Abstract
We review research literature on psychological preparation for Olympic Games performance. We address research identifying psychological characteristics associated with Olympic performance success, studies examining how these attributes are developed, stress and coping in Olympians, evaluation studies of the Olympic experience with particular emphasis on factors influencing performance, and the best practice literature on effective Olympic psychological consultations. Key principles are identified as well as gaps in the knowledge base that need to be addressed by investigators. Finally, implications for preparing individual athletes, coaches, and teams are discussed.
... The pressure of making S and DS decisions can cause stress (Blakelock et al., 2019;Fletcher & Scott, 2010;Neely et al., 2016;Olusoga et al., 2009;C. M. Roberts & Faull, 2013) and impact the effectiveness and performance of coaches (Gould & Maynard, 2009;Gould et al., 2002;Greenleaf et al., 2001). ...
... M. Roberts & Faull, 2013). Interviews and surveys from USA coaches and athletes who competed at the 1996 Atlanta and 1998 Nagano Olympic Games revealed that the trials and selection process were perceived to influence coach effectiveness (Gould et al., 2002) and athlete performance (Gould & Maynard, 2009;Gould et al., 1999;Greenleaf et al., 2001). Despite the impact of S/DS and the clear need for further research, there has been limited research on the topic, and several researchers have highlighted this gap (Fiander et The research questions of the study were how can athletes, coaches and organisations better manage the process of selection and deselection before, during and after it takes place. ...
... From another perspective, an orienteer might perceive a lack of sporting prowess or ability compared to their peers -within their competitive group-at a particular moment, potentially leading to negative feelings regarding their skills (29). This could result in a misguided belief that they are not achieving the same levels of success as others, diminishing their motivation in sports and increasing the possibilities of dropout (30,31). As an example of this fact, one could cite scientific literature focusing on Athletics, which indicates that under-18 and under-20 athletes born in the first week of the year are about 2-3.5 times more likely to be included in the top-100 ranking than the athletes born in the last week of the year (28); some authors have investigated this phenomenon, referring to it as the Galatea effect in sport (32). ...
Orienteering is a sport where participants must choose the best route between control points marked on the map, combining it with their displacement capacity. It combines endurance running with mental capacity. As in other sports, age can be a determinant in defining differences among youth runners. In this research, the hypothesis is that older orienteers will show better performance than younger orienteers within the same competitive group, for both girls and boys. Overall, official results of the FEDO (Spanish Federation of Orienteering) in long and middle-distance events, from 2005 to 2023, have been analyzed (sprint format events were excluded). Different categories from ten to twenty years of age for both sexes were included, and each category was divided into two years (1Y, 2Y) and two semesters (1S, 2S) within each year, creating four independent variables from the combination of year and semester (1Y1S, 1Y2S, 2Y1S, and 2Y2S). A total of 7,731 entries were examined, 4,318 were boys and 3,109 were girls. Descriptive statistics were analyzed for each variable, showing the mean and standard deviation. Normal distribution was confirmed for all variables (p > 0.05). Results showed a significant performance difference in favor of older orienteers in the youngest categories (U-10, M/F-12, M/F-14, and M-16), with these differences disappearing as age and performance increased (M/F-18 and M/F-20). These findings support the research hypothesis and align with other studies where age-related differences have also been found in other sports.
... Personality traits further contribute to resilience. Defined as "relatively enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, " personality traits significantly impact cognitive processes and athletic performance (Gould and Maynard, 2009;Roberts, 2009). Positive personality traits, such as conscientiousness and emotional stability, have been shown to foster resilience by enhancing an athlete's ability to focus, regulate emotions, and cope with challenges. ...
Introduction
The study investigates the effects of Rapid Weight Loss (RWL) on the levels of psychological resilience and mechanical pain sensitivity in elite kickboxers. The primary aim was to examine changes in psychological resilience subdimensions and pressure pain threshold (PPT) values in the thoracolumbar region before and after a one-month RWL period leading up to competition. Hypotheses included expectations of significant reductions in PPT values due to biomechanical and physiological changes during RWL, along with improvements in psychological resilience subdimensions due to structured routines and social support.
