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Towards sustainable animal diets: A survey-based study
Abstract
Animal feed and feeding is pivotal to livestock production. Animal productivity, health and welfare, product quality and safety, producers’ income, household security, but also land use and land use change, water pollution and greenhouse gas emission are affected to a great extent by diet selection and how a diet is fed to livestock. Also animal feed and feeding directly or indirectly affects the entire livestock sector and associated services. Through consultative processes a concept has been developed of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), integrating the importance of protecting the environment, efficient use of natural resources, socio-cultural benefits, and ethical integrity and sensitivity, in addition to currently recognized nutrition-based criteria in producing safe and economically viable feed. The concept is based on the Three-P dimensions of sustainability (Planet, People and Profit), complemented by a further vital aspect, namely the ethics of using a particular feed. The analysis reported here derives from 1195 respondents worldwide. The opinions reflected were from both developing (59%) and developed countries (41%). Respondents ranged across academia, industry, farmers’ associations, government organizations, non-governmental organizations and inter-governmental organizations. This survey has identified directions for positive change that should be followed in the production and feeding of StAnD. That positive change is dictated by higher importance assigned to the Planet, People and Ethics dimensions, and lower to the Profit dimension. The survey has also prioritized elements of the sustainability dimensions of StAnD, and identified sectors that should take the initiative, and has also presented modalities for incorporating the StAnD concept into practice. These could be the focus in follow-up studies and actions. Also the study has laid foundation for developing: (a) a global framework for multi-criteria evaluation of feed resources, based on the sustainability dimensions, (b) a basis for monitoring of the R&D priorities of R&D organizations and donors, and to align them to the needs of the animal production system, and (c) a framework for future R&D needs and priorities, driven by sustainability principles.
... Animal nutrition affects the health, welfare, and production of animals, as well as the quality and safety of the product, but also the sustainability of the animal production system [1]. Numerous factors affect the total cost of animal production, but feed costs are the most important component, accounting for up to 70% of total production [2]. ...
... Chemical composition of grains from commercial maze hybrids used in this study 1 . Different letters indicate a statistically significant difference in the content of nutrients between maize hybrids at p < 0.05.1 Each hybrid had five repetitions. ...
... Quality traits of eggs from laying hens fed dietary treatments differing in maize hybrid 1 . Different letters indicate a statistically significant difference in content of nutrients between maize hybrids at p < 0.05.1 Each dietary treatment was allocated to six cages (repetitions) and samples were collected and analyzed weekly during the last five weeks of the experimental period. ...
The nutritional value of maize grain can be influenced by its genetic background, which can lead to differences that could affect laying hens due to the high proportion of maize hybrids in the complete feed. This study aimed to investigate the effects of modern maize hybrids on hen production and egg quality. Dietary treatments differed only in a grain of 15 high-yielding maize hybrids, added at a fixed proportion of 600 g kg⁻¹ and without additional pigments. By 3 in each cage, 225 Lohmann Brown hens were allocated to 15 dietary treatments in a completely randomized block design (15 treatments × 5 cages). The experiment lasted 10 weeks, during which the number and weight of eggs were recorded daily, and diet intake was recorded weekly. Eggs for quality analysis were collected once per week during the last five weeks of the experiment. Dietary treatments differed (p < 0.05) in complete feed intake (119.7–123.1 g), egg weight (58.02–61.51 g), daily egg mass (56.17–60.16 g), and feed conversion ratio (2.01–2.19). As expected, dietary treatments did not affect egg traits such as shape index, albumen height, Haugh units, shell strength, thickness, and weight, but differed (p < 0.05) in yolk color (6.28–8.76) and yolk (14.74–16.03 g) and albumen (34.39–39.29 g) weights. The findings suggest that using different maize hybrids in complete feeds used in egg production systems may lead to small but significant differences in some hen production and egg quality traits, which in turn affect farmers’ income.
... The potential of insects in the livestock feed sector has been documented in past research, evidencing a positive influence on broiler production (Józefiak et al., 2016;Khan et al., 2018;Onsongo et al., 2018). This application establishes a sustainable approach, ensuring positive environmental impacts; less energy, land area requirement, and less environmental footprint for production (Makkar and Ankers, 2014). The black soldier fly larvae (BSFL, Hermetia illucens L.) is a promising insect for industrial poultry feed production. ...
... The results indicated that the FA profile of the substrate is more or less similar to that of full fat BSFL meal. It is suggested that the FA profile of BSFL is reflected by the FA profile of the substrate (Makkar and Ankers, 2014;Spranghers et al., 2016). According to the results, lauric acid, palmitic acid, myristic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and stearic acid were dominant in BSFL meal. ...
Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL; Hermetia illucens L.) is a proven high-cost protein source replacer and could be grown in a range of bio-degradable waste materials where hardly incorporated into broiler diets locally. The present study was aimed to assess the nutritional composition of BSFL, and apparent metabolizable energy (AME) value of BSFL meal provided to broiler chickens. BSFL full-fat meal produced from kitchen waste as a substrate were examined for their proximate composition, minerals and fatty acid profile. Eighty, 21-d old unsexed Cobb-500 broiler chickens (BW±SD: 665.8 ±14.3 g) were assigned randomly into 16 battery cages (04 replicates, five birds/replicate). A maize-soybean meal-based diet was used as the basal diet which was partially substituted by pre-analyzed BSFL meal at the rates of 5%, 10%, and 15% to produce three test diets. Birds were fed in a completely randomized design for 7-d with a 4-d adaptation period. Excreta were collected for three days from day 25 to 28. The results envisaged that the crude protein (CP) and ether extract (EE) contents of the kitchen waste were 12.3%, and 10.5%, respectively. BSFL meal when analyzed had 34.4% CP and 47.3%, EE. The fatty acid (FA) profile of the kitchen waste was more or less similar to that of BSFL‘s meal. The estimated AME of the BSFL full-fat meal fed for broilers was estimated to be 15.7 MJ/kg. The BSFL full-fat meal can be utilized sustainably in feed formulation and has a high potential to replace costlier feed ingredients.
... For example, the larvae of the black soldier fly H. illucens have been found to contain approximately 60% protein and a favorable amino acid profile that meets the requirements of poultry and livestock (van Huis, 2013). Several studies have reported improved growth performance, feed conversion efficiency, and weight gain in animals fed insect meals as a partial replacement for conventional protein sources (Makkar et al., 2014a;Rumpold and Schlüter, 2013). The use of insect meal as a feed source may help reduce the need for antibiotics in animal production, as insects have been found to contain natural antimicrobial peptides that may improve gut health and disease resistance in animals (Siciliano et al., 2019). ...
... This information is important because different insect species may have different growth and nutrient utilization characteristics at different life stages, and therefore may have different effects on the farmed animals they are used to feed. For example, the studies on house cricket Acheta domesticus found improved feed conversion and growth performance in chickens when using pellet made from whole (adult) insects (Makkar et al., 2014a), and improved growth performance and feed utilization efficiency in Nile tilapia when using pellet made from adult insects . These findings suggest that adult insects of this species may be a good feed source for different types of farmed animals. ...
The residual population growth imposes an increase in food demand, driving humans to practice agricultural intensification on a large scale. Paradoxically, food and feed production may end up causing various environmental problems. At the same time, about 2.37 billion people in the World currently lack basic food security insurance. As a consequence, alternative sources that can substantially address the demand for food and feed sustainably are needed. Insect farming may offer an environmentally friendly solution for mitigating global food and feed challenges. The article aims to explore the potential of insects as sustainable food and feed sources while assessing their environmental impact, offering innovative solutions for global food security challenges. By highlighting the benefits of edible insects, the article supports informed decision-making and promotes sustainable practices. Mass production of edible insects has seen record growth over the decade, and their demand as future proteins is projected to reach up to 3 million tons in 2030. Additionally, insect farming is evidenced to be economically viable. To meet the demand for edible insects, a breakthrough such as the internet of things can be used to scale up production and processing. However, detailed environmental impact assessments are needed to predict scenarios of large-scale insect farming. Life cycle assessments of some edible insect production systems have validated that insect farming has various beneficial environmental impacts. The utilization of edible insects as food and feed is promising for significantly improving food security and the environmental sustainability of food.
... By 2050, the global demand for animal products is projected to increase by 60 to 70% (1). Ongoing food-feed competition, land degradation, and climate change will further generate sustainability challenges to the livestock industry, especially in developing countries, which already face food security challenges (2). In this context, a decision to rear well-adapted livestock species as well as use unconventional plants in the pastures and agrolands could be effective in meeting present and future demands for animal products in a sustainable manner (1,2). ...
... Ongoing food-feed competition, land degradation, and climate change will further generate sustainability challenges to the livestock industry, especially in developing countries, which already face food security challenges (2). In this context, a decision to rear well-adapted livestock species as well as use unconventional plants in the pastures and agrolands could be effective in meeting present and future demands for animal products in a sustainable manner (1,2). ...
This study determined the effect of dietary inclusion of camelthron [Alhagi maurorum (AM)] on the performance, blood metabolites, and antioxidant status of growing camels. A total of 18 Sindhi camel calves of 9–10 months of age and 115 ± 7 kg body weight (BW) were randomly assigned to three diets (with a forage:concentrate ratio of 50:50) that were formulated by partial and total substitution of alfalfa hay with AM as follows: (1) diet without AM (control), (2) diet containing 25% of AM (AM-25), and (3) diet containing 50% of AM (AM-50) (dry matter basis) for 150 days. Dry matter intake (DMI) was recorded daily. The camels were weighed individually on days 0, 30, 60, 90, 120, and 150. Blood samples were collected on days 0, 75, and 150. DMI was increased (p = 0.004) with AM-50 feeding followed by AM-25. Total weight gain (p = 0.048) and average daily gain (ADG) (p = 0.043) decreased with AM-50; however, no differences were observed between the AM-25 and CON groups. Feed cost per kg BW gain tended to decrease (p = 0.092) and return per kg BW gain tended to increase (p = 0.087) by AM feeding. The plasma triglycerides (TGs) (p = 0.046) and cholesterol (CHOL) (p = 0.025) concentration were reduced with AM inclusion. Additionally, the AM50-fed camels showed the lowest concentration of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) (p = 0.008) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (p = 0.0036), followed by AM-25. The plasma malondialdehyde (MDA) was depressed (p = 0.037) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) was enhanced (p = 0.016) with both the AM-25 and AM-50. Moreover, feeding the AM containing diets led to higher (p = 0.004) glutathione peroxidase (GPx) along with a tendency for superoxide dismutase (SOD) (p = 0.075) and catalase (CAT) (p = 0.094). Overall, feeding camels with AM for up to 25% of their dry matter (DM) diet positively influenced the antioxidant status without severe deleterious effects on performance.
... However, currently the use of (AGP) has been banned in various countries (Windsich et al. 2007), due to concerns about causing resistance in humans. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) through the concept of Sustainable Animal Diets (StAnD) states that in feeding it is better not to use synthetic antibiotics as growth promoters (Makkar and Ankers 2014). Efforts to overcome pathogenic microbial infections in Indonesia currently still depend on the use of antibiotics which are generally mixed into broiler rations. ...
The management of microbial infections in poultry farming continues to be largely antibiotic-dependent. Despite this, the application of Antibiotic Growth Promoters (AGPs) in poultry feed has been banned, necessitating the use of herbal feed additives such as Brotowali (Tinospora crispa). This study aimed to evaluate the effects of Brotowali stem meal on the performance and immune organs of hybrid ducks. A total of 200 hybrid ducks Gunsi 888 were used in this study, reared from 11 to 46 days of age. The ducks were fed either a basal diet as a control (P1) or a basal diet supplemented with 0.5% Brotowali stem meal (P2), 1% (P3), and 1.5% (P4). The observed immune organs included the thymus, bursa of Fabricius, and spleen. The study was conducted in Bogor, West Java, while the an analysis of Brotowali’s phytochemical properties was conducted at the Tropical Biopharmaca Research Center of IPB University. All collected data were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA), and significant differences were further analyzed using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT) with SPSS version 25. The results showed that Brotowali stem meal had no significant effect (P>0.05) on the immunity of hybrid ducks. However, Brotowali stem meal significantly (P<0.05) improved the performance of hybrid ducks, as evidenced by increased body weight and decreased feed conversion ratios. In conclusion, Brotowali can enhance the performance of hybrid ducks, and it does not affect the stress levels of the livestock.
... The principles of the circular economy promote, across the productive sectors, the implementation of virtuous strategies to eliminate wastes and pollution, reuse products and materials and regenerate natural systems (Perey et al., 2018). In this context, the inclusion of agro-industrial by-products in animal diets fully matches this perspective (Makkar and Ankers, 2014). The peculiar digestive system makes ruminants able to convert human inedible fiber into food with high nutritive value such as milk and meat better than other species (Salami et al., 2019). ...
... The integration of machine learning has become a cornerstone in enhancing financial reporting accuracy. Machine learning and deep learning are areas of research in the field of artificial intelligence, studying methods of constructing algorithms that can be trained (Makkar et al., 2014). It uses neural network techniques, statistics, operations research, and so forth, to identify hidden useful information in the data; it does not explicitly program instructions that indicate where to look for data and how to draw conclusions (Benetti, 2014). ...
... Its cultural uses lend ecological and economic importance to the species, and thus, research and extractive use of the animal are not permitted in the free life departs or derivatives of the black iguana [10]. Therefore, it is necessary to implement new alternative methods to improve the efficiency of productive systems in captivity [11]. One technique applied elsewhere is the use of anabolic implants that promote the iguanas´ growth. ...
