescents. More specifically, moderator analyses showed that SEIM use increased sexual risk behavior only among male adults, but not among female adults. In the adolescent sample, no moderating gender effect occurred. Neither among adolescents nor among adults did age moderate the effects. Our study shows that SEIM may influence outcomes related to people's sexual health. It also suggests that male adults may present a potential risk group for adverse effects of SEIM.
Previous research on the influence of sexually explicit Internet material (SEIM) on adolescents' stereotypical beliefs about women's sexual roles has three shortcomings. First, the role of peers has been neglected; second, stereotypical beliefs have rarely been studied as causing the use of SEIM and the selection of specific peers; and third, it is unclear whether adolescents are more vulnerable to the effects of SEIM than adults. We used data from two nationally representative two-wave panel surveys among 1,445 Dutch adolescents and 833 Dutch adults, focusing on the stereotypical belief that women engage in token resistance to sex (i.e., the notion that women say "no" when they actually intend to have sex). Structural equation modeling showed that peers who supported traditional gender roles elicited, both among adolescents and adults, stronger beliefs that women use token resistance to sex. Further, the belief that women engage in token resistance predicted adolescents' and adults' selection of gender-role traditional peers, but it did not predict adolescents' and adults' use of SEIM. Finally, adults, but not adolescents, were susceptible to the impact of SEIM on beliefs that women engage in token resistance to sex.
This current study analyzes the content of popular pornographic videos, with the objectives of updating depictions of aggression, degradation, and sexual practices and comparing the study's results to previous content analysis studies. Findings indicate high levels of aggression in pornography in both verbal and physical forms. Of the 304 scenes analyzed, 88.2% contained physical aggression, principally spanking, gagging, and slapping, while 48.7% of scenes contained verbal aggression, primarily name-calling. Perpetrators of aggression were usually male, whereas targets of aggression were overwhelmingly female. Targets most often showed pleasure or responded neutrally to the aggression.
Using twelve measures of objectification, I measured the degree to which women are objectified in mainstream pornographic videos in Australia. Seven of the measures allowed for direct comparison of female and male objectification. Of these, one shows women being more objectified than men (presence of orgasms, where women have fewer orgasms). Three show men being more objectified than women (in time spent looking at camera, where men return the gaze significantly less; in time spent talking to the camera, where they are also less engaged; and in initiating sex, where men are more sexual objects than active sexual subjects in seeking their sexual pleasure in the sample). Three measures showed no difference in objectification between men and women (naming, central characters, and time spent talking to other characters).
Correlates of use and subsequent sexual attitudes and behaviors predicted by exposure to sexually explicit content (i.e., pornography and erotica) in adult magazines, X-rated movies, and the Internet were examined in a prospective survey of a diverse sample of early adolescents (average age at baseline = 13.6 years; N = 967). Two-thirds (66%) of males and more than one-third (39%) of females had seen at least one form of sexually explicit media in the past year. At baseline, being black, being older, and having less-educated parents, lower socioeconomic status, and high need for sensation were related to greater exposure for both males and females. Longitudinal analyses showed that early exposure for males predicted less progressive gender role attitudes, more permissive sexual norms, sexual harassment perpetration, and having oral sex and sexual intercourse two years later. Early exposure for females predicted subsequently less progressive gender role attitudes, and having oral sex and sexual intercourse. Implications for healthy sexual socialization are discussed.
Research on exposure to television and movie violence suggests that playing violent video games will increase aggressive behavior. A metaanalytic review of the video-game research literature reveals that violent video games increase aggressive behavior in children and young adults. Experimental and nonexperimental studies with males and females in laboratory and field settings support this conclusion. Analyses also reveal that exposure to violent video games increases physiological arousal and aggression-related thoughts and feelings. Playing violent video games also decreases prosocial behavior.
The concept of dehumanization lacks a systematic theoretical basis, and research that addresses it has yet to be integrated. Manifestations and theories of dehumanization are reviewed, and a new model is developed. Two forms of dehumanization are proposed, involving the denial to others of 2 distinct senses of humanness: characteristics that are uniquely human and those that constitute human nature. Denying uniquely human attributes to others represents them as animal-like, and denying human nature to others represents them as objects or automata. Cognitive underpinnings of the "animalistic" and "mechanistic" forms of dehumanization are proposed. An expanded sense of dehumanization emerges, in which the phenomenon is not unitary, is not restricted to the intergroup context, and does not occur only under conditions of conflict or extreme negative evaluation. Instead, dehumanization becomes an everyday social phenomenon, rooted in ordinary social-cognitive processes.