Methods
Thirty-seven elite male athletes (age: 22.94 ± 1.98) participated in the study. Psychological resilience was assessed using the Psychological Resilience Scale for Adults, and mechanical pain sensitivity was evaluated through Pressure Pain Threshold (PPT) measurements. Measurements were conducted before and after the RWL period, spanning one month prior to competition.
Results
The results revealed significant PPT values across all thoracolumbar segments after RWL (p < 0.001). Cohen’s d values indicated large effect sizes for these changes (d = 2.10–2.36). The L5 segment exhibited the largest PPT decrease (t = −10.45, d = 2.36), while the Th1 segment showed the smallest decrease (t = −8.23, d = 2.10). Measurements taken at 4 cm from the spine midline also demonstrated significant PPT reductions (p < 0.001), with the highest change recorded in the L5 segment (t = −9.78, d = 2.30). Psychological resilience subdimensions, including “structured style,” “social competence,” “future orientation,” and “social resources,” improved significantly after RWL (p < 0.05), while “family cohesion” and “personal strength” did not show significant changes. Athletes who previously ranked in tournaments exhibited higher psychological resilience, potentially due to enhanced self-confidence.
Discussion
These findings align with literature suggesting that competitive success and optimism play crucial roles in resilience development. Personality traits and perceived social support further contributed to the observed resilience levels. This study highlights the multidimensional impact of RWL, emphasizing its detrimental effects on pain sensitivity and its mixed outcomes on psychological resilience. RWL-associated increases in mechanical hyperalgesia, especially in the lumbar region, were attributed to biomechanical and neurophysiological factors. Enhanced psychological resilience observed in certain subdimensions underscores the importance of structured and social support systems in mitigating RWL-induced stress. Future research should explore interventions to optimize resilience and manage pain during RWL periods, focusing on individualized support strategies for athletes. These findings contribute to understanding the interplay between psychological and physiological factors during RWL, practical insights for athletic training.
... Athletes point to psychological aspects as the most relevant factor for achieving high-level performances, followed by training periodisation and planning, and physical condition and health. Psychological factors have been frequently recognised to be fundamental for performance success in top-level athletes with and without disabilities (e.g., Dieffenbach & Statler, 2012;Gould & Maynard, 2009). Dieffenbach and Statler (2012) listed the main mental skills associated with performance according to athletes and coaches in Paralympic sports, ranking confidence and concentration/focus as the two most important skills. ...
Knowledge about elite athletes with disabilities and their perspectives on sport-related issues could contribute to informing future policies and development programmes. This study aims to characterise elite athletes with disabilities in Portugal regarding a wide range of socio-demographic and sport-related elements and to uncover their perspectives on motivations, disability-sport development, and performance. Eighty-one top-level national athletes with disabilities answered an online questionnaire covering socio-demographic, sport-related, and physical education-related information. Data were analysed using qualitative and quantitative methods. Physical impairment was the most prevalent type of impairment (~77%). Athletes started practising the sport late (~53% 18 years) and had relatively advanced ages (~65% 30 years). Boccia, athletics, and swimming were the most representative sports. In general, athletes have a favourable view of their experience in school physical education. Actions to increase the visibility of disability sports and support from sport-related entities were the most cited strategies for promoting sports participation of young people with disabilities. Enjoyment, personal development, health and well-being, and performance achievement emerged as the main reasons for practising sports. Psychological skills, along with training periodisation and planning, were ranked as the most important elements for achieving high-level performance. Building on these findings, several suggestions and implications are provided. Resumo O conhecimento sobre atletas com deficiência de alto rendimento e as suas perspetivas sobre questões relacionadas com o desporto podem contribuir para informar futuras políticas e programas de desenvolvimento. Este estudo tem como objetivo caracterizar atletas de elite com deficiência em Portugal, abrangendo uma ampla gama de elementos sociodemográficos e desportivos, e descobrir as suas perspetivas sobre motivações, desenvolvimento do desporto adaptado e desempenho. Oitenta e um atletas nacionais de alto nível com deficiência responderam a um questionário online que cobria informações sociodemográficas, relacionadas com o desporto e com a educação física. Os dados foram analisados