Implants are used in animal production to increase weight-gain. Due to this, the objective of this study was to evaluate one implant’s effect on the black Iguana’s (Ctenosaura pectinata) weight gain parameters in intensive conditions. Twenty-four iguanas’ young were used in the study, at the age of 13 months old. The experiment lasted nine months. The subjects were kept in individual cages. Two types of commercial feed products were used combined with the use of the implant. The evaluated variables were daily weight gain (mg anim-1 d-1) and longitudinal growth (μ anim-1 d-1): total, snout-vent and of the head. The in vivo apparent digestibility of dry matter and feed conversion (mg) was also measured. In order to analyse these variables, a completely randomised block design, with 2x2 factorial arrangement and six repetitions, was adopted. The initial weight was used as a covariable. The sample results show that daily weight-gain and longitudinal growth (p < 0.06) were different depending on whether their food type was turkey feed with the implant, or chicken feed without the implant. The study concludes that turkey feed combined with the implant Zeranol increased daily weight-gain and total growth of the black iguana young in captivity.
... Amid increases and volatility in the price of conventional feed (AHDB Market Intelligence, 2013;2006), and concerns about the environmental impact of grain-and soybean-based feeds Nguyen and Lau, 2012), there is growing interest in the potential re-legalization and promotion of the use of food waste in agri-animal production (The Economist, 2013; The Pig Idea, 2014) given a recent survey of 1195 animal feed practitioners (from industry, academia, and NGOs) that identified the use of food waste as a priority research area for sustainable animal nutrition and sustainable reduced waste poisoning (Makkar and Ankers, 2014). ...
The potential capacity and bio-economics of pollution-waste substitution is a vital life enterprise area. It can catalyze the extensive understanding and unity to further develop and design opportunities for the creation of prospects that promote harmony throughout the environmental and social realms, without compromising future needs. It is interesting to note that many studies that examined waste failed to account for the actual role played by waste and extensive waste factors on unsustainable development, the relationship among government policy and environmental waste growth; health implications of the direct, indirect and total effects of waste growth and waste poisoning; the relationship of waste growth on private and public spending on health. This study closes these gaps by, evaluating health implications of environmental waste increase both on sustainable economic growth and development and proposes the innovation waste-education towards the achievement of sustainable economic development, reduced impact of air pollution and, improved health moderates of citizens. The study recommends the innovation-waste education in an aim to communicate the urgency and unity of environmental recycling and recyclability transformations, conservation; balancing environmental endeavors in a sustainable way, environmental climate change security towards the achievement of, sustainable imperative global standards of living in a way that promotes present wealth and opportunities without compromising future needs.
... Olive by-products, such as olive pomace, olive cake (OC), and olive leaves, can serve as a sustainable alternative source of nutrients for animal feeding. The use of these by-products in animal nutrition reduces livestock feed's environmental and economic impact (Makkar and Ankers, 2014;Salemdeeb et al., 2017) and lessens waste in the industry (Molina-Alcaide and Yáñez-Ruiz, 2008). Understanding its nutritional and nutraceutical potential is essential to determine its impact on animal performance and health. ...
The microbial population in the pig’s gastrointestinal tract can be influenced by incorporating fibrous by-products into the diets. This study investigated the impact of including two types of dried olive cake (OC) in pigs’ diets on fecal bacterial composition. The correlation between fecal microbiota and growth performance, nutrient digestibility, gut fermentation pattern and slurry gas emissions was also evaluated. Thirty male Pietrain x (Landrace x Large white) pigs (47.9 ± 4.21 kg) were assigned to three groups: a control group (C), a group fed a diet with 20% partially defatted OC (20PDOC), and a group fed a diet with 20% cyclone OC (20COC) for 21 days. Fecal samples collected before and after providing the experimental diets were analyzed for the V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene. Pigs were weighed, and feed intake was recorded throughout the study. Potential ammonia and methane emissions from slurry were measured. No significant differences in alpha diversity indexes were found. The taxonomic analysis revealed that Firmicutes and Bacteroidota phyla were dominant at the phylum level across all groups. Differential abundance analysis using ALDEx showed significant differences among groups for various bacteria at the phylum, genus, and species levels at the end of the experiment. Pigs from 20PDOC and 20COC groups exhibited increased abundances of health-promoting bacteria, such as Plactomycetota at the phylum level and Allisonella and an unidentified genus from the Eggerthellaceae family at the genus level. These changes influenced short-chain fatty acids’ (SCFA) concentration in slurries, leading to greater acetic, butyric, caproic and heptanoic acids in OC-fed groups, especially 20COC pigs. A volatility analysis revealed significant positive correlations (p < 0.05) between Uncultured_Bacteroidales and Unculured_Selenomonadaceae and energy digestibility. Monoglobus and Desulfovibrio showed a positive significant (p < 0.05) correlation with total SCFA, indicating a high impact on gut fermentation. However, growth performance parameters and potential gas emission displayed no significant correlations with a specific bacterial genus. In conclusion, our results suggest that OC inclusion into pig diets could positively modulate and contribute to the gut microbiota’s favorable composition and functionality. Also, nutrient digestibility and gut fermentation patterns can be associated with specific microbial populations.
... Animal feed plays a crucial role in determining the sustainability performance of animal production systems. The choice of diet affects the animal production chain downstream on, for example, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, animal productivity, animal health, and product safety and quality (1). In this regard, the Food and Agriculture Organization seeks to assess and minimize the negative effects of animal diets on sustainability by informing changes in practices among farmers, farmer organizations, and the feed industry (2). ...
Background
Veterinarians play an essential role in improving animal care, as they are often viewed as trusted advisors, particularly in relation to disease control and management; however, little is known about veterinarians’ perceptions and attitudes toward alternative feeds. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of age, gender, and willingness to adopt on the attitudes of livestock veterinarians toward the use of alternative feeds in farm animals.
Methods
A total of 136 active veterinarians completed the online survey, distributed through the main veterinary associations in Italy. The questionnaire contained items on dietary recommendation, awareness, benefit and safety perceptions, and a willingness to adopt former foodstuffs (FFs), complemented with socio-demographic questions.
Results
Almost 90% of the population reported a willingness to adopt FFs as feed. Men and women did not share the same perceptions of the nutritional composition of FFs, while the importance of product availability was found to be a key factor driving the age difference. Participants willing to adopt FFs as feed linked positive attitudes to attributes such as digestibility, energy intake, and positive social implications.
Conclusion
Our findings provide a basic background on the current use of the FFs in Italy and suggest the need for the development of educational programs and marketing strategies to enhance the acceptability of FFs in farm animals to ultimately promote the transition toward more sustainable animal production. This study has limitations, including the number of recorded responses and reliance on national estimates. Future research is needed to investigate the perceptions of farmers and animal nutritionist from different countries. This could provide a more detailed picture of the current situation in Europe about the potential of using FFs in farm animals’ feed, thus further contributing toward a greener and safer livestock production sector.
... The search for alternative and sustainable proteins is a significant issue of major importance that needs viable solutions in the short term, making insects an increasingly valuable and attractive fish-feed protein source [13]. Most insects have a better balance of essential amino acids (methionine and lysine) than most grains [14,15]. Several attempt to partially or completely replace fishmeal with other inexpensive and relatively abundant nutrient-rich animal protein sources examples include maggots and other non-conventional insects like winged termites, crickets, cockroaches, locusts, earthworms, garden snails, shrimp waste, poultry waste and plant protein sources such as sunflower, rape seed, soybean meal and cottonseed meal [16][17][18][19]. ...
The proximate composition of housefly larvae (Musca domestica) maggot meal produced from a four (4) days old larvae raised in a mixture of three substrates: cow manure + cow blood (CMM), swine manure + cow blood (SMM), and poultry manure + cow blood and harvested on day 4 were determined. Harvested maggots were oven-dried at constant temperature (90o c) at different time regimes (35minutes, 45minutes, and 55minutes). Each treatment was named according to the substrate source and processing time: (CMM35, CMM45, CMM55, SMM35, SMM45, SMM55, PMM35, PMM45, PMM55). Results revealed that maggot meal contains 35.95-43.62% crude protein, fat ranged between 8.00-16.86%; Ash content ranged between 5.82-9.30%; crude fibre was between 1.15-2.91%, Moisture content was between 2.00-8.80% and nitrogen free extract (NFE) ranged between 29.2- 45.74%. Amino acids analysis identified 19 amino acids including 10 essential amino acids (EAA). The amino acids in CMM, SMM, PMM include: arginine, valine, lysine, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, histidine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, threonine, alanine, aspartate, glutamate, glycine, tyrosine, cysteine, proline serine and asparagine. The methionine content in the meals ranged between 3.78- 4.66 g/100g protein. The treatment CMM55 recorded the highest level of methionine (4.66 g/100g protein) compared to 2.49 g/100g protein in fishmeal. The crude protein of maggot meal is maximized if with poultry manurederived maggot meal that is oven processed for 55 minutes (43.62%).
... Due to the rapid increase in population in developed countries, animal protein consumption keeps increasing [3,4]. In 2012, 155 million tons of feed protein were consumed by monogastric animals, and the consumption was estimated to be 207 million tons in 2030 [5]. Soybean meal is a major co-product of the extraction of oil for soybean, and the residue after extraction is rich in protein. ...
Soybean meal (SBM) is a prevailing plant protein supplement in animal diets because of its nutritional value and availability. This review paper explores the significance of SBM and processed soy products, emphasizing their nutritional and bioactive components, such as isoflavones and soyasaponins. These compounds are known for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and are associated with a reduced prevalence of chronic diseases. However, the presence of antinutritional compounds in SBM presents a significant challenge. The paper evaluates various processing methods, including ethanol/acid wash, enzyme treatment, and fermentation, which are aimed at enhancing the nutritional value of soy products. It highlights the significance to maintain a balance between nutritional enhancement and the preservation of beneficial bioactive compounds, emphasizing the importance of different processing techniques to fully exploit the health benefits of soy-based products. Therefore, this review illuminates the complex balance between nutritional improvement, bioactive compound preservation, and the overall health implications of soy products.
... recycling, cost reduction and feed-to-food competition). Indeed, the use of local feed resources such as by-products is considered a feasible strategy to reduce water and land consumed at a global level (Makkar and Ankers 2014;Flachowsky et al. 2017) and limit the transport greenhouse gas emissions (Bronts et al. 2023). ...
Prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica L. Mill) is widely cultivated in arid regions of every continent for its nutritious fruits and various commercial applications, cactus pear cladodes are used as forage in the most arid regions, while recently prickly pear by-products are studied as ruminant feed. They are characterised by a high moisture and sugar content; therefore, it is necessary to study suitable conservation methods. The aim of this study was to verify the effectiveness of silage to preserve prickly pear peels (PP) in a mixture with other by-products at different inclusion levels (5% straw and 6% or 12% wheat bran). For each treatment, six under vacuum micro-silos were prepared and, after 40 d of storage, the state of preservation was evaluated. Subsequently, the aliquots were analysed for chemical composition and incubated with sheep rumen fluid to evaluate the fermentation kinetics. The use of wheat bran and straw added to PP resulted in an increase in dry matter (DM); PP silage with wheat bran was found to have higher protein content and nutritional value. The greater presence of lactic acid was found in PP, such as acetic acid, therefore the lactic/acetic ratio was 2.33, significantly lower than silages with the addition of wheat bran. Silage with 5% straw showed the lowest level of organic matter disappearance (OMD) and the cumulative volume of gas (OMCV) produced during the incubation. The PP showed the fastest fermentation rate achieved after 12 h of fermentation, while those containing wheat bran, presented a higher maximum fermentation rate (R max), which need longer time to be achieved. Canonical discriminant analysis (CDA) showed clear discrimination of different silages based on their chemical characteristics and parameters detected during in vitro incubation. Overall, the silages with the addition of wheat bran can be considered the best and, of the two, those produced with the addition of 12% bran. Finally, ensilage represents a conservation technique suitable for preserving the nutritional characteristics of PP. HIGHLIGHTS � Ensiling is a good way to storage the PP by-product. � Adding 12% wheat bran to PP had the best effects on silage. � Simultaneous ensiling of several by-products is a good method for preserving agri-food by-products. ARTICLE HISTORY
... Moreover, considering that livestock farming is one of the agricultural activities with the greatest environmental impact [8,9] and that the production of animal products (poultry, pork and beef ) will double [10], a radical change in current production models is already needed to correct inefficiencies, reduce food waste and encourage sustainable diets using alternative protein sources [11][12][13]. ...
The agri-food industry is increasingly recognizing the environmental impact of the over-exploitation of natural resources and waste production, which has prompted a search for sustainable alternatives based on circular bioeconomy principles. Insects can efficiently transform food substrates into reusable biomass, thus making them valuable contributors to a circular bioeconomy system. However, the relationship between the circular bioeconomy and the insect industry has so far appeared relatively unexplored in the existing research. To address this gap, a meta-synthesis has been conducted through a systematic literature review. By identifying the state of the art and assessing the role of insects in the transition of closed-loop systems, the aim of this research has been to shed light on the opportunities and challenges of integrating insects in circular bioeconomy strategies. The research revealed three main topics: (1) waste management by insects, i.e., the use of insects as a tool for waste management and with which to create high-value substrates; (2) insect-based feeds, namely the use of insects as alternative food sources in farming systems; (3) insect-based food acceptance by consumers. The results underscore the significant potential of this market within the circular bioeconomy context, highlighting the obstacles that need to be addressed and future strategies that could be adopted.
