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Gender Effect in Explaining Mobility Patterns in the Labor Market: A Case Study of Turkey
Abstract
This paper examines the importance of gender for different job mobility patterns using an extensive household survey data from İzmir, the third largest city in Turkey. The determinants of job-to-job and job-to-nonemployment transitions are analyzed with the help of a multinomial logit estimation method. The results indicate that there is a distinction regarding the probability of job mobility patterns based on gender. It is more likely for women to be engaged in job-to-nonemployment transition, whereas men tend to change jobs more often. Although gender plays a significant role in job mobility patterns, traditionally imposed social constraints associated with childcare and household duties provide us with mixed results considering the behavior of women in the job market. On the other hand, having highly paid and secure jobs decreases the probability of both patterns of job mobility.
... Although women's official unemployment rate is higher than men, unemployed-to-population ratio is higher for men, since labor force participation is much lower for women (30 percent compared to 70 percent for men, see table 1). Moreover, female unemployment rate increases with education since better-educated women are more attached to the labor force and are likely to continue job search for longer periods (Eryar and Tekgüç, 2014). Eryar and Tekgüç (2014) show that the majority of even the less educated women enter the labor force when they are young, but their attachment is weak and they are more likely to drop out of labor force if they get married. ...
... Moreover, female unemployment rate increases with education since better-educated women are more attached to the labor force and are likely to continue job search for longer periods (Eryar and Tekgüç, 2014). Eryar and Tekgüç (2014) show that the majority of even the less educated women enter the labor force when they are young, but their attachment is weak and they are more likely to drop out of labor force if they get married. With highly limited availability of public care services for the elderly and almost non-existent public care services for young children, a typical characteristic of patriarchal settings like Turkey (Dildar, 2015), most women are forced to purchase care services privately if they want to return to labor market (Ilkaracan, Kim and Kaya, 2015). ...
Income or expenditure data are collected at household level and are silent about within household inequalities. As an alternative, employing counting-based double cutoff method allows education, health, household living conditions to be measured separately and a deprivation score for each person is calculated based on predetermined weights of each dimension. Individuals whose deprivation scores are above a predetermined threshold are deemed multidimensionally poor. In this study, we calculate multidimensional poverty for Turkey in four equally weighted dimensions using Survey of Living Conditions 2006-2015: education, health, employment and household's living conditions. First, we find improvement in household's living conditions across the board and including employment leads to a faster drop in gender poverty gap. Second, overall improvement is the result of rapid improvement in younger cohorts; older individual experienced very little gain. Moreover, there is very little convergence in regional gaps between men and women and even a widening gap between women in Eastern provinces and women in the rest of the country. Finally, households with multidimensionally poor women and non-poor men are consistently the most common subgroup and the overall improvement is a result of increasing share of households with no poor members pointing towards polarization between households.
JEL Code: I32, J16.
... The results indicate the static nature of the labor market in Turkey except for the transitions from unemployment. Eryar and Tekgüç (2014) study the socioeconomic determinants of job-to-job and job-tononemployment mobility patterns in Turkey for both men and women. ...
This study examines the worker transitions across labor market states including formal/informal division using panel data of 2006 to 2012 from Egypt. We generate a broad set of facts about labor market dynamics in Egypt. We first develop transition probabilities by gender across different labor market states including formal/informal sectors utilizing Markov transition processes. Government employment is the most persistent labor market state for both men and women and the out of labor force is the second most persistent labor market state for women. Unemployment is the most mobile labor market state. Informal private wage work and self‐employed–agriculture are also relatively mobile labor market states. We next identify the effects of individual, household and job characteristics on different mobility patterns by estimating multinomial logit models. We find that gender, age, education, experience, and several sectors of economic activity are associated with the transition probabilities between the labor market states considered such as formal wage, informal wage, self‐employment, unemployment, government employment, and out of labor market. Education, in particular, university degree or above is noted to play a vital role in the probability of transitions across several labor market states.
... We conclude the section with a few general remarks: Firstly, the mobility patterns display a definite gender pattern with males more likely to move into paid work categories such as OAW, Employer, casual and regular work whereas females are more likely to move into unpaid family work or outside the workforce. This is consistent with the literature which finds high mobility within the workforce for men and high mobility into joblessness for women (Chelli & Rosti, 2002; Eryar & Tekguc, 2014; Frederiksen, 2008; Hirsch & Schnabel, 2012; Royalty, 1998; Theodossiou & Zangelidis, 2009). Secondly, we fail to find any impact of social capital proxied by membership in socio-political institutions on labour market mobility. ...