utilizando métodos qualitativos e quantitativos. A deficiência física foi o tipo de deficiência mais prevalente (77%). Muitos atletas começaram a praticar desporto relativamente tarde (53% ≥ 18 anos) e têm atualmente idades ≥ 30 anos (~65%). Boccia, atletismo e natação foram os desportos mais representativos. Em geral, os atletas têm uma visão favorável da sua experiência na educação física escolar. Ações para aumentar a visibilidade do desporto adaptado e o apoio de entidades relacionadas com o desporto foram as estratégias mais citadas para promover a participação desportiva de jovens com deficiência. O prazer, o desenvolvimento pessoal, a saúde e o bem-estar, e a realização de desempenho emergiram como as principais razões para a prática desportiva. As competências psicológicas, juntamente com a periodização e o planeamento do treino, foram classificadas como os elementos mais importantes para alcançar um desempenho de alto nível. Com base nos resultados, são apresentadas várias sugestões e implicações. Palavras-Chave: desporto adaptado, desenvolvimento desportivo, estratégias de recrutamento, determinantes de desempenho
... 62,65 In addition, it has been shown that the majority of elite athletes informally engage in MI, indicating they may have developed the capability to effectively implement more structured MI training. 16 This suggests that the timescale for improvements may be shorter for high-level athletes, with novices requiring more time to develop the ability to vividly imagine and control their MI training. Consequently, we recommend explicit MI instruction in the early stages of MI training, and as the athlete's capabilities improve, MI instruction may become less prescriptive, thereby providing the imager the opportunity for self-discovery. ...
... 62,65 In addition, it has been shown that the majority of elite athletes informally engage in MI, indicating they may have developed the capability to effectively implement more structure MI training. 16 This suggests that the timescale for improvements may be shorter for highlevel athletes, with novices requiring more time to develop the ability to vividly imagine and control their MI training. Consequently, we recommend explicit MI instruction in the early stages of MI training, and as the athlete's capabilities improve, MI instruction may become less prescriptive, thereby providing the imager the opportunity for self-discovery. ...
Context
Athletes often face the dual challenge of high training loads with insufficient time to recover. Equally, in any team, sports medicine and performance staff are required to progress training loads in healthy athletes and avoid prolonged reductions in training load in injured athletes. In both cases, the implementation of a well-established psychological technique known as motor imagery (MI) can be used to counteract adverse training adaptations such as excessive fatigue, reduced capacity, diminished performance, and heightened injury susceptibility.
Study Design
Narrative overview.
Level of Evidence
Level 5.
Results
MI has been shown to enhance performance outcomes in a range of contexts including rehabilitation, skill acquisition, return-to-sport protocols, and strength and conditioning. Specific performance outcomes include reduction of strength loss and muscular atrophy, improved training engagement of injured and/or rehabilitating athletes, promotion of recovery, and development of sport-specific skills/game tactics. To achieve improvements in such outcomes, it is recommended that practitioners consider the following factors when implementing MI: individual skill level (ie, more time may be required for novices to obtain benefits), MI ability (ie, athletes with greater capacity to create vivid and controllable mental images of their performance will likely benefit more from MI training), and the perspective employed (ie, an internal perspective may be more beneficial for increasing neurophysiological activity whereas an external perspective may be better for practicing technique-focused movements).
Conclusion
We provide practical recommendations grounded in established frameworks on how MI can be used to reduce strength loss and fear of reinjury in athletes with acute injury, improve physical qualities in rehabilitating athletes, reduce physical loads in overtrained athletes, and to develop tactical and technical skills in healthy athletes.
... throughout history, psychological skills training (pSt) has stood as a prominent intervention method utilized to augment athletic performance. pSt is characterized by a systematic, goal-oriented approach involving the deliberate and regulated deployment of self-regulatory strategies with the objective of enhancing desired outcomes (see Birrer & Morgan, 2010;Fletcher & Sarkar, 2016;Gould & Maynard, 2009;röthlin et al., 2020;Sheard & Golby, 2006;weinberg & Gould, 2019;Zimmerman et al., 2017). the following four statements outline the distinctions between Athlete-centered interventions (Acis) and Development programs grounded in the Bronfenbrenner's process-person-context-time (ppct) model in comparison to conventional psychological Skill training (pSt) methods designed for elite athletes: ...