... Lock et al. (2015) replaced up to 100 % of the fish meal with two different insect meals in feed for Atlantic Salmon (Salmosalar) for 15 weeks, and found that fish fed one insect meal performed as well as the fish raised on a fishmeal-based diet, whereas fish fed the other insect meal did not. Makkar et al. (2014) analysed in their review studies with catfish, tilapia, rainbow trout, Atlantic salmon, turbot and crustaceans, where fishmeal was replaced by dried black soldier fly larvae meal, housefly maggots, dried mealworms, locust meal, grasshoppers or silkworm pupae meal. Most studies demonstrated that about 50 % replacement of fishmeal had no adverse effect on animal performances. ...
The livestock industry as an important component of general agriculture is a key contributor to economic growth and development of any nation. In addition to having the capacity for earning revenue for the governments, it provides employment, food, farm energy, manure, fuel and transport. Currently, important protein ingredients for animal feed are fish meal, processed animal proteins and soybean meal. However, in the European Union the use of processed animal proteins in animal feed is prohibited due to the TSE legislation, globally land availability for soya cultivation is limited, while marine overexploitation has reduced the abundance of small pelagic forage fish from which fish meal and fish oil is derived. The growing scarcity of resources to produce these increasingly demanded ingredients has doubled prices during the last five years, while it already represents 60-70% of production costs. So, alternative (animal) protein sources for livestock and aquaculture are urgently needed.Insects are such an alternative animal protein source, which can sustainably reared on organic side streams. Reasons are that they have a favorable feed conversion efficiency, likely because they are cold-blooded. Insects contain between 30% and 70% protein on a dry matter basis. The protein content of the insect species is within the soybean/fish meal range and fat content is higher especially compared to (defatted) soybean meal. This review, however highlighted the environmental, health, livelihood and social benefits of insects. Recent efforts in feeding livestock, challenges limiting the use of insects as feed ingredients and moreover, the strategies for commercial production of insects as feed ingredients just to mention a few of the potentials of using insects for feeding livestock.
... Bio-yeast and insect maggot and worm meal in RV are nutritious, not easily available and costly. Availability, cost and nutritional capacity of non-conventional feeds determine the quantities, livestock categories and systems to adopt by farmers (Makkar and Ankers, 2014 [17]). ...
... Feeds are a vital part of animal husbandry, regardless of species or method of manufacture, accounting for up to 70% of total production costs. Animal diets must be sustainable to support the long-term viability of livestock production across all production systems (Makkar and Ankers 2014). To make the idea of sustainable animal feed from food waste, it is imperative to focus on the fulfillment of factors like a good gross profit, ways, and processes that are not harmful to our planet and natural resources. ...
Food waste is a global concern, with significant quantities of edible food being discarded every day. However, innovative conversion technologies have emerged to effectively transform this waste into valuable animal feed. This review paper provides a comprehensive examination of the conversion technologies used to transform food waste into animal feed, along with an analysis of the environmental benefits associated with these processes. The paper delves into various conversion methods such as anaerobic digestion, insect-based conversion, and microbial fermentation along with exploring their mechanisms and suitability for converting food waste into valuable animal feed resources. Additionally, the environmental benefits, including waste reduction, greenhouse gas emission reduction, and resource conservation, are discussed in detail. The review highlights the potential of these technologies to address the pressing issue of food waste while contributing to a more sustainable and resource-efficient food system. The findings of this review emphasize the importance of adopting and further developing these conversion technologies as a means to mitigate environmental impacts, promote circular economy principles, and enhance the overall sustainability of the food and agriculture sector.
... Negara dengan praktik pertanian intensif dan populasi hewan padat umumnya diasosiasikan dengan konsumsi AGP yang tinggi. Organisasi Pangan dan Pertanian Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (FAO) melalui konsep Sustainable Animal Diets (StAnD) menyatakan dalam pembuatan dan pemberian pakan sebaiknya tidak menggunakan antibiotik atau pemacu pertumbuhan sintetis [2]. Pelarangannya di Indonesia telah diatur pada Peraturan Menteri Pertanian Nomor 14 pasal 16 tahun 2017 [3]. ...
Sediaan herbal sebagai aditif pakan telah memberikan keuntungan dalam peternakan dengan merangsang pertumbuhan, meningkatkan efisiensi pakan dan efek imunomodulator, sehingga menghasilkan angka kematian, morbiditas dan keseluruhan performa yang lebih baik pada unggas. Tujuan dari penelitian ini yaitu menguji pengaruh pemberian jamu berbahan baku sambiloto, temulawak, madu, dan jahe terhadap performa ayam broiler. Rancangan percobaan yang dilakukan adalah rancangan acak lengkap yang terdiri atas empat perlakuan dan tujuh ulangan. Perlakuan pertama merupakan kontrol, ayam broiler yang tidak diberi jamu. Tiga perlakuan selanjutnya, ayam yang diberi tambahan jamu konsentrasi bertingkat 5%, 10%, dan 15%. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan pemberian jamu meningkatkan performa ayam broiler secara nyata (P<0,05) dan peningkatan terbaik berada pada kelompok konsentrasi 5% dan 10%. Meliputi peningkatan konsumsi pakan dan air minum, pertambahan bobot badan, bobot hidup, bobot karkas dan konversi pakan tanpa disertai peningkatan bobot jantung, paru-paru, hati, ginjal, dan limpa. Berdasarkan penelitian ini, dapat disimpulkan bahwa pemberian jamu kombinasi sambiloto, temulawak, madu, dan jahe dapat meningkatkan performa ayam broiler.
... The most promising nutritional strategy to amplify feed efficiency and digestibility is the inclusion of materials that enrich feed quality [5]. Animal diet comprises materials of plant, animal, pharmaceutical, and industrial origin, developed to attain the objective of animal performance [6]. Higher concentrate mixtures are needed in animal diets, especially in lactating animals, for their healthy progeny [7,8]. ...
Background and aim:
A change in the livestock feeding strategy is of utmost importance for the stability of animal health and sustainable livestock productivity to overcome the problem of subsiding the environmental effects of sheep production. Supplementing dietary feed with safe and efficient additives provides optimal animal performance and maximizes productivity. This study aimed to assess the effects of adding various feed additives to lamb rations for optimizing feed efficiency in weaned lambs for meat production in Kuwait.
Materials and methods:
The feed additives, namely, ammonium chloride, urea, algae, fishmeal, and humic acid, were investigated on the physical performance of lambs for their effect on body weight, length, height, and waist length. The total feed consumption rate and feed efficiency were also measured. Each treatment comprising five healthy lambs was randomly allocated into six treatments comprising 30 lambs. The six treatments were the basal ration supplemented with ammonium chloride (50-100 g/day/head), urea (30 g/day/head), fishmeal (35 g/day/head), algae (Spirulina platensis) powder (50 g/day/head), humic acid (2.5 g/day/head), control group with only basal ration. The study was conducted for around 27 months and the data were recorded once in 2 weeks.
Results:
The results indicated a positive elevation in the physique of lambs with all tested additives, showing an affirmative insignia for lamb fattening. The growth parameters in terms of augmented length, height, and waist length of lambs' bodies amplified significantly with ammonium chloride and fishmeal supplement, while the other additives reported a non-significant increment. The feed consumption was significantly elevated for ammonium chloride, algae, and fishmeal supplementation, while humic acid was recorded the least. Concerning feed efficiency of young lambs, fish meal and ammonium chloride were reported best, followed by urea. In contrast, algae and humic acid exhibited a non-significant effect on feed efficiency.
Conclusion:
This study exposed noteworthy influence on a lamb body's performance with the addition of fish meal and ammonium chloride in lamb rations, trailed by urea and algae.
... The StAnD (sustainable animal diets) method (Makkar and Ankers, 2014) is a tool that integrates several dimensions of sustainability, including the three P (people, planet, and profitability) dimensions, and gives an overall picture of the current state of a production system. The indicators corresponding to each dimension allow for the detection of specific problems or particular limitations that may be addressed in order to improve the sustainability of the system (Makar and Ankers, 2014;FAO, 2014). ...
p> Background . Maize cultivation and dairy cattle represent two of the main economic activities in Mexico. Objective . Determine the forage yield (ton / ha) and forage quality of the maize silage produced in Mexico and estimate potential milk production. Methodology . For this purpose, 13 studies carried out in Mexico, were analyzed according to study area (north vs. center of Mexico) and variety (native vs. hybrid). For inclusion in the final database, the studies should have been including agronomic and chemical variables such as: dry matter yield (DMY) (ton / ha), plant density (number of plants / ha), dry matter content (DM), crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), ash or organic matter (OM), dry matter digestibility (DMD), neutral detergent fiber digestibility (NDFD), starch and fat content. The data were analyzed using a completely randomized statistical design. Results . The forage DMY (dry matter yield) / ha, and the milk production (ton DM / ha) were higher (P <0.0001) for the central region with respect to the northern region. Regarding to the milk production (kg milk/ ha) the native silages produced more (P <0.05) than the hybrids. A positive correlation was observed for the content of NEL (net energy of lactation) (MJ / kg DM) and kg milk / ton DM. Implications . The native maize of Mexico thus has the potential to provide greater production of milk / ha and kg Milk/ per ton DM with respect to hybrid maize, due to the higher digestibility of the NDF that causes the higher NEl. Conclusions. The use of native maize in Mexico is a viable alternative for use as a silage in feed for dairy cows, with higher milk production per hectare and per ton of dry matter compared to hybrid maize.</p
... Feeding grains sourced from faraway places and other ingredients have enabled intensive meat, egg, and milk production systems to develop over the last four decades [1]. Production systems for ruminants and monogastric food animals have become highly capital-intensive and have created many environmental challenges [2]. ...
The production of food animals today requires large amounts of energy, land, chemicals, and water—all of which are becoming increasingly scarce [...]
... Livestock production systems demand high energy inputs, land, chemicals and waterall of which are becoming increasingly scarce (Preston, 2009); thus change and innovation is required in many livestock production systems if they are to meet in a sustainable manner for the present and future demands of animal products. Sustainable animal diet is a concept based on three-P dimensions including the planet, people and profit (Makkar and Ankers, 2014). Distel et al. (2020) suggested the replacement of simple traditional forage by complementary forage species that enable ruminants to select a diet in benefit of their nutrition and health, while reducing the negative environmental impacts caused by agricultural systems. ...
This study aimed to evaluate the effect of replacing jackfruit leaves (JF) for Para grass (PG) on intake, digestibility, nitrogen balance, ruminal fermentation, milk yield and composition in lactating goats. Four crossbred Saanen lactating goats in mid-lactation and milking 1676 ± 112 g/day were used in a 4 × 4 Latin square design. A basal diet consisted of concentrate and PG (C:F 40:60). Treatments were dietary replacement of JL for PG at ratios of 0, 50, 75 and 100% corresponding to JL0, JL50, JL75 and JL100 diets, respectively. Feeding JL increased linearly (P < 0.01) DM intake, but decreased linearly (P < 0.05) nutrient digestibility. A linear increase in fecal N (P < 0.01) and N retention (P = 0.04), but a linear decrease in urinary N (P = 0.03) was detected when increased the JL in the diets. Total VFA concentration increased quadratically (P = 0.04), and the highest value was observed in JL75 compared with JL0 (85.9 vs. 72.8 mM). Milk production increased linearly (P = 0.03), but no change was observed in milk composition and blood urea nitrogen (BUN). Overall, combined data suggest that the substitution of JL for PG in lactating goat diets is effective in the improvement of nutrient intake, N retention, ruminal VFA concentration and milk yield without affecting milk composition and BUN.
... Recent years have witnessed increased research into the use of veterinary medicines in the livestock-production, human-health, and foodsafety fields. A paper published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) proposed the concept of sustainable animal diets that integrate environmental protection, effective use of natural resources, society and culture, production safety, and economics, among others, based on the 3P (people, planet, and profit) sustainable development dimensions, supplemented by specific food ethics (Makkar & Ankers, 2014). Several studies have reported the toxicity and side effects caused by long-term ingestion of residual antibiotics in foodstuffs which threaten health (Zhang et al., 2019). ...
We develop and validate a method for the rapid determination and identification of 19 quinolones in goat’s milk by combining the QuEChERS technique with ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Plackett–Burman and Central Composite Design methods were used to select the parameters that best promote the extraction efficiency, which led to extraction with acetonitrile/5% formic acid, followed by phase separation with sodium citrate, disodium hydrogen citrate, Na2SO4, and NaCl as optimal. The supernatant was then extracted and cleaned by dispersive solid-phase extraction using C18 and Na2SO4 aided by low-temperature clean-up. The method was validated, with limits of quantification (LOQs) of 5 ppb, specificities of 1/5 LOQ, linearities (R²) > 0.9853, recoveries of 73.4–114.2%, repeatabilities < 15.0%, and intermediate precisions < 13.6%. The developed method was suitable for the routine analysis of quinolone residues in goat’s milk and was used to test 10 goat milk samples produced in Taiwan.
... Para Makkar & Ankers (2014), o uso dos modelos matemáticos para adequar o manejo alimentar dos animais também permitem melhorar a sustentabilidade ambiental por minimizar o desmatamento e a poluição do ar pela redução da emissão dos gases de efeito estufa. ...
A implantação dos sistemas agrossilvipastoris no bioma Caatinga é uma alternativa para mitigar os impactos ambientais gerados pela agropecuária. Quando esses sistemas são associados a tecnologias de baixa geração de resíduos podem otimizar a atividade pecuária e reduzir os custos de produção. A modelagem nutricional possibilita uma adequação do status nutricional dos animais e quando aplicada de forma continuada pode reduzir os custos com insumos externos. Com a aplicação do manejo nutricional também pode-se reduzir os processos de superpastejo sobre determinadas espécies e, consequentemente, reduzir os processos de degradação do solo. A espectroscopia de reflectância do infravermelho próximo (NIRS) é uma técnica com alto potencial de análise que possibilita averiguar a qualidade da dieta de animais pastejando em áreas livres a partir da aplicação de modelos nutricionais apropriados. Portanto, as pesquisas para o desenvolvimento de tecnologias limpas como os modelos nutricionais são imprescindíveis para fortalecer a cadeia produtiva e reduzir os impactos ambientais no bioma Caatinga.