The extent of mobility of the workers among different segments of a labour market plays a crucial role in the overall levels of poverty and inequality in the economy. Theoretical conceptualizations of the degree of mobility in the labour market have broadly been polarized into a segmented vs. integrated labour market debate within the formal-informal economy framework. The present study analysis the patterns and consequences of labour mobility in India using the novel IHDS panel data. In order to do so, the study makes use of three different tools-transition matrices, multinomial logistic regression and wage regressions. Our study finds significant mobility across sectors in the economy. We also find certain individual attributes being associated with movement into certain labour market segments. Finally, our study finds evidence of significant earnings differentials across paid work statuses. The study finds evidence of segmentation with regard to regular (or formal) vis-à-vis casual (or informal) wage employment. We also notice large-scale distress driven movements of works, especially from OAW and cultivation work into casual work. In contrast we also notice a large number of small businesses which have seen growth over the period. Given the results of our study suitable policy recommendations have been made.
This book offers an analysis of the key issues faced by women in the labor market in the 21st century. It identifies the factors that inhibit women's participation in the labor market, studies occupational segregation by gender and analyzes labor transitions, questioning whether the experience for men and women differs. It also explores the effect of entrepreneurship support programs on women's economic and social positions, as well as the public policy implications of women's entry into the labor market.
The book investigates working women in Mexico and also offers comparisons with countries such as Spain and developing countries within Eastern Europe. It explores a variety of topics, from a gender perspective, such as labor participation, the feminization of poverty, migration, wage gaps, changes in employment, informal work programs and public policy. Finally, the book offers a topical and timely analysis of the COVID-19 pandemic, tracking the gender inequalities among men and women in labor markets.
The main market for the book is the global community of academics, researchers and graduate students in the fields of economics and, specifically, in the study of the labor market from a gender perspective. It will also be beneficial to government institutions responsible for the creation of public programs and policies, as well as non-governmental and non-profit organizations.
Çalışmanın ana hedefi İzmir’deki işgücü piyasasını hem arz hem talep yönünden incelemek, piyasadaki temel eğilimleri belirlemek ve bulgular doğrultusunda karar alıcılara politika belirleme konusunda bir temel oluşturmaktır. Bu amaçla iki ayrı anket uygulanmıştır: hanehalkı anketi piyasanın arz tarafını, işyeri anketi ise talep yönünü ele almaktadır. Hanehalkı anketi, hanehalkının demografik, eğitim, meslek ve istihdam bilgilerini, işyeri anketi ise mevcut ve yeni yaratılacak istihdamın profilini ortaya çıkarmayı amaçlamaktadır.
İşsizlik oranı Türkiye ortalamasının üzerindedir. Kadınlarda işsizlik oranı % 24,15, erkeklerde % 15,04 ve toplamda % 17,4’dür. Kadınlarda işssizlik erkeklerden daha yüksektir bu da eğitim seviyelerinin daha düşük olması ile paralellik göstermektedir. İşsiz sayısı 263.381’dir. Bunların yaklaşık yarısı, 121.439’u 14 yaşından büyük 30 yaşından küçük olan genç işsizlerdir. Genç işssizlerden 38.670’inin daha önce hiçbir iş deneyimi yoktur. Genç işsizlerden 82.770’inin bir iş deneyimi vardır. İş deneyimi olan işsizlerden 33.892’si bir yıldan daha fazla süredir işsizdir. İş deneyimlerinin kazandırdığı vasıfl ar eskimiş durumdadır.
İşsizlerin en çok büro ve müşteri hizmetleri elemanı olarak çalışmak istedikleri tespit edilmiştir. Bunları makine ve tesis operatörlüğü ile herhangi bir vasıf gerektirmeyen işler takip etmektedir. İşsizler tarafından en az tercih edilen çalışma alanları ise tarım, hayvancılık ve su ürünleridir. Buna paralel olarak işsizlerin çoğunlukla orta düzeyde eğitim ve vasıf gerektiren mesleklerde iş aradığı gözlemlenmiştir. Ancak, işsizlerin kendilerini geliştirmek için eğitim ve kurslara yeterli oranda katılmadığı, katılanların da en fazla bilgisayar kurslarına rağbet etikleri ortaya çıkmıştır. İş arayanlar genellikle kurumsal olmayan kanalları kullanmaktadır. Bu da işgücü piyasasının etkinliğini azaltmaktadır.
İşsiz olma olasılığı ve işsizken iş bulma olasılığı kadınlar için, erkeklere göre, daha düşüktür. İşyeri anketi verileri değerlendirildiğinde, gerek temininde güçlük çekilen eleman profilleri, gerekse yeni istihdam edilecek elemanlarda istenen beceri ve nitelikler, işsizler arasında eksik olanın eğitim değil deneyim olduğunu ortaya çıkarmaktadır. İstihdamın yarısının tarım ve hayvancılık, perakende ticaret, otel ve lokantacılık, toptan ticaret ve inşaat sektörlerinde olduğu görülmektedir. 1990 sonrası İzmir’e göç edenlerin işgücü içindeki payı % 30,52’dir.