Despite considerable research efforts to refine and apply the PPCT model in sports settings, there remains a lack of guidance on its practical implementation, both in research and elite athlete practice. This paper aims to propose a methodology for operationalizing the theory specifically tailored to elite sports. This involves (a) elucidating the operationalization of the Process, Person, Context, and Time components within the PPCT framework; (b) exploring the utilization of the PPCT model in sports contexts, integrating empirical research findings; and (c) presenting recommendations for designing and executing elite athlete-centered interventions and development programs. These athlete-centered initiatives have the potential to effectively address athletes’ needs and enhance their performance levels. Recognizing the significance of customizing interventions to individual athlete attributes, fostering positive relationships, addressing environmental influences, and acknowledging transitional stages is crucial for maximizing athletes’ well-being, performance, and overall success. By examining the four key components of the bioecological model – including contextual aspects of sport (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem), athlete attributes (dispositions, resources, demands), the context-athlete relationship dynamics, and the temporal dimension (chronosystem) to understand how temporal changes impact athletes’ trajectories – this paper intentions to advance understanding of the bioecological factors shaping elite athletes’ experiences. Psychological interventions targeting individual-environment congruence for elite athletes carry significant implications. These interventions should be intricately personalized to meet the distinctive needs and characteristics of each athlete, contributing to more effective and tailored support within elite sports environments.
The significance of this research is underscored by the evolving landscape of sports science, particularly in understanding the comprehensive well-being of female athletes. In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the unique physiological and psychological demands placed on female athletes, necessitating tailored training and recovery strategies. This study, focusing on the physical and functional state of female handball players, contributes vital insights into optimizing their performance, particularly in the crucial preparatory phase. By examining both physical capabilities and autonomic nervous system responses, it provides a holistic view essential for developing effective training programs. Moreover, the findings hold the potential to influence broader training methodologies in women's sports, addressing a significant gap in sports science literature. The purpose of the study is to investigate the physical and functional state of female handball players during the preparatory period of the stage of maximizing individual capabilities. The following methods were used in the conducted research: theoretical analysis, synthesis, and generalization; comparison and analogy; pedagogical observation (using instrumental techniques); pedagogical testing; method of assessing the functional state of the autonomic nervous system; mathematical-statistical data processing. Participants in the study included athletes from the main and reserve teams of the handball club "Galychanka" from Lviv. Research Results. During the pedagogical experiment, a diagnostic study of the indicators of physical and functional preparedness of female handball players was conducted. The results showed that most of the physical indicators of the participants were below the established norms. The average time to cover a distance of 30 meters was 0.5 seconds above the norm, the time to dribble a ball over the same distance was 0.3 seconds longer, and the time to perform an exercise involving touching the four corners of the goal 20 times exceeded the norm by 0.62 seconds. Meanwhile, the results of the long jump were 4.79 cm shorter, the triple jump from a standstill was 29.65 cm shorter, and the execution of throwing a handball was 2.30 meters shorter than the norm. Additionally, at the initial stage of the study, the athletes showed centralization of heart rate control and increased activity of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, as indicated by high stress index values (395.44±18.22 units) and the indicator of the activity of regulatory systems (6.92±0.37 units) at rest. Also revealed was excessive activity of the sympathetic division and a lack of balance between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, as confirmed by high values of the sympathovagal index (LF/HF, 2.58±0.30 units), with LF values being higher than normal (LF – 41.85±2.77%) indicating overtraining. The smaller contribution to heart rate variability was made by the very low-frequency component (VLF – 30.87±2.14%), reflecting the influence of humoral-metabolic factors. These data indicate the need to improve the physical abilities of female handball players within the framework of an experimental educational-training program. Conclusions. The analysis of heart rate variability showed a significant predominance of the low-frequency component (LF), indicating increased activity of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system among female handball players. The significant contribution of the very low-frequency component (VLF) suggests the need to pay attention to the metabolic aspects of the athletes' physical preparation. The low values of the high-frequency component (HF) indicate insufficient activity of the parasympathetic branch. The obtained data pointed to an imbalance between sympathetic and parasympathetic activity among female handball players, which can have negative consequences for their physical and emotional state.