... The StAnD (sustainable animal diets) method (Makkar and Ankers, 2014) is a tool that integrates several dimensions of sustainability, including the three P (people, planet, and profitability) dimensions, and gives an overall picture of the current state of a production system. The indicators corresponding to each dimension allow for the detection of specific problems or particular limitations that may be addressed in order to improve the sustainability of the system (Makar and Ankers, 2014;FAO, 2014). ...
Background. Maize cultivation and dairy cattle represent two of the main economic activities in Mexico. Objective. Determine the forage yield (ton / ha) and forage quality of the maize silage produced in Mexico and estimate potential milk production. Methodology. For this purpose, 13 studies carried out in Mexico, were analyzed according to study area (north vs. center of Mexico) and variety (native vs. hybrid). For inclusion in the final database, the studies should have been including agronomic and chemical variables such as: dry matter yield (DMY) (ton / ha), plant density (number of plants / ha), dry matter content (DM), crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), ash or organic matter (OM), dry matter digestibility (DMD), neutral detergent fiber digestibility (NDFD), starch and fat content. The data were analyzed using a completely randomized statistical design. Results. The forage DMY (dry matter yield) / ha, and the milk production (ton DM / ha) were higher (P <0.0001) for the central region with respect to the northern region. Regarding to the milk production (kg milk/ ha) the native silages produced more (P <0.05) than the hybrids. A positive correlation was observed for the content of NEL (net energy of lactation) (MJ / kg DM) and kg milk / ton DM. Implications. The native maize of Mexico thus has the potential to provide greater production of milk / ha and kg Milk/ per ton DM with respect to hybrid maize, due to the higher digestibility of the NDF that causes the higher NEl. Conclusions. The use of native maize in Mexico is a viable alternative for use as a silage in feed for dairy cows, with higher milk production per hectare and per ton of dry matter compared to hybrid maize. RESUMEN Antecedentes. El cultivo de maíz y el ganado lechero representan dos de las principales actividades económicas en México. Objetivo. Determinar el rendimiento del mismo (ton/ha) y la calidad del forraje (ton/ha) del ensilaje de maíz producido en México y estimar la producción potencial de leche. Metodología. Para ello, se analizaron 13 estudios realizados en México y se dividieron según su zona de estudio (norte vs. centro de México) y variedad (nativa vs. híbrida). Para su inclusión en la base de datos final, los estudios debían incluir variables agronómicas y químicas como: rendimiento de materia seca (RMS) (tonelada/ha), densidad de plantas (número de plantas/ha), contenido de materia seca (MS), proteína cruta (PC), fibra detergente neutra (FDN), cenizas o materia orgánica (MO), digestibilidad de la materia seca (DMS), digestibilidad de la fibra detergente neutra (DFDN), contenido de almidón y grasa. Los datos se analizaron mediante un diseño estadístico completamente aleatorio. Resultados. El RMS del forraje/ha, y la producción de leche/ha fueron mayores (P <0.0001) para la región centro con respecto a la región norte. En cuanto a la producción de leche (kg de leche/ha) los ensilados nativos produjeron más (P <0,05) que los híbridos. Se observó una correlación positiva para el contenido de NEL (energía neta de lactancia) (MJ / kg de MS) y kg de leche / tonelada de MS. Implicaciones. El maíz nativo de México tiene, pues, el potencial de proporcionar una mayor producción de leche / ha y por tonelada de MS con respecto al maíz híbrido, posiblemente debido a la mayor digestibilidad de la FND que provoca una mayor NEL. Conclusiones. El uso de maíz nativo en México es una alternativa viable para su uso como ensilaje en la alimentación de vacas lecheras, con mayor producción de leche por hectárea y por tonelada de materia seca en comparación con el maíz híbrido. Palabras clave: Ensilaje de maíz; Forraje; Maíz; Producción de leche;
... In organic and conventional animal production systems, there is increased awareness of using local and sustainable protein sources with low climate and environmental impact (Makkar and Ankers, 2014). Grasses and legumes can potentially be such protein sources due to a long growing season, high dry matter (DM) and protein yield (Houseman and Jones, 1978;Wilkins and Jones, 2000), and with a high content of essential amino acids (Chowdhury et al., 2018). ...
Biorefining is a promising method for sustainable feed production through conversion of biomass into a protein concentrate for monogastrics and fibrous pulp for ruminants. Nitrogen (N) content and recovery in pulp and protein concentrate from lucerne, red clover, white clover, perennial ryegrass and tall fescue harvested at different spring cut harvest times were analysed to assess the effect of plant species, developmental stage and number of screw press processing.
Plant species and spring cut harvest time affected N content of pulps and protein concentrates (P < 0.01). The N contents of the legume pulps and protein concentrates (22.0–43.2 g/kg dry matter (DM) and 52.1–68.9 g/kg DM, respectively) were higher than corresponding values of the grasses (16.4–31.2 and 38.1–58.9 g/kg DM, respectively) and lowest in late harvested pulps (16.4–29.2 g/kg DM). The proportion of N retained in pulp increased with spring cut harvest time (P < 0.01) and was higher in grasses compared to legumes (544.5–715.1 and 334.0–565.2 g/kg plant N, respectively). Plant species and spring cut harvest time affected N recovery in protein concentrate (P < 0.01) and correlated positively with the plant N content (P < 0.01) and negatively with the plant DM (P < 0.01). The legumes had a higher recovery than grasses (160.2–556.2 g/kg plant N and 160.2–335.6 g/kg plant N, respectively). Regardless of plant species, late spring cut harvests reduced the total N extractability, i.e. recovery after application of a two-step extraction procedure, to 342.8–490.9 g/kg plant N (P < 0.01). The largest proportion of N was extracted from the three legumes (458.4–653.8 g/kg plant N), with the lowest extractability in the late spring cut harvest.
The N content and recovery in fractions produced in the biorefining process were dynamic variables influenced by plant species, spring cut harvest time and number of screw press processings. More N was retained in the pulp from late cut grasses whereas the N recovery in protein concentrate was highest in early and intermediate cuts from legumes. The dynamics of N distribution between pulp and protein concentrate highlight the importance of considering input plant species, time of harvest and processing technique in order to enhance recovery and secure efficient utilisation of the biomass as feed for monogastrics and ruminants.
... Sustainable animal diets (StAnD) is a concept based on three dimensions: planet, people and profit, which among other objectives, promotes the use of local feed resources (Makkar and Ankers 2014). In this regard, the use of Brassica species in temperate grazing systems (Seguel et al. 2020) can be an alternative forage source (Barry 2013). ...
The objective of the present study was to determine the dietary effect of different growth stages of rapeseed (Brassica rapa L.) on nutrient intake and digestibility, nitrogen balance, and rumen fermentation kinetics in sheep. Four dietary treatments were utilised. A basal control diet based on alfalfa hay, oat hay, soybean meal and corn grain. Then alfalfa hay was replaced with 300 g/kg DM of rapeseed forage harvested at three different growth stages: Vegetative, Flowering and Pod. In vitro gas production was determined using three rumen cannulated Suffolk sheep in a completely randomised design, and nutrients intake and digestibility of each diet were determined using four Suffolk sheep in a 4 × 4 Latin square design with 21 d periods consisting of 14 d for diet adaptation and 7 d for sample collection. Feed intake and excretion of faeces and urine were recorded. Dry matter intake was higher for control and Pod compared to Vegetative and Flowering. The digestibility of dry matter, organic matter, neutral detergent fibre and acid detergent fibre were similar among treatments. Nitrogen intake was higher for control and Pod and lower for Vegetative and Flowering. In vitro gas production was similar among treatments (P > .05). In vitro gas yield at 24 h was higher (P < .05) for control than the rest of the treatments. Overall, inclusion of 300 g/kg DM of rapeseed forage harvested at pod stage as a substitute for alfalfa hay is an alternative source of protein without affecting nutrient intake and digestibility.
• Highlights
• Effect of different growth stages of rapeseed on nutrient intake and digestibility was determined
• Nutrient digestibility was similar between growth stages of rapeseed
• In vitro gas production was similar between growth stages of rapeseed
... According to Makkar (2016), the increased demand for animal-derived supplies will require energy, water and land to be available; as an outcome, this will be a challenge, because it involves all three pillars of sustainability which are the planet care, profit concern and human beings. Society wants safe products and reasonable prices, that simultaneously helps the environment, and maintains biodiversity (Makkar and Ankers, 2014). ...
The demand for food is expected to grow substantially in the next few years; however, to feed the human population adequately it is necessary to ensure global food production. Undoubtedly this will lead to a higher protein requirement, consequently more meat. Therefore, producers, animal researchers and feed manufacturers will need to enhance animal nutrition and productivity, for instance. Growth Promoters (GPs) are widely used to accomplish these needs, and minimise economic losses. Thereby, this review aims to report the current scientific data on the use of GPs in cattle and pig production, and their effect on meat quality and carcass traits, and possible impacts on animal health. It was noted that GPs have relevant benefits on carcass composition, although some minor negative effects on meat quality. Risks to animal health are low, given the correct GPs dosages must be administered.
... Sustainable animal diets are needed to reduce N and P excretion, diminish methane emissions, and improve environmental sustainability of livestock production (Makkar and Ankers, 2014). Increasing N efficiency in dairy cows without loss of milk yield is best achieved by minimizing the total amount of CP fed to the animal while supplying adequate metabolizable AA (Broderick, 2003;Reynolds et al., 2018). ...
Eight lactating cows were fed 4 diets in which dietary crude protein (CP) was increased in steps of approximately 2 percentage units from 11 to 17% of DM by replacing high-moisture corn with soybean meal supplemented with rumen-protected Met to maintain a Lys: Met ratio of 3:1 in metabolizable protein. Trial design was a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square; experimental periods lasted 28 d, with data and sample collection being performed during wk 3 and 4 of each period. Digesta samples were collected from the rumen as well as the omasum to measure metabolite concentrations and ruminal outflow of N fractions using infusion of 15 N-enriched ammonia to quantify microbial nonammonia N (NAN) and nonmicrobial NAN. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS (SAS Institute Inc.). There were linear increases in the yields of milk and true protein and concentration of milk urea N, and a linear decrease in N efficiency, with increasing dietary CP. Apparent ruminal and total-tract N digestibility increased linearly with increasing dietary CP, but estimated true total-tract N digestibility was not affected. Apparent digestibility of the other macronutrients was not influenced by diet. Ruminal ammonia, total AA and peptides, and branched-chain VFA also increased linearly with dietary CP. The 15 N enrichment of liquid-and particle-associated microbes linearly declined with increasing dietary CP due to decreasing 15 N enrichment of the ammonia pool. Although no effect of dietary CP on nonmicrobial NAN flow was detected, total NAN flow increased linearly from 525 g/d at 11% CP to 637 g/d at 17% CP due to the linear increase in microbial NAN flow from 406 g/d at 11% CP to 482 g/d at 17% CP. Under the conditions of this study, when dietary CP was increased by adding soybean meal supplemented with rumen-protected Met, improved milk and protein yields were driven not by RUP supply but by increased ruminal outflow of microbial protein.
... Intensification of the global meat industry has stimulated innovation in the animal feed sector. Advances in feed technology strive towards intensification through a reduction in feed conversion ratio (FCR), greater energy and nutrient utilization, improved animal welfare and environmental sustainability, reduction in endogenous grain anti-nutrients, and optimization of costs (Makkar and Ankers, 2014). Using poultry production as a specific example, the yield of chicken meat (with Australia as a model market) has exponentially increased from the 1970s until today where it has begun to level off (Supplementary Figure S1). ...
Modern feed quality sorghum grain has been bred to reduce anti-nutrients, most conspicuously condensed tannins, but its inclusion in the diets of monogastric animals can still result in variable performance that is only partially understood. Sorghum grain contains several negative intrinsic factors, including non-tannin phenolics and polyphenols, phytate, and kafirin protein, which may be responsible for these muted feed performances. To better understand the non-tannin phenolic and polyphenolic metabolites that may have negative effects on nutritional parameters, the chemical composition of sorghum grain polyphenol extracts from three commercial varieties (MR-Buster, Cracka, and Liberty) was determined through the use of an under-studied, alternative analytical approach involving Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and direct ionization mass spectrometry. Supervised analyses and interrogation of the data contributing to variation resulted in the identification of a variety of metabolites, including established polyphenols, lignin-like anti-nutrients, and complex sugars, as well as high levels of fatty acids which could contribute to nutritional variation and underperformance in monogastrics. FT-IR and mass spectrometry could both discriminate among the different sorghum varieties indicating that FT-IR, rather than more sophisticated chromatographic and mass spectrometric methods, could be incorporated into quality control applications.
... However, its composition is affected by the diet supplied and the incorporation of food additives (antibiotics or other growth promoters) to improve the productive parameters on the farm, causing alterations that favor the development of pathogens such as C. perfringens. Currently, there is a trend to replace the use of antibiotics with what is known as sustainable animal diets [18]. ...
Simple Summary
Clostridium perfringens (Cp.) is an important microorganism from a clinical, food and veterinary point of view. In humans, it is the causal agent of foodborne diseases, commonly associated with the consumption of chicken meat, while, in broilers, it causes clinical or subclinical necrotic enteritis. Cp. has the ability to synthesize toxins, bacteriocins, and enzymes of different nature, which modify the anatomical structure of the intestinal mucosa, enterocytes, and the cellular matrix altering the physiological activities of the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in gastrointestinal disorders, diarrhea, and if it is not attended, death, resulting in significant economic losses for the poultry industry. Food additives such as probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, essential oils, organic acids, and enzymes have been presented as alternatives to mitigate the incidence of necrotic enteritis (NE) in broilers, by improving the overall intestinal health and producing healthy birds for consumption. It is imperative to conduct further research on alternatives and efficient products to modulate the intestinal microbiota, and to know the role they play in the immune system, complementing the current demand, economic gain, and keeping the ecology.