In 1960, feminist groups and scholars published critiques of common “male-centric” views of sexuality. They analyzed pornography, traditions as to who initiates sexual encounters, the (non)existence of foreplay, and common (male dominant) sexual positions. Some even said such activities should be abolished (see 0070, 0095 and 0205). Today, the appropriate role of sexuality, specifically the role of pornography in women's lives, probably sparks the biggest debate among feminists. The majority of research on pornography focuses on its misogynistic biases and maladaptive effects, while the minority of literature contends that pornography can be egalitarian and thus be empowering for women. There is little research to test these competing hypotheses as to the value of pornography for women.This paper was designed to investigate whether or not in societies where men and women are relatively equal in status versus unequal, different kinds of pornography flourishes. Three countries that differed markedly in the status of women (based on their United Nation's Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) ranking published in the 2007/2008 Human Development Report) were selected for comparison: Norway (1), the United States (15), and Japan (54). We then compared the nature of their most popular pornography.An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test the hypothesis that – consistent with their GEM ranking – popular Norwegian pornography would depict women in more empowered positions than pornography from the United States and Japan. Results supported this hypothesis. This finding could be attributed to the wider variety in Norwegian pornography, e.g. greater variation in the women's age, weight, and body positioning. There were no significant differences in the extent models in the three countries appeared in demeaning positions.
/ Recently, some scholars have suggested that new media technologies are opening up spaces for the sexual emancipation of previously marginalized groups. These ‘DIY’ web cultures would facilitate different, more authentic, representations of gender and sexuality than conventionally available in mainstream pornography. This study examines these propositions by analyzing a sample of 100 user-generated ‘amateur’ videos on YouPorn, an adult video-sharing website. It is demonstrated how an adherence to a masculine, heteronormative ‘pornoscript’ structures the possible ways in which sexual pleasure is enacted and visualized in these videos. Simultaneously, their alleged proximity to ‘real life’ works to naturalize these representations, enabling the reification of their gender ideology through a denial of their imaginary dimension. It is concluded that, rather than providing a space for alternative sexual representations, YouPorn manifests itself as a site where pornography, participatory media, and the representation/fetishation of ‘reality’ converge to maintain a politically conservative gender ideology.
This paper highlights a few of the ways that the Internet is having a profound effect on sexuality. For the sake of simplicity, and to better elucidate the points, the Internet's effect on sexuality is divided into the three broad categories: negative patterns, positive connections, and commercial aspects. In addition, three of the key factors that combine to give the Internet its power are delineated. They include Access, Affordability, and Anonymity or as they are called here the "Triple A". Finally, suggestions for how the field should deal with this phenomena are offered.
This article examines two internet websites — Nerve, a magazine devoted to `smart smut', and SuicideGirls, an `altporn' site where softcore sexual display is a major component of a participatory taste culture. Through a consideration of the ways such sites present their commercial and community elements as part of a shared taste and aesthetic, the article investigates how some new forms of pornography are developing to construct sexual display as a form of recreation, self-presentation and community building.
This study measures the sexually violent content in magazine, video, and Usenet (Internet newsgroup) pornography. Specifically, the level of violence, the amount of consensual and nonconsensual violence, and the gender of both victim and victimizer are compared. A consistent increase in the amount of violence from one medium to the next is found, although the increase between magazines and videos is not statistically significant. Further, both magazines and videos portray the violence as consensual, while the Usenet portrays it as nonconsensual. Third, magazines portray women as the victimizers more often than men, while the Usenet differs sharply and portrays men as the victimizers far more often. A series of possible explanations for these findings are offered, with the conclusion that the competition among men on the Usenet is an under‐analyzed component of the differences among these media.
Research on pornography has distinguished between its violent and nonviolent forms. Analyses of the content of violent pornography have largely focused on readily available soft-core images in adult films and magazines. However, current research has not adequately addressed pornography on the Internet. We show that discussions about violent pornography are incomplete without an understanding of the Internet as a unique and rapidly expanding medium for disseminating images of sexual violence against women. This article attempts to fill that gap by examining violent pornography using a sample of 31 free Internet sites. Each site was analyzed for its portrayal of women victims, male perpetrators, and its story of rape. Please be advised that the analysis contains graphic descriptions of violence toward women found on Internet rape sites.
Analyzed 150 sexually oriented home videos with respect to their sexual, aggressive, and sexually aggressive content. While the primary focus was on sexually explicit, "triple-X" videos, a number of more mainstream "adult" videos were also analyzed for comparison. As anticipated, triple-X videos depicted sexual content significantly more explicitly than did adult videos. Contrary to expectations, however, it was the adult videos that contained significantly more aggressive and sexually aggressive content and that depicted this violence with significantly greater severity. (French abstract) (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
What are the social roles assumed by men and women in contemporary sexually explicit movies, and in what contexts are their actions portrayed? Perhaps more important, have the predominant themes of pornography shifted in response to the public scrutiny and criticism popular in the mid-1980s? In this investigation we addressed these questions using a random sample of 50 pornographic videotapes drawn from an archive of essentially all such materials targeted for heterosexual consumers available in the international marketplace from 1979 to 1988. The findings revealed that some thematic aspects of modern pornographic movies have shifted over time. Significant increases were evident in the frequency of portrayals of sex between casual acquaintances, males engaging in sex with female superordinates, female characters persuading males into sexual activities, and the performance of fellatio as the initial sexual behavior among heterosexual partners. Over time, a significant decrease in the number of depictions involving sex between colleagues in a workplace or a prostitute-client relationship was also apparent. Taken together, however, the data show that contemporary pornographic movies continue to spotlight the sexual desires and prowess of men while consistently and persistently portraying women as sexually willing and available.