This study aimed to measure the sport emotion among Afghan martial arts and non-martial arts athletes. A total of 50 athletes from different sports (aged 18-30 years) were selected for this study. The Sport Emotion Questionnaire (SEQ), which was developed by Jones et al. in 2005, served as the research instrument for this study. The research found a significant difference in sport emotion among Afghan athletes in Nangarhar Province. The results showed that the mean scores for happiness emotion and excitement emotion were the highest among all emotions in Afghan athletes in Nangarhar Province. Among negative emotions, Afghan athletes had the highest scores in anxiety emotion and the lowest score in anger emotion. The outcome of this study can help Afghan sportsmen achieve better results in future sports events and tournaments.
The Mental Health Model (MHM) of sport performance purports that an inverse relationship exists between psychopathology and sport performance. The model postulates that as an athlete’s mental health either worsens or improves performance should fall or rise accordingly, and there is now considerable support for this view. Studies have shown that between 70 and 85% of successful and unsuccessful athletes can be identified using general psychological measures of personality structure and mood state, a level superior to chance but insufficient for the purpose of selecting athletes. Longitudinal MHM research indicates that the mood state responses of athletes exhibit a dose-response relationship with their training load, a finding that has shown potential for reducing the incidence of the staleness syndrome in athletes who undergo intensive physical training. The MHM also has implications for the general care of athletes as support services have traditionally been limited to preventing or treating physical problems. Despite its simple premise and empirical support, the MHM has often been mischaracterised in the sport psychology literature and recently some authors have questioned its validity. This overview will summarise MHM research, including the more recent work involving the model’s dynamic features in an effort to resolve disputes surrounding the model.
This study included 235 Canadian Olympic athletes who participated in the 1984 Olympic Games in Sarajevo and Los Angeles. Individual interviews were carried out with 75 athletes and a questionnaire was completed by another 160 to assess their mental readiness for the Olympic Games and factors related to mental readiness. Common elements of success were identified, as well as factors that interfered with optimal performance at the Olympic Games. Statistically significant links were found between Olympic performance outcome and certain mental skills. This investigation assessed the level of mental readiness and mental control experienced by Canadian athletes at the 1984 Olympic Games. A large-scale study was undertaken involving 235 Canadian Olympians who participated in the 1984 Olympic Games in Sarajevo or Los Angeles. It was a two-stage study involving an interview sample and a questionnaire survey sample.
This study presents the psychosocial characteristics of 15 Olympic track and field athletes. Interviews were conducted with each athlete which explored their dreams, developmental influences, performance and developmental obstacles, mental preparation, salient menial and physical qualities, and advice to young athletes. A qualitative research design which employed content analysis methodology was used to derive general and emergent themes that categorized and described the athletes responses to interview questions. Emergent themes included: mental skills and attitudes; developmental concerns, socioeconomic factors, and spiritual/religious factors. Overall this study provided insight into the psychosocial factors that were important in the athletic and personal development of elite track and field athletes. Particular attention was given to the mental qualities and preparation necessary to become art elite track and field athlete and to succeed at the highest competitive levels.
When prolonged, excessive training stresses are applied concurrent with inadequate recovery, performance decrements and chronic maladaptations occur. Known as the overtraining syndrome (OTS), this complex condition afflicts a large percentage of athletes at least once during their careers. There is no objective biomarker for OTS and the underlying mechanism is unknown. However, it is not widely recognised that OTS and clinical depression [e.g. major depression (MD)] involve remarkably similar signs and symptoms, brain structures, neurotransmitters, endocrine pathways and immune responses. We propose that OTS and MD have similar aetiologies. Our examination of numerous shared characteristics offers insights into the mechanism of OTS and encourages testable experimental hypotheses. Novel recommendations are proposed for the treatment of overtrained athletes with antidepressant medications, and guidelines are provided for psychological counselling.