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens (Cp.) is the cause of human foodborne desease. Meat and poultry products are identified as the main source of infection for humans. Cp. can be found in poultry litter, feces, soil, dust, and healthy birds’ intestinal contents. Cp. strains are known to secrete over 20 identified toxins and enzymes that could potentially be the principal virulence factors, capable of degrading mucin, affecting enterocytes, and the small intestine epithelium, involved in necrotic enteritis (NE) pathophysiology, also leading to immunological responses, microbiota modification and anatomical changes. Different environmental and dietary factors can determine the colonization of this microorganism. It has been observed that the incidence of Cp-associated to NE in broilers has increased in countries that have stopped using antibiotic growth promoters. Since the banning of such antibiotic growth promoters, several strategies for Cp. control have been proposed, including dietary modifications, probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, phytogenics, organic acids, and vaccines. However, there are aspects of the pathology that still need to be clarified to establish better actions to control and prevention. This paper reviews the current knowledge about Cp. as foodborne pathogen, the pathophysiology of NE, and recent findings on potential strategies for its control.
... Much attention has been paid to this topic in Mediterranean and arid or semi-arid countries (e.g., Abarghuei et al., 2014;Correddu et al., 2015;Razzaghi et al., 2015), where local feed resources rich in polyphenols (e.g., bushes, spontaneous plants or agricultural byproducts) are used as non-conventional ingredients in ruminant diets. Nevertheless, based on the increasing world population, land degradation and food-fuel-feed competition, the use of alternative feed resources should be of interest at a global level (Makkar and Ankers, 2014). ...
Tannins are a large, diverse and complex group of phenolic compounds that may be detrimental, innocuous or beneficial to animal nutrition and health depending on a number of factors (e.g., type, amount ingested, consumer animal species or the basal diet). The ability of tannins to modulate ruminal biohydrogenation and, consequently, the fatty acid (FA) composition of milk and meat is a relatively recent finding that has attracted interest among ruminant nutritionists. In this review, we take a close look at the effects of tannins on the broadest possible range of FA, including less abundant compounds that have previously received little attention. Tannins are able to improve the concentrations of potentially beneficial FA, such as 18:3n-3, 18:2n-6, trans-11 18:1 and conjugated linoleic and linolenic acids, both in milk and meat, which may contribute to meeting consumer demand for health-promoting foods. These positive responses to tannins can be explained by their modulatory action on specific biohydrogenation steps and pathways. Thus, higher contents of dietary polyunsaturated FA in ruminant-derived products, as well as increased or decreased accumulation of other biohydrogenation intermediates (e.g., cis and trans 18:3, 18:2 and 18:1 isomers) and changes in lipids of bacterial origin (odd- and branched-chain FA and dimethylacetals), are somewhat common findings when the effects of tannins are examined. In contrast, de novo synthesized FA are less frequently affected by these plant secondary metabolites, which also applies to other FA (e.g., trans-10 18:1) that might be detrimental to animal performance (i.e., milk fat synthesis) and perhaps to human health. However, further studies are required to unravel the reasons for certain erratic responses to tannins. This paper reviews the roles of tannin chemical and structural diversity, dosage, interaction with other dietary ingredients, differences among ruminant species and variations over time in the reaction of rumen microbiota in the influences of these phenolic compounds on milk and meat FA profiles.
... Establish feed inventory There is a famous management quote: "If you cannot measure it, you cannot manage it." Information on available and accessible feed resources (both quantity and quality), as well as on their seasonal fluctuations and location, is paramount for policy and decision making [13]. This information is crucial for sourcing feed for an emergency response, as well as for feed resources management and utilization, developing business models, sustainable intensification, market-oriented fattening, and dairy and poultry production. ...
Livestock are a crucial source of food, employment, and income for much of East Africa’s rural population. The sector contributes substantially to export revenues, national GDPs, and thus the region’s broader socioeconomic development. Livestock production and related value chains, can be the foundation of resilience and
sustainable development for pastoral, agro-pastoral, and mixed
crop livestock systems in East Africa. Yet, livestock face a wide range of challenges, particularly in terms of ensuring sustainable access to and use of water and feeds for livestock. Inadequate availability and supply of quality feed and water critically limit the efficiency of livestock in terms of production, reproduction, animal health and welfare, human health, and the economic benefits derived from livestock-based livelihoods in the region. Countries in East Africa identified lack of animal feed policy, strategy, and institutional framework to support the animal feed sector as a major constraint hindering subsector growth, livestock productivity, resilience, and trade. In order to address this, the first Animal Feed Action Plan was developed for East Africa through a consultative and participatory process. The Action Plan captures experiences and lessons learned by a wide spectrum of stakeholders. It provides a means to collectively address some of the constraints in
accessing and using animal feed and provides a guided approach to establish partnership by countries, communities, the private sector, and stakeholders to enhance sustainable production of quality
livestock and products. The Action Plan is believed to set a good example for other regions to develop their feed action plan.
... Table 1 Commonly used plant wastes and by-products as feed additives or ingredients in the animal feed industry This review discusses and summarizes the potential use of common fruit and plant wastes and by-products as feed additives for aquaculture. In a recent survey conducted by FAO, the various stakeholders and industry players placed high priority on the use of food wastes as animal feed (Makkar & Ankers 2014). Hence, the challenges and opportunities in effectively utilizing these valuable feed additives in the context of good health and optimum growth performance in aquaculture are also discussed. ...
Fish constitutes the fastest growing source of food in the world today. The shift in culture system of some countries from extensive to semi-and intensive farming of fish requires the provision of nutritionally-adequate feeds for the cultured stock. There is also a need to provide additives that will boost health and growth performance of the fish in intensive rearing environment. There are a number of feed additives that are available to improve fish health and growth but these are costly and have issues on leaving residues that pose public health risk and environmental contamination. An alternative approach is to use plant-based products as feed additives for aquaculture, and even better is to utilize plant waste products as sources of these beneficial feed additives. The presence of biologically active ingredients from these plant waste products could be one of the most promising alternatives to the use of synthetic feed additives or antibiotics in aquaculture. The utilization of plant and fruit wastes are of particular interest because this addresses issues on waste recycling, waste reduction as well as competition for human food. These waste materials are recycled by being utilized as raw materials for the production of feed additives; thus, they are brought back to the food chain. Because the sources of the feed additives are waste materials from plants and fruits, the production of these phytogenic feed additives no longer competes as sources of food for human consumption. This review discusses and summarizes the potential use of common fruit and plant wastes and by-products as feed additives for aquaculture. The challenges and opportunities on how to effectively utilize these unwanted yet valuable resources in the context of good health and optimum growth performance of fish and crustaceans are also discussed. The information that is provided will offer avenues for further research along this area and to enable the feed industry to utilize these resources in achieving production of healthy fish and crustaceans towards sustainable aquaculture.
... This may mean that various negative impacts of such activities of the sectors, including on productivity, reproductive efficiency, environment including biodiversity, land degradation and land-use change, animal welfare and health, food-fuel-feed competition, product safety and quality, among others will be the consequences [53]. In an actual fact, [54] had proposed a systematic framework to enhancing livestock production sustainability by integrating the Three-P dimensions of sustainability. The Three-P dimensions, Planet, People and Profit, inter alia, have been used to describe the term, implying ecological soundness, social equity and economic growth and also the ethical dimension. ...
Development of livestock production in many parts of the world has shown to be growing more towards an industrialised type of farm animal rearing operations. These involve raising farm animals in densely populated environment, commonly termed as a factory livestock farming. Such an operation is actually aimed at yielding a very large scale of farm animal products by means of intensification in animal rearing systems. This is becoming a global trend in practicing farm animal productions nowadays. The transformation of livestock production from a family small scale animal husbandry to a large scale of corporate business has been mainly driven by three major interrelated factors, these are i ) a prediction on a rapid world‘s human population growth, ii ) demographic factors, particularly age structure and urbanization, and iii ) socio-economic status improvement. The total world‘s population has been estimated to reach 9.1 billion in 2050, where 70 percent of rural inhabitants are going to shift mostly living in urban areas and with their better incomes than previously earned and are also predicted to increase by 2 percent annually. Indications in changing urban lifestyle has then been shown affecting on shifted food consumption patterns more to semi-processed and/or pre-prepared-ready to eat foods of which their main component deriving from livestock product origin. As the trend has been commonly shown in many urban areas, where their working hours are becoming longer than there used to be. In an actual fact, that has been happening for the last two decades, particularly in regions used to be identified as developing countries, such as in Southeast Asia, Sub Saharan Africa, West Asia and North Africa. Consequently, an increase rate in meat consumption has been estimated at over 4 percent per annum. Moreover, that change has become a sequential driving factor for the rapid growth in the meat production sector. As higher consumer preference in chicken meat than that in other types, global broiler production is holding supremacy over the other meat complex. A special highlight on Brunei Darussalam poultry industry development will also be addressed here, particularly to focusing on an industry dynamic based on data posted in country‘s agricultural statistics for the year of 2013 [1]. At that time when the country was reported to fulfil its self-sufficiency in chicken meat with a consumption per capita per year reached 58.5 kg. The figure was accounted as being the second highest chicken meat consumption per capita per year in the world after Hong Kong. In line with the global trend in livestock production, continuous growing demands for the products had also led to intensification in livestock farming in the Southeast Asia region. As far as the factory livestock farming as has gone more common operations up to now, and yet there might have been more and more questionable arguments over negative impacts arising, particularly in regards to animal welfare, human health and environmental degradations will be seemingly left hard to answer as most vast scientific empirical assessments required, nonetheless the matter may only open for discussions.
... Unavailability of feed in Ethiopia is primarily due to an inefficient feed sector, low levels of infrastructure, competition for the feed between livestock in the highlands and pastoral areas, and the reduced availability of rangelands for pasture due to an increase in human population, and as a result, conversion of pasture lands to croplands. During the last decade, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has developed a concept of sustainable animal diets, which integrates the importance of efficient use of natural resources, protection of the environment, socio-cultural benefits along with ethical considerations (Makkar and Ankers, 2014). It has also promoted a number of feed and feeding strategies to address the feed shortages (Makkar, 2016b). ...
In countries across the Horn of Africa and in many other parts of the world, the lack of feed inflicts major adverse effects on livestock during times of drought. This has been identified as a major problem by development agencies, NGOs, researchers and extension workers alike, and one which must be addressed urgently. This article discusses and prioritises feeding strategies, which can be used under emergencies in dry areas.
... Examples include reductions in antibiotic use and the increasing demand for new feed additives, such as probiotics and prebiotics, to enhance animal immune systems and health (Roembke, 2018). A review of the views of key stakeholders by Makkar and Anker (2014) has identified three dimensions of sustainable animal diets (economic, environmental and social). These diets need to provide economically viable animal products which are affordable and safe for consumers, and which use natural resources efficiently and minimize pollution. ...
... However, reduced availability, high cost and environmental implications of exploiting these resources represent major constraints to achieving optimal production, especially for smallholder producers in the developing countries [17][18][19][20][21]. In view of the above concerns, researchers, policy makers, private and public institutions including the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) have called for diversification and innovation towards sustainable feed protein sources such as edible insects [22][23][24]. ...
Edible insects are increasingly being considered as sustainable alternatives to fish and soybean meals in animal feed because of their high nutritional quality and environmental benefits. However, successful introduction of a new product to the market depends on the target user’s acceptance. Thus, evaluating the potential demand of insect-based feeds would provide relevant information for policy development. The present study assessed farmers’ knowledge on edible insects as feed, their acceptance of integrating insect meals in animal feeds and willingness to pay (WTP) for insect-based feed (IBF) using a contingent valuation method. A household survey was conducted among 957 randomly selected farmers including: 409 poultry, 241 fish and 307 pig farmers in four counties in Kenya. Results of the study reveal that over 70 and 80% of poultry and fish farmers, respectively, are aware that insects can be used as a feed ingredient. In addition, over 60 and 75% of poultry and fish farmers, respectively, consider insects as a good component of feed. Poultry, pig and fish farmers interviewed accepted and showed willingness to pay for IBF. Regression analysis indicated that age, gender, education, marital status, distance to feed trader, awareness of insects as feed, attitude towards insects, acceptance of insect species, availability of agricultural inputs, use of commercial feeds, availability of training and market information had a significant influence on the WTP for IBF. Therefore, increased extension services to educate famers on the nutritional benefits of insect meals in animal feeds and existing market opportunities are expected to improve farmers’ attitude towards utilization and consequently enhance WTP for IBF, which in return would significantly reduce the existing pressure on conventional fishmeal feed resources. Our findings provide the first insights into the market opportunities of including insect meals in the animal feed value chain in Kenya.
... The primary purpose of the database will be to integrate activities of various cattle development interventions to encourage coherent adoption of technologies. At the same time, a more coordinated delivery of interventions will address the current challenges where conflicting interests of various programs might confuse the recipients (Makkar and Ankers 2014). The management database could also save as a monitoring and evaluation tool for the cattle development programs. ...