Toplam istihdamda payı en fazla olan işletmeler sırasıyla küçük, mikro ve orta boy işletmelerdir. Ortalama işletme büyüklüğü hiç bir sektörde 15 çalışanı geçmemektedir. Toplam istihdamın yarısından fazlasının anonim şirketler tarafından sağlandığı ve kamunun payının Türkiye ortalamasının altında olduğu tespit edilmiştir.
Çalışan erkeklerin yoğunlaştığı meslek sınıfl arı küçük işletme sahipleri ve müdürler, kişisel hizmetler ve koruma hizmeti veren elemanlar, metal işleme ve makina ile ilgili işlerde çalışan sanatkarlardır. Çalışan kadınların yoğunlaştığı meslek sınıfları ise eğitim bilimleri ile ilgili profesyoneller, satış ve müşteri hizmetleri ile ilgili nitelik gerektirmeyen işlerde çalışanlar, tarım ve hayvancılık ile ilgili niteliksiz işlerde çalışanlardır.
İzmir’de erkeklerin ücret düzeylerinde iş tecrübesinin, kadınların ücret düzeylerinde ise kıdemin çok daha etkin bir rol oynadığı görülmektedir. Eğitimin her iki cinsiyet için de önemli olduğu, fakat eğitim seviyesindeki yükselmenin erkek çalışanların ücretlerine daha büyük bir etkisi olduğu gözlemlenmektedir. Üniversite veya yüksek lisans mezunu olmak ortalama aylık gelir üzerinde lise mezunlarına göre yaklaşık % 50 oranında bir prim sağlamaktadır.
Bir başka sonuç da İzmir doğumlular ve İzmir’e sonradan taşınanlar arasındaki gelir farkına dayanmaktadır. İzmir doğumluların sonradan taşınanlara göre daha az gelir elde edebildikleri görülmektedir. Bu bulgu İzmir kentinin uzun vade de aldığı göçün daha çok kaliteli iş gücünden oluştuğunu göstermesi açısından önemlidir.
Her büyüklükte şirket eleman temininde aynı oranda sıkıntı yaşamaktadır. Doldurulamayan işler mesleki bilgi ve beceri eksikliği nedeniyle boş kalmaktadır. İstihdam edilenlerin sahip olduğu en önemli nitelikler işverenler tarafından mesleki bilgi, fiziki ve bedensel yeterlilik ve bilgisayar kullanma becerisi olarak belirtilmiştir. Çalışanların kendilerini sınıflandırması ile işyerlerinin onları nasıl sınıflandırdığı farklılık göstermektedir. Çalışanlar kendilerini işyerlerine göre daha vasıflı meslek gruplarına dahil etmektedir. İş arayanlar ve eleman arayanlar farklı bir sınıflama kullanmakta ve bu işgücü piyasasında iletişim eksikliğinden kaynaklanan bir eşleştirme sorunu yaratmaktadır. Eleman temininde en çok güçlük çekilen meslekler diğer işlerde çalışan sanatkarlar, metal işleme ve makine ile ilgili işlerde çalışan sanatkarlar ve madencilik, inşaat, imalat ve ulaştırma sektörlerinde nitelik gerektirmeyen işlerde çalışan elemanlardır.
Önümüzdeki üç yıl içinde istihdam yaratmaya yönelik yatırım yapılacak sektörlerin imalat, perakende ticaret, kişisel ev eşyaları onarımı ve toptan ticaret olduğu öngörülmüştür. Mevcut kapasiteyle yaratılacak istihdam ise meslek gruplarına göre nitelik gerektirmeyen işler, deri işleyen sanatkarlar ve makine montaj ve operatörleri olarak öne çıkmaktadır.
İzmir’de ortalama ücretler ile işsizlerin veya iş değiştirmeyi düşünenlerin ücret beklentileri arasında bir uyumsuzluk görülmemektedir. İzmir işgücü piyasasında çok yüksek bir iş değiştirme oranı ile karşılaşılmıştır. Bu yüksek hareketliliğin kaynakları çeşitlidir. Bir yandan sosyal güvenliğin eksikliği çalışanların işlerini bırakma maliyetini azaltmakta ve hareketliliği yükseltmektedir. Diğer yandan, işyerlerinin özellikle nitelik gerektirmeyen işlerde çalıştırdıkları elemanları “esnek işgücü” anlayışıyla kolayca işten çıkarıp, ihtiyaç duyduklarında tekrar alma politikası izlediklerini düşündürmektedir.