Pornography is a lucrative business. Increasingly, women have participated in both its production, direction, and consumption. This study investigated how the content in popular pornographic videos created by female directors differs from that of their male counterparts. We conducted a quantitative analysis of 122 randomly selected scenes from 44 top-renting adult videos in 2005 (half male- and half female-directed). Findings revealed that all films shared similar depictions: Verbal and physical aggression was common, women were the primary targets of aggression, and negative responses to aggression were extremely rare. Compared to male-directed films, female-directed films were significantly more likely to portray women-only scenes and sexual acts. Even when controlling for main characters' gender, female-directed films showed significantly more female perpetrators aggressing against female targets and significantly more depictions of women as perpetrators of aggression. We highlight the importance of economic forces, rather than director gender, in dictating the content of popular pornography.
Philosophers have argued that when people are objectified they are treated as if they lack the mental states and moral status associated with personhood. These aspects of objectification have been neglected by psychologists. This research investigates the role of depersonalization in objectification. In Study 1, objectified women were attributed less mind and were accorded lesser moral status than non-objectified women. In Study 2, we replicated this effect with male and female targets and extended it to include perceptions of competence and pain attribution. Further, we explored whether target and perceiver gender qualify depersonalization. Overall, this research indicates that when people are objectified they are denied personhood. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Feminists have been concerned about the debasement of women in sexually explicit material. The purpose of this study was to determine the extent of domination and sexual inequality in x-rated videocassettes through a content analysis of 45 widely available x-rated videocassettes. The sample was randomly drawn from a list of 121 adult movie titles widely available in family videocassette rental stores in southern California. Over half of the explicitly sexual scenes were coded as predominantly concerned with domination or exploitation. Most of the domination and exploitation was directed by men toward women. Specific indicators of domination and sexual inequality, including physical violence, occurred frequently. The growth of the videocassette rental industry and the popularity of x-rated films, coupled with the messages these films convey, is a cause for concern.
I am grateful to many people for comments that have helped me revise the article, among them: Mary Becker, Joshua Cohen, Richard Craswell, David Estlund, Robert Goodin, John Hodges, Robert Kaster, William Landes, Lawrence Lessig, Charles Nussbaum, Rachel Nussbaum, Richard Posner, Roger Scruton, Cass Sunstein, Candace Vogler. Above all, I am grateful to the students in my Feminist Philosophy class at Brown University, who discussed the article with relentless critical scrutiny, and especially to: Kristi Abrams, Lara Bovilsky, Hayley Finn, Sarah Hirshman, James Maisels, Gabriel Roth, Danya Ruttenberg, Sarah Ruhl, and Dov Weinstein.
In this paper, I focus on what has been called a paradigm shift in pornography research, driven by the development of particular theoretical and political concerns and by changing material conditions, and on the academic work that has emerged from this. I describe the current situation where studies in the area are more diverse than ever before, while public debate continues to draw on a relatively limited approach based on a concern with what media ‘does’ to behaviour. I outline two areas in particular which currently dominate public and political discussions; namely the sexualization of mainstream media and ‘extreme’ imagery on the fringes of culture, and suggest ways in which these present new challenges and opportunities for developing pornography research.
The aim of this study was to clarify causality in the previously established link between adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit Internet material (SEIM) and notions of women as sex objects. Furthermore, the study investigated which psychological processes underlie this link and whether the various influences varied by gender. On the basis of data from a three-wave panel survey among 962 Dutch adolescents, structural equation modeling initially showed that exposure to SEIM and notions of women as sex objects had a reciprocal direct influence on each other. The direct impact of SEIM on notions of women as sex objects did not vary by gender. However, the direct influence of notions of women as sex objects on exposure to SEIM was only significant for male adolescents. Further analyses showed that, regardless of adolescents’ gender, liking of SEIM mediated the influence of exposure to SEIM on their beliefs that women are sex objects, as well as the impact of these beliefs on exposure to SEIM.
This paper builds on an earlier study by Mehta and Plaza, from 1997, by analyzing 9,800 randomly selected images taken from 32 Usenet newsgroups between July 1995 and July 1996. The study concludes that an increasing percentage of pornographic images in Usenet come from commercially oriented sources and that commercial sources are more likely to post explicit images. Pornographic images containing themes that fall under most obscenity statutes are more likely to be posted by noncommercial sources. By examining the themes most commonly found in the sample, it is concluded that the vast majority of images contain legally permissible content. Only a small fraction of images contain pedophilic, bestiality, co-prophilic/urophilic, amputation and mutilation, and necrophilic themes.