Efforts to exploit the central roles of cattle to drive agriculture and rural development in low-income countries recorded limited success owing to their narrow focus on modernizing and commercializing low-input cattle farming. Most programs failed to take cognizance of the heterogeneous range of complex relationships between the environmental, economic, social and institutional challenges that limit low-input cattle farming. The current qualitative literature review evaluates the environmental, economic and social sustainability delivery impacts of the leading cattle development programs in the low-input farming sector in South Africa using a holistic systems approach. A mixed method procedure involving stratified sampling was used to allocate local and international-based programs while, purposive sampling was used to select programs with a wider scale of operation. The review then draws on the crosscutting key constraints emerging from the case studies to provide a better grounding for subsequent sustainability sensitive recommendations. Local-based cattle development programs advanced more market-led interventions while, their international-based counterparts had more interventions including, soil and rangeland improvement. The narrow focus by both local and international developmental programs is inadequate to address a wide array of environmental, economic, social, technical and institutional challenges faced by low-input cattle producers in South Africa.
Sustainability is the balancing act of optimizing the use of current resources without compromising the current or future environment. Within the agriculture sector the primary focus of sustainability has been to reduce environmental pollution, specifically greenhouse gasses (GHG) emissions, nitrogen emissions, and leaching. For the equine industry the first step towards sustainability is the documentation and critique of current feeding and management practices to permit modifications to enable the industry meet social and legislative obligations. As a monogastric hindgut fermenter on a per kg bodyweight basis the horse has relatively lower GHG emissions compared to ruminants. However, there are several opportunities to further reduce the environmental impact of the equine industry. The majority of these relate to subtle changes, or consideration of, improving feed conversion, using alternative ingredients and management of fecal material associated with intensive husbandry. To initiate the journey towards sustainability this review documents opportunities with current equine feeding and management practices to reduce the environmental impacts of the equine industry.
Duckweeds are fast-growing and nutritious plants, which are gaining increased attention in different fields of application. Especially for animal nutrition, alternative protein sources are needed to substitute soybean meal. The current bottleneck is the standardized production of biomass, which yields stable quantities of a defined product quality. To solve this problem, an indoor vertical farm (IVF) for duckweed biomass production was developed. It consists of nine vertically stacked basins with a total production area of 25.5 m2. The nutrient solution, a modified N-medium, re-circulated within the IVF with a maximum flow rate of 10 L min−1. Nutrients were automatically added based on electrical conductivity. In contrast, ammonium was continuously supplied. A water temperature of 23 °C and a light intensity of 105 μmol m−2 s−1 with a photoperiod of 12:12 h were applied. During a 40-day production phase, a total of 35.6 kg of fresh duckweed biomass (equals 2.1 kg of dried product) was harvested from the IVF. On average, 0.9 kg day−1 of fresh biomass was produced. The dried product contained 32% crude protein (CP) and high levels of proteinogenic amino acids (e.g. lysine: 5.42 g, threonine: 3.85 g and leucine: 7.59 g/100 g CP). Biomass of this quality could be used as a protein feed alternative to soybean meal. The described IVF represents a modular model system for duckweed biomass production in a controlled environment and further innovations and upscaling processes.
Growing population and rising incomes are leading to an ever-increasing demand for animal-based foods. Pigmeat is currently the most consumed meat globally, even exceeding the consumption of poultry meat. Despite the disproportionate environmental burden of animal production – mostly attributable to associated feed demand, up-to-date country-scale quantifications of the land and water impacts of the concentrate feed (mainly cereals and soybean) and co-products required to support pig production are still missing. In addition, the specific role that international feed trade plays in separating resource use from consumption and in altering resource use efficiencies remains unclear. This paper analyses at a country-scale the internal and external consumption of natural resources (i.e., land and water) to support pig feed production in 2018. Combining data on the country- and production system-specific diets and crop-specific yields with an agro-hydrological model, we find that 64.1 Mha of agricultural land (5% of all croplands) and 332.6 km3 of water (both green and blue) (6% of all agricultural water use) were utilized by China, EU-27 and the United States (accounting for 70% of pigmeat production) to produce pig feed alone. Comparing domestic feed production scenarios with those that also consider the feed trade, we show that global resource consumption tends to be more efficient when considering international feed trade, especially in China and EU-27, while sometimes causing significant environmental impacts. This demonstrates the need to investigate the environmental effects of pig feed associated both with the domestic use of natural resources, but also to the ones displaced by international trade.
Food waste (FW) reutilization as animal feed can alleviate both the burden posed by FW disposal as well as that of food insecurity. Studies on the incorporation of catering waste (CW) in swine and poultry diets have provided promising results in regard to animal performance and quality of derived products. However, disease concerns have led to the prohibition of the above-mentioned practice in the European Union (EU). It is necessary that biological, chemical and physical hazards in CW are examined and controlled. The risk of biological hazards such as exotic viruses posed by feeding CW to animals can primarily be reduced by processing of CW prior to feeding, preventing cross-contamination between raw and processed CW, and separating animal materials in CW based on animal species, as they are considered important risk factors. For the minimization of biological hazards in CW, hydrothermal treatment, extrusion, heat treatment, fermentation and solar drying resulted in considerably reduced concentrations of hygiene indicators in the studies examined, while pathogenic microorganisms were not detected in most cases. Chemical hazards in CW include but are not limited to heavy metals the concentrations of which can be controlled at low levels through risk analysis and sampling. Physical hazards in CW including, but not limited to, paper, metal and plastic are separated manually and/or mechanically. Spoilage of CW has been little studied and one study suggests that community structures in CW which is composed of the same food constituents vary when it is collected from different locations. Furthermore, biogenic amines are associated with spoilage and may affect animal health and performance. Lipid peroxidation is another issue that should be limited through measures such as adding antioxidants in the diet and lowering exposure of CW to heat during thermal processing. Salt content of CW is elevated and this should be taken into account during feed formulation. Processing of FW is essential to substantially decrease the risk of animal diseases transmission.
La investigación en la producción agropecuaria no es tan solo una necesidad, en nuestros días se busca que el conocimiento generado este enfocado en producir mayor cantidad de alimentos y que estos sean producidos en condiciones inocuas y sustentables para un constante crecimiento demográfico. Esta obra trata de difundir la investigación que se realiza principalmente en la cuenca del Papaloapan y otras regiones tropicales y no tropicales del país, en varias áreas del quehacer
productivo primario. Las temáticas expuestas presentan varias vertientes en el trabajo de investigadores y técnicos que abordan temas desde técnicas sofisticas en laboratorio hasta estudios llevados en campo y agricultura protegida. Las cuales pueden tomarse como
referencia para futuras investigaciones y algunos tópicos puedan ser empleados desde cualquier punto de vista por productores regionales, investigadores y estudiantes del área agropecuaria.
Globally, approximately one-third of food produced for human consumption is lost or discarded, comprising 1. 3 billion tons annually. Factors contributing to food waste from the food manufacturer to the consumer level are numerous. Events that may result in food waste include, but are not limited to, manufacturing food by-products, improper handling within the supply chain (e.g., cold chain deviations), misunderstood food date labels, over-purchasing, and consumer-level temperature abuse. From the manufacturer to consumer, each node in the food supply requires concerted efforts to divert food waste from entering municipal landfills. Depending on the state of the food waste, it is diverted to various outlets, from food donation for consumption to composting for soil amendment. To better understand the opportunities in the United States to divert food waste from landfills, current and emerging federal policies as well as the causes of food waste generation must be understood. Unfortunately, information on both the composition of food waste in the U.S. and how it impacts critical factors in food waste treatment, especially in food waste composting, is limited. Specifically, this review aims to: (1) discuss and compare critical factors that impact the fate of food waste and (2) examine emerging opportunities to advance the processing and products of food waste.
In the current scenario, great emphasis is being made on the recovery, recycling, and reconditioning of organic solid waste. With a focus on the bioconversion of organic waste into value-added products, municipal vegetable waste was fractionated into liquid and solid part. The solid fraction was subjected to biodegradation in the presence of different microbial consortia and different enzymes were extracted. The remaining solid stuff was converted into animal feed, followed by the evaluation of its microbiological and chemical indices. Liquid fraction separated from waste was used as a crude medium to grow different bio-fertilizer strains. Among the three consortia, consortium C (Aspergillus terreus and Myrothecium verrucaria) showed the maximum production of amylase, cellulase, xylanase and pectinase after 4 days. Results of the microbiological and chemical parameters of the animal feed prepared from the fermented vegetable waste showed that the various parameters were found to be within the permissible limit. The average concentrations of heavy metals in the compost was found to be within the permissible limit of FCO standard, therefore, it can also be used for agricultural application. For using liquid extract of the vegetable waste, maximum CFU count 1.9 × 10⁶, 1.1 × 10⁶, and 8.7 × 105 was achieved in BAB 1980, BAB 662, and BAB 267 strain, respectively after 30 h of incubation. Thus, the present study demonstrated the bioconversion of vegetable waste into crude enzymes, animal feed, compost, and liquid biofertilizer.
Pig, poultry and fish farming are among the fastest growing agribusiness activities in East Africa, but high cost of major feed protein ingredients including fishmeal hampers profitability and growth of smallholder production. Interest in insects as an alternative nutrient source is growing. Black soldier fly (BSF) Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) is the most common insect species reared for animal feed. BSF larvae are able to exploit a wide variety of rearing substrates, including organic side streams, thus upgrading low-grade substrates into a high-quality protein source; BSF is not considered as a pest or vector of diseases and does not constitute a nuisance. These attributes make it an attractive insect species for mass production as sustainable and affordable feed ingredient. This thesis explores the potential of BSF as a novel feed ingredient in Kenya. The need to establish an insect-based feed sector has become important, but for insect-based feed to make a substantial contribution in substituting the conventional protein-rich fishmeal and soybean meal, large quantities of insect biomass are required, which makes insect mass rearing an inevitable step. Therefore, knowledge on sources of substrates for rearing BSF larvae, suitability of insect meal as feed ingredient, as well as acceptance and demand by end users is necessary for a sustainable insect-based feed sector. Promoting inclusive business for smallholder farmers through insect farming in an agribusiness value chain has been discussed. Farmers’ knowledge and willingness to pay for insect-based feed have been assessed. Larvae of BSF have been reared on agro-industrial by-products composed of brewers’ spent grains (BSGs), brewer’s yeast and cane molasses, their nutritional composition assessed, and have subsequently been fed to pigs. The results show that farmers are aware of insects as feed and are willing to use insect-based feed. BSGs are suitable for rearing larvae of BSF and supplementing BSGs with brewer’s yeast or molasses affects the crude protein or fat content of the larvae, respectively. Fishmeal has been replaced up to 100% with BSF larvae in feeds for growing and finishing pigs, demonstrating that these larvae are a suitable and affordable alternative to fishmeal with a beneficial return on investment, growth, carcass and nutritional quality of edible pork by-products. The study described in this thesis provides valuable insights into the suitability of combining different agro-industrial by-products for producing high-quality BSF larvae. These results are relevant to animal feed producers seeking to include insect meal in their feed formulae, to smallholder BSF farmers that either generate a circular production on-farm or sell BSF to feed millers. Finally this contributes to sustainable and economically viable livestock feeding systems.
Simple Summary
There is a historical link between co/by-products and animal feed, however innovative options are now available. Adopting the principles of the circular economy guarantees further progress for the food–feed chain. By-products and biomasses, such as former foodstuffs or plant by-products (PBPs) from the food processing industries, could be recycled as feedstuff for farms. This review focuses on the biomass derived from the processing of vegetables, and in particular on fresh-cut leafy salad crops as potential ruminant feedstuff. The chemical composition of this class of PBPs makes them comparable to other traditional feeds, such as fresh forage, and suggests that they could be considered for ruminant nutrition. Although at a very early stage, the potential of this new biomass seems high. These products can be used to reduce the environmental impact of both the food and livestock sectors.
Abstract
The world’s population is growing rapidly, which means that the environmental impact of food production needs to be reduced and that food should be considered as something precious and not wasted. Moreover, an urgent challenge facing the planet is the competition between the food produced for humans and the feed for animals. There are various solutions such as the use of plant/vegetable by-products (PBPs) and former foodstuffs, which are the co/by-products of processing industries, or the food losses generated by the food production chain for human consumption. This paper reviews the by-co-products derived from the transformation of fresh-cut leafy salad crops. A preliminary nutritional evaluation of these materials is thus proposed. Based on their composition and nutritional features, in some cases similar to fresh forage and grasses, this biomass seems to be a suitable feedstuff for selected farm animals, such as ruminants. In conclusion, although the present data are not exhaustive and further studies are needed to weigh up the possible advantages and disadvantages of these materials, fresh-cut leafy salad crops represent a potential unconventional feed ingredient that could help in exploiting the circular economy in livestock production, thereby improving sustainability.
Agroecology involves various approaches to solve actual challenges of agricultural production. Though agroecology initially dealt primarily with crop production and protection aspects, in recent decades new dimensions such as environmental, social, economic, ethical and development issues are becoming relevant. Today, the term 'agroecology' means either a scientific discipline, agricultural practice, or political or social movement. Here we study the different meanings of agroecology. For that we analyse the historical development of agroecology. We present examples from USA, Brazil, Germany, and France. We study and discuss the evolution of different meanings agroecology. The use of the term agroecology can be traced back to the 1930s. Until the 1960s agroecology referred only as a purely scientific discipline. Then, different branches of agroecology developed. Following environmental movements in the 1960s that went against industrial agriculture, agroecology evolved and fostered agroecological movements in the 1990s. Agroecology as an agricultural practice emerged in the 1980s, and was often intertwined with movements. Further, the scales and dimensions of agroecological investigations changed over the past 80 years from the plot and field scales to the farm and agroecosystem scales. Actually three approaches persist: ( 1) investigations at plot and field scales, ( 2) investigations at the agroecosystem and farm scales, and ( 3) investigations covering the whole food system. These different approaches of agroecological science can be explained by the history of nations. In France, agroecology was mainly understood as a farming practice and to certain extent as a movement, whereas the corresponding scientific discipline was agronomy. In Germany, agroecology has a long tradition as a scientific discipline. In the USA and in Brazil all three interpretations of agroecology occur, albeit with a predominance of agroecology as a science in the USA and a stronger emphasis on movement and agricultural practice in Brazil. These varied meanings of the term agroecology cause confusion among scientists and the public, and we recommend that those who publish using this term be explicit in their interpretation.