Hareketliliğin en yüksek olduğu meslek grupları daha çok nitelik gerektirmeyen kategorilerde yoğunlaşmaktadır. Temininde güçlük çekilen pozisyonlar ve yeni yaratılacak istihdam verisi incelendiğinde tesis ve makine operatörleri ve montajcılar meslek grubunda iş değiştirenlerin daha çok kendi istekleriyle, daha iyi bir işe kavuşma amacıyla iş değiştirdikleri, ancak sanatkarlar ve ilgili işlerde çalışanlar ile nitelik gerektirmeyen meslek gruplarında ise iş değiştirmenin çalışanların daha iyi bir iş bulma arayışıyla değil de işlerini kaybetmeleri nedeniyle gerçekleştiği ortaya çıkmaktadır.
This paper presents information on labour market mobility in 23 EU countries, using Eurostat’s Labour Force Survey (LFS) data over the period 1998-2008. More specifically, it discusses alternative measures of labour market churning; including the ease with which individuals can move between employment, unemployment and inactivity over time. The results suggest that the probability of remaining in the same labour market status between two consecutive periods is high for all countries. Nonetheless, transitions from unemployment and inactivity back into the labour market are relatively weak in the euro area and central eastern European EU (CEE EU) countries compared to Denmark and, particularly, Sweden. Moreover, comparisons of transition probabilities over time suggest that – until the onset of the financial crisis – the probability of remaining in unemployment over two consecutive periods decreased in Sweden, the euro area, and, to a lesser extent, Denmark, while it increased in the average CEE EU countries. At the same time, however, successful labour market entries (from outside the labour market) increased in the average CEE EU countries, Denmark and Sweden. On the basis of an index for labour markets turnover used in the paper (Shorrocks, 1987), labour markets in Spain, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, Denmark and Sweden are the most mobile on average, with these results mainly reflecting higher mobility of people below the age of 29, highly educated and female workers. We also find that mobility of all worker groups has generally increased over time in the euro area, Denmark and Sweden. Finally, we ask whether some of the observed changes in mobility can be broadly restraint to some “macro” explanatory factors, including part time and temporary employment, unemployment and structure indicators. The results provide a mixed picture, suggesting that the sense of mobility strongly varies across countries.
The female labor force participation level in Turkey is currently very low at 27 percent compared with the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, or OECD and European Union, or EU-19 averages of 61 and 64 percent respectively. This rate has been declining in the last 30 years from a level of 48 percent in 1980. This paper looks at the most recent trends and profiles of labor force participation of women in Turkey using three different household level data sources in available Turkey (HBS, LFS and TDHS) for the period 2003-2006. The paper also reports a multivatiate analysis on the probability of working for women, controlling for various characteristics.
Mothers' employment and earnings partly depend on social policies and cultural norms supporting women's paid and unpaid work.
Previous research suggests that work–family policies are deeply shaped by their cultural context. We examine country variation
in the associations between motherhood and earnings, in cultural attitudes surrounding women's employment, and in childcare
and parental leave policies. We model how cultural attitudes moderate the impact of policies on women's earnings across countries.
Parental leaves and public childcare are associated with higher earnings for mothers when cultural support for maternal employment
is high, but have less positive or even negative relationships with earnings where cultural attitudes support the male breadwinner/female
caregiver model.
We explore the role of paid work in women's empowerment in Turkey by analyzing the variation in employment status and occupational position of Turkish women according to socio-economic and geographic background characteristics, characteristics of their marriage, and gender role attitudes. Being employed is seen as a major instrument in making women less dependent on their families and freeing them from the suppressing influence of patriarchal ideologies. However, only 35% of married women are gainfully employed and half of them work as (family) farm workers. Women engaged in the formal economy are more highly educated, have husbands with higher occupations, have fewer children, live in the West and urban areas, are less suppressed by their families and have less traditional gender role attitudes. Not speaking Turkish is a major obstacle to economic independency for ethnic women. Findings basically support the U-curve hypothesis which predicts that with increasing modernization female employment first decreases and then increases. However, the effects of modernization are overshadowed by the strong influence of patriarchal ideology that tends to confine Turkish women to the private domain. The major way out of the web of patriarchal restrictions seems to be via education.
Using a large German linked employer-employee data set and methods of competing risks analysis, this paper investigates gender differences in job separation rates to employment and nonemployment. In line with descriptive evidence, we find lower job-to-job and higher job-to-nonemployment transition probabilities for women than men when controlling for individual and workplace characteristics and unobserved plant heterogeneity. These differences vanish once we allow these characteristics to affect separations differently by gender. When additionally controlling for wages, we find that both separation rates are considerably lower and also significantly less wage-elastic for women than for men.
The literature on job mobility patterns and search behaviour has highlighted significant gender differences. Women on average appear to suffer a higher risk of redundancy or dismissal, they exhibit a lesser commitment to the labour market activity, and they are relatively less mobile than men (Theodossiou, 2002). They are also more likely to exit employment for employee-initiated reasons, namely a family or personal reason, in contrast to men who are more likely to exit employment for an employer-initiated reason such as layoff or dismissal (Keith and McWilliams, 1997). However, although women are more likely to exit employment for a voluntary reason compared to men, men are more likely to be engaged in on-the-job search aiming at voluntary job mobility compared to women (Parson, 1991; van Ophem, 1991; Keith and McWilliams, 1999). The primary reason for these gender differences in the labour market behaviour are the societal constraints associated with women’s dominant role in childcare. Hersch and Stratton (1997) show that women, especially married women, spend three times more time engaged in household activities and are substantially more prepared to quit their job for a family-related reason than men are (Keith and McWilliams, 1997; Theodossiou, 2002).
This article reports on the findings and policy implications of a UK study that used both qualitative and quantitative methods to investigate mothers' decision-making with respect to the interlinked issues of the care of their pre-school children and their own employment. Mothers were found to have both internal and external constraints on their decisions. In the three areas of finances, childcare and working time, both personal identities and external circumstances limited mothers' choices. However, neither external circumstances nor identities were fixed. Behaviour and identities were therefore adjusted to each other, giving rise to feedback effects at both the individual and the social level.
While the constraints of identity limit the direct effectiveness of some policies, the long-term effectiveness of others may be enhanced by positive feedback arising from attitudes changing along with behaviour. A ‘policy multiplier’ is defined as the ratio of such indirect to direct effects. This is likely to be greater for enabling policies that lift existing constraints and enable choices that were previously not available, than for coercive policies that impose new constraints on behaviour. The article examines the implications of such feedback effects for developing policy that expands the choices available to mothers in the short term, reduces the costs of motherhood, and meets the government's long-term objectives of reducing child poverty and increasing employment.
This paper uses data from the World Value Surveys (1990, 1995,1999) to investigate the impact of gender role attitudes and work values on women's labour-market outcomes across 25 OECD countries. Anti-egalitarian views are found to display the strongest negative association with female employment rates and the gender pay gap. These views are, however, softening among recent cohorts. On the other hand, perceptions of women's role as homemakers, which are likely formed in youth and linked to religious ideology, are more persistent over time. They could be implicated in the recent slowdown of the gender convergence in pay. Finally, the unavoidable clash between family values and egalitarian views, that takes the form of an inner conflict for many women--the so-called 'mother's guilt'--is another obstacle in the path towards greater gender equality in the labour market. Copyright 2005, Oxford University Press.
Recently, several researchers hypothesized that the female labor force participation rate exhibits a U-shape during the process of economic development. This paper provides time series evidence on female labor force participation rates in Turkey and considers its cross-provincial determinants. Time series evidence shows that after a period of sharp decline, female labor force participation rates have exhibited a slowdown in the rate of decline recently. An upturn in this rate may be expected during the coming decades. In the cross-provincial determinants of female labor force participation the measure of development used is per capita Gross Provincial Product. A quadratic term in per capita Gross Provincial Product and other determinants are included in the models estimated. The models are estimated using data for 67 provinces for three time points: 1980, 1985 and 1990. The results affirm the U-shaped impact of economic development. Further, unemployment had a considerable discouraging effect on female labor force participation while the impact of education was strongly positive. The hidden unemployment computations indicate that urban female unemployment rate is underestimated and the discouraged-worker effect for women is substantial.
This paper revisits the old question of whether wage growth differs by education level. Do more educated workers invest more than less educated workers in firm specific, sector specific or general human capital? Do they gain more from improved job match? The paper makes both a methodological and a substantive contribution by offering an alternative strategy for separately identifying returns to general experience, sector specific experience, firm tenure, and job match. Our empirical results, based on the Survey of Income and Program Participation, show that overall wage growth is higher for more-educated workers. This reflects higher returns to general experience for college graduates and higher returns to sector experience for high school graduates. Improvements in job match grow monotonically with education.
This paper provides a systematic analysis of the determinants of transitions in the Turkish labor market by using the Household Labor Force Survey (HLFS) panel data of 2000 and 2001. We provide two types of evidence. First, we compute annual transition probabilities between the labor market states of employment, unemployment and out-of-the labor force under Markovian assumptions by gender and rural-urban residence and marital status. Transition probabilities are used to analyze the differences in unemployment rates of these groups. Second, we present estimates of gender-specific multinomial logit models to analyze the determinants of men’s and women’s transition probabilities across labor market states. We find that urban women have higher unemployment rates than urban men because they have lower probability of exiting unemployment for a job and higher probability of exiting employment for unemployment. Non-married men and women’s unemployment rates are higher than married men and women’s. This may be attributed to the higher probability of nonmarried men and women’s to lose a job. Increases in education level are found to decrease the probability of losing a job. University graduates of two-year and over are more likely to find employment compared to non-graduates. Younger individuals are more likely to lose a job but older individuals are less likely to find a job from unemployment. In provinces with high unemployment the probability of obtaining a job is lower from unemployment. The findings indicate negative duration dependence for women, but not for men. Men improve their chances of obtaining a job if they use newspapers or worker agents.