This book with eighteen chapters draws together themes on sustainability that have emerged as the most pressing in recent years. The book addresses practical topics such as air quality, manure management, animal feeds, production efficiency, environmental sustainability, biotechnology issues, animal welfare concerns, societal impacts and an analysis of the data used to assess the economic sustainability of farms. Further, the book will be helpful to academics, researchers, animal scientists, farmers agriculturalists, environmentalists.
Pastoralism is defined by a specialization to take advantage of the characteristic instability of rangeland environments. Through strategic mobility, pastoralism finds an asset in the existence of dynamic variability in the drylands, where sedentary agriculture or mixed farming find a problem in their lack of uniformity and stability. It is crucial to distinguish between the vulnerability that is the business of pastoral systems to manage and the vulnerability that arises from obstacles to operate the system. Unless investments are shifted from replacing pastoralism to developing pastoralism on its own terms, we risk jeopardizing food security well beyond the limits of the drylands, and we risk missing pastoralism’s important lesson on turning environmen- tal instability into an asset for food production.
The influence of feed evaluation system and type of forage in the rations for three, eight and twelve months old goats optimized through minimum cost linear programming was studied. The rations included one of three forages (lucerne hay, oat hay or cereal straw). The energy and protein supply and requirements were derived according to NRC (2007) or INRA (2007). The calculated energy intake and the cost of the rations were different between the systems, whereas there were no differences in the calculated intake of protein, forage and concentrate. Cereal straw and oat hay rations were the most cost-effective (P<0.05) regardless of the age group or the system used. It was concluded that the choice between NRC (2007) and INRA (2007) to formulate rations for young growing dairy goats through minimum cost linear programming is not relevant from both nutritional and economic points of view. Oat hay and cereal straw could be valid substitutes for lucerne hay as roughage source when designing rations for young growing dairy goats.
A 60-70% increase in consumption of animal products is expected by 2050. This increase in the consumption will demand enormous resources, the feed being the most challenging because of the limited availability of natural resources, ongoing climatic changes and food-feed-fuel competition. The costs of conventional feed resources such as soymeal and fishmeal are very high and moreover their availability in the future will be limited. Insect rearing could be a part of the solutions. Although some studies have been conducted on evaluation of insects, insect larvae or insect meals as an ingredient in the diets of some animal species, this field is in infancy. Here we collate, synthesize and discuss the available information on five major insect species studied with respect to evaluation of their products as animal feed. The nutritional quality of black soldier fly larvae, the house fly maggots, mealworm, locusts-grasshoppers-crickets, and silkworm meal and their use as a replacement of soymeal and fishmeal in the diets of poultry, pigs, fish species and ruminants are discussed. The crude protein contents of these alternate resources are high: 42 to 63% and so are the lipid contents (up to 36% oil), which could possibly be extracted and used for various applications including biodiesel production. Unsaturated fatty acid concentrations are high in housefly maggot meal, mealworm and house cricket (60-70%), while their concentrations in black soldier fly larvae are lowest (19-37%). The studies have confirmed that palatability of these alternate feeds to animals is good and they can replace 25 to 100% of soymeal or fishmeal depending on the animal species. Except silkworm meal other insect meals are deficient in methionine and lysine and their supplementation in the diet can enhance both the performance of the animals and the soymeal and fishmeal replacement rates. Most insect meals are deficient in Ca and its supplementation in the diet is also required, especially for growing animals and laying hens. The levels of Ca and fatty acids in insect meals can be enhanced by manipulation of the substrate on which insects are reared. The paper also presents future areas of research. The information synthesized is expected to open new avenues for a large scale use of insect products as animal feed.
The silvopastoral system (SPS) has been suggested to ensure sustainability in animal production systems in tropical ecosystems. The objective of this study was to evaluate pasture characteristics, herbage intake, grazing activity and milk yield of Holstein×Zebu cows managed in two grazing systems (treatments): SPS dominated by a graminaceous forage (Brachiaria decumbens) intercropped with different leguminous herbaceous forages (Stylosanthes spp., Pueraria phaseoloides and Calopogonium mucunoides) and legume trees (Acacia mangium, Gliricidia sepium and Leucaena leucocephala), and open pasture (OP) of B. decumbens intercropped only with Stylosanthes spp. Pastures were managed according to the rules for organic cattle production. The study was carried out by following a switch back format with 12 cows, 6 for each treatment, over 3 experimental years. Herbage mass was similar (P>0.05) for both treatments, supporting an average stocking rate of 1.23 AU/ha. Daily dry matter intake did not vary (P>0.05) between treatments (average of 11.3±1.02 kg/cow per day, corresponding to 2.23±0.2% BW). Milk yield was higher (P0.05) in subsequent years. The highest (P0.05) milk yields. Low persistence of Stylosanthes guianensis was observed over the experimental period, indicating that the persistence of forage legumes under grazing could be improved using adapted cultivars that have higher annual seed production. The SPS and a diversified botanical composition of the pasture using legume species mixed with grasses are recommended for organic milk production.
Feed is generally the greatest expense for milk production. With volatility in feed and milk markets, income over feed cost (IOFC) is a more advantageous measure of profit than simply feed cost per cow. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of ration cost and ingredient composition on IOFC and milk yield. The Pennsylvania State Extension Dairy Team IOFC tool (http://extension.psu.edu/animals/dairy/business-management/financial-tools/income-over-feed-cost/introduction-to-iofc) was used to collect data from 95 Pennsylvania lactating dairy cow herds from 2009 to 2012 and to determine the IOFC per cow per day. The data collected included average milk yield, milk income, purchased feed cost, ration ingredients, ingredient cost per ton, and amount of each ingredient fed. Feed costs for home-raised feeds for each ration were based on market values rather than on-farm cost. Actual costs were used for purchased feed for each ration. Mean lactating herd size was 170 ± 10.5 and daily milk yield per cow was 31.7 ± 0.19 kg. The mean IOFC was 1.01 cost per cow, ranging from −16.60 in September 2011. Data were analyzed using a one-way ANOVA in SPSS (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY). Values were grouped by quartiles and analyzed with all years combined as well as by individual year. Purchased feed cost per cow per day averaged 1.07 for 2009 to 2012. For 2009 to 2012 combined, milk yield and IOFC did not differ with purchased feed cost. Intermediate levels (quartiles 2 and 3) of forage cost per cow per day between 1.97 per cow per day resulted in the greatest average IOFC of 6.27 or more per cow per day) resulted in the highest IOFC. Thus, minimizing feed cost per cow per day did not maximize IOFC. In 2010, the IOFC was highest at $8.09 for dairies that fed 1 or more commodity by-products. Results of the study indicated that intermediate levels of forage cost and higher levels of total feed cost per cow per day resulted in both higher milk yield and higher IOFC. This suggests that optimal ration formulation rather than least cost strategies may be key to increasing milk yield and IOFC, and that profit margin may be affected more by quality of the feed rather than the cost.
Dairy feeding systems in many semi-arid countries are based on imported concentrates and forages. This has economic and ecological implications given the increase in global feed prices and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from land use change. This paper aims to explore alternative dairy feeding systems under semi-arid conditions, using Jordan as an example. The feedings systems under investigation vary in their share of food industry by-products (replacing concentrates in the diet) and are compared against the current concentrate-based feeding systems. The systems are evaluated against three criteria: their nutritional value, their impact on the cost of milk production, and their GHG mitigation potential. Feed samples from eleven food industry by-products and ten conventional feeds were collected from food factories and from
three typical dairy farms, representing the typical large medium- and small-scale farm types, respectively.
Feed samples were analysed for their chemical composition and metabolisable energy contents. In addition, economic and production farm data were collected and entered into a model for GHGs calculation and economic evaluation. The results suggest that inclusion of locally available food industry by-products in the rations of milk cows in semi- arid production systems can be instrumental in reducing production costs and mitigating GHG emissions. Cost of milk production in the model farms can be lowered by up to 14 %; mitigation of CO2 eq. emission ranged between 70 and 290 g CO2 eq./kg milk. The degree to which these
benefits can be reaped is positively related to the level of inclusion of by-product feeds in lactating cows’ diets.
There are numerous recent studies highlighting sustainability problems for the development of ruminant production systems (RPS) while facing increasing human food necessities and global climate change. Despite the complexity of the context, in our view the main objectives of the ruminants' physiologist should be convergent for both industrialized (IC) and developing countries (DC) in a common and global strategy of advancing knowledge. In DC, this means improving the efficiency of RPS, taking into account the unique possibility of using rangelands. For IC settings, RPS should be revisited in terms of autonomy and environment- friendly feeding and managing practices. Assuming that competition for feed/food use is still a crucial criterion, future ruminant feeding systems (FeSyst) should preferably focus on lignocellulosic sources. According to biome distributions, and the recent increases in volumes of crop residues and their by-products, the annually renewed volumes of these biomasses are considerable. Therefore, we need to redesign our strategies for their efficient utilization at the local level. For this purpose, digestion processes and rumen functioning need to be better understood. The renewed vision of ruminal digestion through the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions is also a key aspect as it is an environmental demand that cannot be ignored. With regard to other ruminants' physiological functions, accumulated knowledge could be mobilized into an integrative approach that puts forward the adaptive capacities of animals to face variability in quantity and quality of supplied feeds. Basically, the reduction of inputs that were traditionally used to ensure FeSyst will need more flexible animals. In that sense, the concepts of homeostasis and teleophorhesis need to be updated and adapted to domestic species and breeds that were until now largely excluded from the dominant productive systems. In conclusion, a more holistic approach of research targets is required in which physiological functions and farmers' practices must converge and respond to each particular situation in an integral, dynamic and flexible conceptual perspective. From a scientific point of view, both for ICs and DCs, a broader range of experimental scenarios should be explored in order to arrive at innovative practices and solutions that respect environmental, ethical and economical issues. The clear challenge is to in evaluate the sustainability of RPSs. This includes, in our opinion, a strong interaction with other disciplines (multi- and trans-disciplinary conception), thus structuring new relevant indicators for the evaluation sustainability.
Agroecology involves various approaches to solve actual challenges of agricultural production. Though agroecology initially dealt primarily with crop production and protection aspects, in recent decades new dimensions such as environmental, social, economic, ethical and development issues are becoming relevant. Today, the term `agroecology' means either a scientific discipline, agricultural practice, or political or social movement. Here we study the different meanings of agroecology. For that we analyse the historical development of agroecology. We present examples from USA, Brazil, Germany, and France. We study and discuss the evolution of different meanings agroecology. The use of the term agroecology can be traced back to the 1930s. Until the 1960s agroecology referred only as a purely scientific discipline. Then, different branches of agroecology developed. Following environmental movements in the 1960s that went against industrial agriculture, agroecology evolved and fostered agroecological movements in the 1990s. Agroecology as an agricultural practice emerged in the 1980s, and was often intertwined with movements. Further, the scales and dimensions of agroecological investigations changed over the past 80 years from the plot and field scales to the farm and agroecosystem scales. Actually three approaches persist: (1) investigations at plot and field scales, (2) investigations at the agroecosystem and farm scales, and (3) investigations covering the whole food system. These different approaches of agroecological science can be explained by the history of nations. In France, agroecology was mainly understood as a farming practice and to certain extent as a movement, whereas the corresponding scientific discipline was agronomy. In Germany, agroecology has a long tradition as a scientific discipline. In the USA and in Brazil all three interpretations of agroecology occur, albeit with a predominance of agroecology as a science in the USA and a stronger emphasis on movement and agricultural practice in Brazil. These varied meanings of the term agroecology cause confusion among scientists and the public, and we recommend that those who publish using this term be explicit in their interpretation.
This book with eighteen chapters draws together themes on sustainability that have emerged as the most pressing in recent years. The book addresses practical topics such as air quality, manure management, animal feeds, production efficiency, environmental sustainability, biotechnology issues, animal welfare concerns, societal impacts and an analysis of the data used to assess the economic sustainability of farms. Further, the book will be helpful to academics, researchers, animal scientists, farmers agriculturalists, environmentalists.
Feed-efficient ruminant production is a key topic in the further development of ruminant husbandry all over the world. Ruminants contribute substantially to human nutrition by production of milk and meat. They are also extremely useful for mankind by providing other important products and labour, such as skins, clothing, bones, dung, heating material, and working as draft animals, etc. The microorganisms in the rumen of ruminants are able to process lignocellulose from low quality roughage into volatile fatty acids and energy, to transfer non-protein nitrogen, such as urea, into microbial protein, and to synthesize B vitamins. Therefore, ruminants are able to produce food of animal origin without competition for feed with non-ruminants and man. On the other hand, gas methane (CH4) with a high greenhouse gas potential is an unavoidable byproduct of rumen fermentation. Furthermore, growing ruminants are characterized by a low growing potential (daily yield in edible protein < 0.05% of body weight). The objectives of ruminant breeding, nutrition and keeping/management should, therefore, be to maximize/optimize the advantages of ruminants and to minimize their disadvantages. Feed-efficient ruminant production is viewed as a complex system starting with plant and animal breeding. More systemic approaches are considered necessary to understand interactions and to find acceptable solutions for complex relationships in the context of food security, resource efficiency, as well environmental, social and economic aspects.