This analysis of data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth shows that cumulative job mobility had statistically significant effects on wages in the years 1979-88. The direction of the wage effects (positive or negative) and their magnitude varied depending on the type of cumulative mobility examined: employee-initiated versus employer-initiated separations, economic versus family-related quits, layoffs versus discharges. The results also indicate that although men and women had different mobility histories-men, for example, had been discharged more often than women, and women had quit for family-related reasons more often than men-the wage effects of each type of cumulative mobility (economic quits, family-related quits, layoffs, and discharges) were similar for men and women. (Abstract courtesy JSTOR.)
This study examines the main characteristics of job-to-job movers in Turkey, using the individual level data obtained from the Household Labor Force Surveys of 2004 and 2005. In order to examine the data we used two-step sample selection model following the approach developed by Heckman (1979). For comparison purposes, the analyses are carried out for the full data as well as by considering residence difference. We find that urban residents are more likely to change their jobs than rural residing ones. Further, while urban residing females are more likely to make a job-to-job movement, rural residing counterparts are less likely, compared to males. Moreover, marriage seems to decline the probability of job-to-job movement particularly in the urban areas. Further, while primary and junior high school graduates are more likely to change their jobs, high school graduates are less likely to change their jobs, compared to non-graduates. Increases in age seem to decline the likelihood of making a job-to-job movement.
We discuss the ease with which individuals can move between employment, unemployment and inactivity over time in the EU. Transitions from unemployment and inactivity back into employment are relatively weak in Central Eastern, Mediterranean and Continental European labour markets compared to Nordic European countries. On the basis of a mobility index used in the paper (Shorrocks, Econometrica, 46:1013-1024, 1978), labour markets in Spain, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, Denmark and Sweden are the most mobile, with these results mainly reflecting mobility of people below the age of 29, highly educated and female workers. Looking at some “macro” explanatory factors, the results suggest a mixed picture.
This article investigates the twin cultural (conservatism) and economic (neo-liberalism) challenge to gender justice through
a discussion of female employment in Turkey, where essentialist views of women's difference continue to be used to legitimize
the confinement of women to care work and the character of employment relations in a neo-liberal environment renders women's
participation in working life practically impossible. The article shows how neo-liberalism can actually act in tandem with
cultural conservatism to shape a social order where traditional gender norms are reasserted, crippling parity of participation.
It is argued that a widely shared tendency to regard cultural norms and labor market relations as natural phenomena presents
an obstacle against the development of a transformative agenda for the eradication of gender injustice.
Turkey has one of the widest male–female employment gaps in the world. The post-1950 interplay between economic growth strategies and the male-breadwinner family led to distinct gendered labor market outcomes in the import-substitution versus the export-led growth periods. Examination of aggregate employment data in the 1955–2009 period, as well as regression analyses of household survey data for 1988, 2000, and 2008 and qualitative data from a 1997 field study, show that the lack of a demand-side challenge to the male-breadwinner family resulted in the institutionalization of the gendered labor division and roles as binding constraints on women' labor supply. The prevalence of informal sector employment and absence of paid work–family reconciliation measures magnify these supply-side constraints. Social conservatism is a more limited constraint, while men' unemployment emerges as a counteracting factor. Nevertheless, women' desire for increased autonomy emerges as the primary motivation for entering the labor market.
This study examines the main characteristics of job-to-job movers in Turkey, using the individual level data obtained from the Household Labor Force Surveys of 2004 and 2005. In order to examine the data we used two-step sample selection model following the approach developed by Heckman (1979). For comparison purposes, the analyses are carried out for the full data as well as by considering residence difference. We find that urban residents are more likely to change their jobs than rural residing ones. Further, while urban residing females are more likely to make a job-to-job movement, rural residing counterparts are less likely, compared to males. Moreover, marriage seems to decline the probability of job-to-job movement particularly in the urban areas. Further, while primary and junior high school graduates are more likely to change their jobs, high school graduates are less likely to change their jobs, compared to non-graduates. Increases in age seem to decline the likelihood of making a job-to-job movement.
This study examines job mobility in Korean labor markets since the 1997 economic crisis. The rising job mobility in Korea is analyzed by focusing on structural change in labor markets. Using the Korean Labor and Income Panel Study and discrete-time event history analysis, I estimate the job-stabilizing effects of internal labor markets and the effects of structural change on job mobility. The major findings are as follows: First, I found that internal labor markets were weakening between 1998 and 2000. Second, the job-stabilizing effects of internal labor markets on job mobility diminished between 1998 and 2000. Finally, the magnitude of the effects of internal labor markets on job mobility was contingent on the level of structural change. The effect of internal labor markets on job mobility was stronger in turbulent or contracting industries. This effect, however, also became weaker over time. The implications for Korean labor markets are discussed.
This article studies the provenance and destination of individuals in mobility, by processing the data obtained by ISTAT (Italy’s National Statistical Institute). Disaggregation of the data by sex reveals intermittent labor-force participation by the female component of the population. Disaggregation of the data by age group shows that this situation persists unchanged over time, given that substantial uniformity of behavior is observed between young women and the female population as a whole. Tournament theory provides grounds to argue that this behavior is Pareto-inefficient, because it obstructs the optimal allocation of talent in society. The conclusion is drawn that economic policy measures are necessary in order to alter the gender division of labor in its current form.
This paper explores gender differences with respect to the factors affecting the job-to-joblessness turnover. It casts light on the characteristics of those men and women who experience the highest propensity of their job ending in joblessness, taking into account the reasons for the job loss. The findings highlight the determinants of gender differences in labour turnover patterns.
Informality has long been a salient phenomenon in developing country labor markets, thus has been addressed in several theoretical and empirical research. Turkey, given its economic and demographic dynamics, provides rich evidence for a growing, heterogeneous and multifaceted informal labor market. However, the existing evidence on labor informality in Turkey is mixed and scant. Along these lines, we aim to extend the existing literature by providing a diagnosis of dynamic worker flows across distinct labor market states and identifying the effects of certain individual and job characteristics on variant mobility patterns. More specifically, we first develop and discuss a set of probability statistics based on annual worker transitions across distinct employment states utilizing Markov transition processes. Towards this end, we will use the novel Income and Living Conditions Survey (SILC) panel data set. The transitions analysis is conducted separately for two, three and four year panels pertaining to 2006 to 2007, 2006 to 2008 and 2006 to 2009 transitions; for total, male and female samples; and lastly for total and non-agricultural samples. In this way, we aim to contribute to the limited body of stylized facts available on mobility and informality in the Turkish labor market. Next, we conduct multinomial logit regressions individually for each set of panel to identify the impact of individual characteristics (i.e. gender, age, education level, work experience, sector of economic activity, firm size, number of other household members, having/not having children, rural/urban) underlying worker transitions. The results reveal several relationships between the covariates and likelihood of variant transitions, and are of remarkable importance for designing policy to address labor informality and reduce its negative externalities.
I analyze the job separation process to learn about gender differences in job separation rates and employment stability. An essential finding is that employer-employee data are required to identify gender differences in job separation probabilities because of labor market segregation. Failure to recognize this may potentially lead to statistical discrimination. Three important empirical results are obtained from the analysis. First, women have higher unconditional job separation probabilities. Second, there are no gender differences in job separation probabilities for employees working in similar workplaces. Finally, women's employment stability is relatively low because they are more likely to move from a job and into unemployment or out of the labor force, and less likely to make job-to-job transitions.
From book description:
Modern labor economics has continued to grow and develop since the first volumes of this Handbook were published. The subject matter of labor economics continues to have at its core an attempt to systematically find empirical analyses that are consistent with a systematic and parsimonious theoretical understanding of the diverse phenomenon that make up the labor market. As before, many of these analyses are provocative and controversial because they are so directly relevant to both public policy and private decision making. In many ways the modern development in the field of labor economics continues to set the standards for the best work in applied economics. This volume of the Handbook has a notable representation of authors - and topics of importance - from throughout the world.
Although the primacy of household responsibilities in determining gender differences in labor market outcomes is universally recognized, there has been little investigation of the direct effect of housework on wages. Using data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, cross-sectional wage regressions reveal a substantial negative relation between wages and housework for wives, which persists in specifications controlling for individual fixed effects. The evidence for husbands is inconclusive. Married women's housework time is, on average, three times that of married men's. The addition of housework time to the wage equations increases the explained component of the gender wage gap from 27-30 percent to 38 percent.
This paper re-examines the turnover behaviour of men and women using panel data from six European countries. It makes a distinction between job-to-job (JJ) and job-to-non-employment (JNE) transitions, and explores the role that education and unemployment play in gender differences regarding these mobility patterns. Low educated women have lower JJ transition probabilities but are more likely to exit to non-employment compared to the other groups, high-educated women and men of all educational levels. Furthermore, unemployment reduces the JJ turnover of male and female workers of all educational levels. There is a pro-cyclical response in the JNE transitions of the less-educated males and a counter-cyclical response in the JNE transitions of the less-educated females. Finally, there are remarkable similarities in labour market mobility across countries, although there are various institutional and other labour market differences.