The present century is characterized by a growing world population and a higher need for food and natural resources such as water, arable land, fuel and minerals as well as by growing emissions of greenhouse gas. Agriculture contribute to a certain degree to resource needs and pollution. Therefore this article shows the potentials of plant and animal breeding for the most efficient use of non-renewable resources and consequences for emissions. The efficient production and use of phytogenic biomass is a challenge for sustainable agriculture. Plant breeding in the traditional way and green biotechnology are the starting point for the whole food chain and many other processes based on phytogenic biomass. High and stable plant yields with low external inputs of limited resources such as water, fuel, land and minerals are major objectives of plant breeding. Plants must be more resistant against biotic and abiotic stressors. Plants should use very efficiently unlimited natural resources such as sun energy, nitrogen and carbon dioxide from the air.
For animal nutrition a lower concentration of toxic substances in plants is more important than higher yields of components of nutritive value. Enough high quality phytogenic biomass for animal feeding and animal breeding can also contribute to a more efficient conversion of feed into food of animal origin and lower emissions. One of the main objectives of animal breeding is a high dry matter intake in order to have more energy for animal yields and to reduce the portion for maintenance of animals. In general plant and animal breeding may be considered as the starting points for sustainable agriculture in the future. Examples for a more sustainable agriculture are shown in this article.
This book with eighteen chapters draws together themes on sustainability that have emerged as the most pressing in recent years. The book addresses practical topics such as air quality, manure management, animal feeds, production efficiency, environmental sustainability, biotechnology issues, animal welfare concerns, societal impacts and an analysis of the data used to assess the economic sustainability of farms. Further, the book will be helpful to academics, researchers, animal scientists, farmers agriculturalists, environmentalists.
Milking animals produce milk commensurate with their genetic potential only when they are fed a nutritionally balanced ration in an amount that provides nutrients to express their genetic potential. As animals kept by smallholder farmers are rarely fed a balanced ration, a programme to feed balanced rations to animals of such farmers was launched in India. Based on their milk yield, the animals were categorized as: low (<8 kg/d), medium (8–12 kg/d) and high (>12 kg/d) yielders. Milk yield, milk fat and net daily income to milk producers were recorded before and after feeding a balanced ration. Nutritional status of animals showed that, for 71% of animals’, crude protein (CP) and metabolizable energy intakes were higher and, for 65% of animals’, calcium and phosphorus intakes were lower than requirements. Ration balancing improved milk yield by 2–14% and its milk fat proportion by 0.2–15%. Feed conversion efficiency, as kg of fat corrected milk (FCM)/kg of dry matter intake of buffaloes (n = 1131) before and after feeding balanced rations was 0.6 and 0.7, respectively, and in cows (n = 540) the values were 0.6 and 0.8. Dietary N secreted into milk increased from 0.16 to 0.25 and 0.16 to 0.19 in low and medium yielding cows and buffaloes, respectively. Rumen microbial CP synthesis also increased (P<0.05) by 36 and 38% in cows and buffaloes, respectively. On feeding balanced rations, levels (mg/ml) of plasma immunoglobulins IgG, IgM and IgA increased from 14.48 to 22.11, 2.69 to 3.29 and 0.48 to 0.67, and the parasitic load was reduced from 168 to 81 eggs/g of faeces. Enteric CH4 emissions (g/kg milk yield) was reduced by 15–20% (P<0.05) in these lactating animals. Results demonstrate that feeding nutritionally balanced rations increased milk production and reduced enteric CH4 emissions and N excretion from lactating cows and buffaloes. While implementation of a ration balancing programme under small holding systems is challenging, large scale use of this programme in tropical countries can help improve productivity of milking animals with available feed resources in an environmentally sustainable manner.
Full book can be downloaded from:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/017/i3164e/i3164e00.pdf
A study was conducted in China to evaluate the feed conversion efficiency, nitrogen use efficiency, and the amount of human-edible grains fed under different dairy systems. Three dairy systems were defined and studied: (i) smallholder subsistence farms (SH), (ii) peri-urban farms (PR), and iii) cooperative farms (CO). The PR system had the highest milk yield, better feed conversion efficiency, better nitrogen use efficiency, and used lower proportion of grains in the diet. Within a system, different farms had wide variations in feed conversion efficiency and nitrogen use efficiency, suggesting the need to improve management practices within the system. Among the three systems, SH and CO systems require the most improvements in the management practices.
The concept of sustainable intensification has recently been developed to raise productivity (as distinct from increasing volume of production) while reducing environmental impacts. This means increasing yields per unit of inputs (including nutrients, water, energy capital and land) as well as per unit of undesirable outputs (such as greenhouse gas emissions, water pollution or loss of biodiversity). It is thus helpful to understand ‘intensification’ as referring to ‘environmental factor productivity’ or ‘eco-efficiency’. Worldwide, grassland is the most important agroecosystem delivering ecosystem services ranging from feed supply for ruminants and soil carbon storage to habitats of biodiversity. However, worldwide, grassland is under threat due to intensified land use and land-use changes from grass to arable. In this article, we (i) highlight ecosystem services of selected grassland biomes abroad of Europe, (ii) show evidence of sustainable as well as non-sustainable intensification options in these grassland biomes linked to European agriculture by exports of agricultural commodities (e.g. soy) and (iii) derive research strategies for north-west European grassland research and management to match sustainable intensification strategies for the grassland-based dairy industry.
High-density livestock facilities lead to a concentration of livestock wastes and subsequent leakage of pollutants into the environment, resulting in public concern about their effects. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are the most harmful components of animal manure, but odor from the manure itself and the livestock facilities is also a problem. Improving the nutrient efficiency of the livestock helps to decrease excretion of these environmental contaminants. Pigs and chickens are the main animals used in studies to improve nutrient efficiency to reduce excretion of environmental contaminants. Addition of feed supplements and modifying feeding programs to improve nutrient efficiency can result in significant decreases in the N, P, odor, and dry matter (DM) weight of manure. Examples of these methods include the following. (1) The addition of synthetic amino acids and reducing protein contents resulted in N reductions of 10 to 27% in broilers, 18 to 35% in chicks and layers, 19 to 62% in pigs, and a 9 to 43% reduction in odor from pigs. (2) Enzyme supplementation resulted in a 12 to 15% reduction in DM weight of broiler manure. (3) Phytase supplementation resulted in P reductions of 25 to 35% in chickens and 25 to 60% in pigs. (4) The use of growth-promoting substances resulted in a 5 to 30% reduction in N and a 53 to 56% reduction in odor from pigs. (5) Formulating diets closer to requirements (diet modification) reduced N and P by 10 to 15% each in chickens and pigs, and odor by 28 to 79% in pigs. (6) Phase feeding reduced N and P excretion by chicken and pigs from 10 to 33% and 10 to 13% each, as well as odor in growing and finishing pigs by 49 to 79%. (7) Use of highly digestible raw materials in feed reduced N and P excretion by 5% in chickens and pigs. Certain feed manufacturing techniques (grinding feed grains and proper particle size, feed uniformity in rations, or expanding and pelleting) when done properly can significantly reduce N, P, and odor contents and DM weight of chicken and pig manure. Feed with proper grinding reduced 27% of N in finishing pigs and 22 to 23% reduction of N in piglet fed with pelleting, 60% reduction of NH3 emission fed with finely ground Zeolites in pig, and a 26% reduction of DM weight in finishing pigs fed with proper grinding were reported, but further research is needed in this area. Coordinating actual feed analytical results with production technique modifications is needed to reduce environmental contamination by animal manure, but specialists may need to be consulted for the successful implementation of these efforts.
Dietary fibers can be fermented in the colon, resulting in production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) and secretion of satiety-related peptides. Fermentation characteristics (fermentation kinetics and SCFA-profile) differ between fibers and could impact their satiating potential. We investigated the effects of fibers with varying fermentation characteristics on feeding motivation in adult female pigs. Sixteen pair-housed pigs received four diets in four periods in a Latin square design. Starch from a control
The satiating effects of dietary fiber may depend more on physicochemical properties of the fiber than on total fiber intake. These properties are expected to affect satiety feelings and feeding motivation due to different effects in the gastrointestinal tract. The aim of the current study was to assess the effects of fibers with varying physicochemical properties (bulkiness, viscosity and fermentability) on feeding motivation in adult female pigs. Sixteen pair-housed pigs received four diets: lignocellulose (LC), pectin (PEC), resistant starch (RS), and control (C) without fiber, in four periods in a Latin square design. Each fiber was fed at a low (L) followed by a high (H) inclusion level (7days each). At 1h, 3h, and 7h after the morning meal, feeding motivation was assessed in an operant test, where turning a wheel yielded multiple food rewards, and in a runway test, where walking a fixed U-shaped track yielded one food reward. Pigs were observed in their home pen for 6h, using 90-s instantaneous scan sampling. In the operant test, throughout the day feeding motivation was higher for pigs on PEC compared with pigs on LC. In the runway, feeding motivation increased particularly at 1h after the meal for pigs on PEC compared with pigs on RS. Also at 7h, feeding motivation tended to decrease for pigs on RS compared with pigs fed other diets. In their home pen, pigs on PEC showed more feeder-directed behavior compared with pigs on RS. In conclusion, PEC was the least satiating fiber. LC and RS, despite a lower supply of available energy, were the most satiating fibers, possibly due to their bulky and fermentation properties, respectively.
Responding to the challenges posed by global warming, peak oil and biofuels will require a paradigm shift in the practice
of agriculture and in the role of live stock within the farming system. Farming systems should aim at maximizing plant biomass
production from locally available diversified resources, processing of the biomass on farm to provide food, feed and energy
and recycling of all waste materials. The approach that is the subject of this paper is that the generation of electricity
can be a by-product of food/feed production. The concept is the fractionation of biomass into inedible cell wall material
that can be converted to an inflammable gas by gasification, the gas in turn being the source of fuel for internal combustion
engines driving electrical generators. The cell contents and related structures such as tree leaves are used as human food
or animal feed. As well as providing food and feed the model is highly appropriate for decentralized small scale production
of electricity in rural areas. It also offers opportunities for sequestration of carbon in the form of biochar the solid residue
remaining after gasification of the biomass.
Responding to the challenges posed by global warming, peak oil and biofuels will require a paradigm shift in the practice of agriculture and in the role of live stock within the farming system. Farming systems should aim at maximizing plant biomass production from locally available diversified resources, processing of the biomass on farm to provide food, feed and energy and recycling of all waste materials. The approach that is the subject of this paper is that the generation of electricity can be a by-product of food/feed production. The concept is the fractionation of biomass into inedible cell wall material that can be converted to an inflammable gas by gasification, the gas in turn being the source of fuel for internal combustion engines driving electrical generators. The cell contents and related structures such as tree leaves are used as human food or animal feed. As well as providing food and feed the model is highly appropriate for decentralized small scale production of electricity in rural areas. It also offers opportunities for sequestration of carbon in the form of biochar the solid residue remaining after gasification of the biomass.
Five studies were conducted to determine nutrient digestibility and performance of lambs and steers fed thermochemically treated crop residues and distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) as a corn replacement pellet (CRP; 75% residue:25% DDGS, DM basis). Fifteen Hampshire, Suffolk, or Dorset wethers (BW 33.3 +/- 5.0 kg) were utilized to evaluate nutrient digestibility of the unprocessed native (NAT) and CRP [Exp. 1: wheat straw (WS); Exp. 2: corn stover (CS); Exp. 3: switchgrass (SWG) and corn fiber:wheat chaff (CFWC)] when limit fed (Exp. 1 and 2: 1.8% of BW daily; Exp. 3: 2.5% of BW daily) compared with a 60% corn diet. In Exp. 4, 56 individually fed Dorset-cross wether lambs (BW 32.0 +/- 1.4 kg) were utilized to compare performance and digestibility of WS, wheat chaff (WC), corn fiber (CF), a 3:1 blend of corn fiber:wheat straw (CFWS), a 3:1 blend of CFWC, and SWG-CRP fed for ad libitum intake compared with a 45% corn diet. In Exp. 5, 32 individually fed Holstein steers (BW 185.2 +/- 0.9 kg) were used to evaluate performance and digestibility of diets containing corn, WS-CRP, CFWC-CRP, or NAT-WS fed for ad libitum intake. Crop residues were processed with 5% calcium oxide (DM basis) and 35% water in a double-shaft enclosed mixer (Readco Kurimoto Continuous Processor, York, PA) and subsequently pelleted with DDGS to form CRP. Feeding lambs WS-CRP (Exp. 1) or CS-CRP (Exp. 2) increased digestion of DM, NDF, and ADF compared with NAT (P < 0.05). In Exp. 3, feeding CFWC-CRP increased total tract NDF digestibility and ADF digestibility (P < 0.05). Experiment 4 final BW were greatest for control lambs and least for lambs fed CFWS-CRP or SWG-CRP. Body weight gains for lambs fed CRP averaged 15.9% less than control (P < 0.05). Lambs fed CRP diets had greater (P < 0.05) NDF and ADF intake and output. In Exp. 5, steers fed the corn or 2 CRP diets gained similarly and faster (P < 0.05) than those fed the NAT-WS diet. Steers fed the control corn diet were more efficient (P < 0.05) than steers fed other treatments. Steers fed the corn diet, CFWC-CRP, and WS-CRP had greater (P < 0.01) DM digestibility than NAT. The results confirm benefits for nutrient digestion and subsequent animal performance when crop residues are thermochemically processed. Processed crop residues may be fed in combination with DDGS to partially replace corn in ruminant diets.
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Sustainability Assessment of Food and Agriculture Systems Indicators
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Rome, 533 p. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/i3009e/i3009e.pdf