This article addresses the marked variations in women's employment that exist within and across countries, with a specific focus on mothers of children below school-going age . Using comparative survey data for 26 countries, it investigates the determinants of maternal employment behaviour with women's attitudes as important predictors, alongside cost–benefit considerations and the influence of national context factors. Results show that mothers' personal care attitudes are significantly related to their paid work involvement. Yet, multilevel analyses reveal cross-country differences in the predictive power of such attitudes . Stressing that neither women's choices nor their attitudes can in fact be taken as expressions of what their personal ideals are, observed attitude–behaviour relations are interpreted as the result of two underlying processes—the selection of behaviours based on attitudes and the adaptation of attitudes to match the chosen behaviour.
As a consequence of the rapid growth of temporary agency employment in Germany, the debate on the remuneration of temporary agency workers has intensified recently. The study finds that the earnings gap of temporary help workers in Germany is indeed large and increased during the past decade. Decomposition reveals that the widening gap mainly is driven by changes in relative skill prices and less by differences in the workforce composition. Temps already have to accept a marked earnings decline before entering the temporary help sector. Nevertheless, after leaving the sector temporary help workers no longer have to accept a pay penalty. A recent reform set a high incentive for temporary help agencies to pay their workers according to a collective agreement. Surprisingly, the unionization of the sector could not bring thewidening earnings gap to a halt.
Using multinomial probit estimates of the probability of job-to-job and job-to-nonemployment turnover, the author finds that differences between women's and men's turnover are due to the behavior of less educated women. Both the job-to-job and job-to-nonemployment turnover of less educated women are significantly different from that of more educated women as well as both groups of men. She also finds that distinguishing between types of turnover--job-to-job versus job-to-nonemployment--is quite important, particularly in understanding the turnover patterns of women. Copyright 1998 by University of Chicago Press.
An employed worker's search strategies include (1) employed-not searching, (2) employed-searching, and (3) unemployed-searching. The last requires that the worker quit to search. Under plausible assumptions on search costs, the optimal algorithm involves a dual reservation wage strategy (Burdett, 1978). The probability of on-the-job search increases as the current wage decreases relative to the distribution of alternative wages. If the wage is sufficiently low, the searcher quits to search, substituting time for financial outlays. Estimates based on the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth indicate that these calculations characterize the search strategies of young workers. Copyright 1991 by MIT Press.
This paper critically examines two strands within contemporary gender essentialism--that is, the argument that men and women are fundamentally different and that it is this 'difference' that explains the continuing social and material differences between the sexes. The first strand we examine is Hakim's 'preference theory', which has argued that persisting sex differences in employment patterns are an outcome of the 'choices' made by different 'types' of women. We next examine the claims of populist conservative feminism, that has argued that women (and men) in partnerships will be happier if they adopt a gender role traditionalism in the domestic sphere. Our empirical findings suggest that neither of these theoretical explanations are supported by our data, which is derived from the samples of six countries participating in the International Social Survey Programme Family 2002 module.
Studies of gender differences in the returns to job mobility have yielded conflicting results. The authors examine whether there are gender differences in mobility patterns or in the returns to different types of mobility. Their results, based on the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, imply that there are gender differences in mobility patterns but there are not gender differences in the wage growth associated with different types of mobility. Therefore, it appears that empirical estimates of the gender differences in the returns to job mobility may be misleading if they do not consider the cause of separation. Copyright 1997 by Oxford University Press.
This paper investigates the factors that determine job-to-job mobility in Ireland over the period 1995 to 2001. It finds that labour market experience, working in the public sector, human capital, whether a person is overskilled and the sector they work in are important determinants of job change. In addition, the paper finds the rate of job mobility in Ireland practically doubled over the period. The sample is divided into two time periods and a decomposition technique is applied to ascertain how much of the increase in mobility is attributable to compositional changes and how much is due to other factors
This paper discusses the bias that results from using nonrandomly selected samples to estimate behavioral relationships as an ordinary specification error or "omitted variables" bias. A simple consistent two stage estimator is considered that enables analysts to utilize simple regression methods to estimate behavioral functions by least squares methods. The asymptotic distribution of the estimator is derived.
The purpose of this study is to examine the labour market outcomes of married couples to find out which of the added and discouraged worker effects is dominant in urban Turkish families. Using household labour force survey and province-level data from 1988 and 1994, we look for evidence regarding the dependency of the labour force participation decisions of wives and the employment status of their husbands. On yearly and pooled samples of married couples in their prime ages, bivariate probit estimates indicate that the two decisions are negatively correlated. However, the correlation is found to be statistically significant only in the economic crisis year of 1994. We interpret this finding to mean that the added worker effect dominates the discouraged worker effect.
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