Anemia and growth

Abstract

Chronic anemia has a negative effect on linear growth during all stages of growth (infancy, childhood and
adolescence). In addition, infants with chronic IDA have delayed cognitive, motor, and affective development that may be long-lasting. The mechanisms of defective growth in IDA includes defective IGF-I secretion. Correction of anemia is associated with an improvement of catch-up growth and a signifi cant increase in IGF-I secretion.

Full text

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Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism / 2014 / Vol 18 | Supplement 1 S1
IJEM_453_14R1
INTRODUCTION
Anemia in childhood is defi ned as a hemoglobin (Hb)
concentration below cut off levels established by the
World Health Organization: <11 g/dl in children aged
6–59 months, <11.5 g/dl in children aged 5–11 years and
12 g/dl in older children (aged 12–14).[1]
The likely cause of childhood anemia varies in different
regions, with iron defi ciency anemia (IDA) being the most
common cause. In the developing world, infectious diseases
such as malaria, helminth infections, HIV and tuberculosis
are other important causes of anemia.[2] Inherited forms
of anemia are occasionally encountered in certain racial
groups. Sickle cell disease is more common in people of
Central African origin while β-thalassaemias are more
common in Mediterranean, Middle Eastern and Southeast
Asian populations.[3,4]
In infants and young children, severe chronic anemia
may lead to delayed growth and long term effects on
neurodevelopment and behavior, mediated by changes in
neurotransmitter myelination, monoamine metabolism
in striatum, functioning of the hippocampus and energy
metabolism. Growth and pubertal delay are common
complications of thalassemia major.[5-7]
Iron is essential for all tissues in a young child’s developing
body. Iron is reversibly stored within the liver as ferritin
and hemosiderin and is transported between different
compartments in the body by transferrin. Ferritin is the
stored form of iron used by the cells, and a better measure
of available iron levels than serum iron. Fe performs
vital functions including carrying of oxygen from lung
to tissues, transport of electrons within cells, acting as
co-factor for essential enzymatic reactions, including
synthesis of steroid hormones and neurotransmission.
Mitochondria supply cells with adenosine triphosphate,
heme, and iron-sulfur clusters (ISC), and mitochondrial
energy metabolism involves both heme-and ISC-dependent
enzymes. Mitochondrial iron supply and function require
iron regulatory proteins that control messenger RNA
translation and stability and iron is positively correlated
with mitochondrial oxidative capacity.[8-10]
EFFECT OF IRON SUPPLEMENTATION ON
GROWTH OF NORMAL CHILDREN
Many authors have reviewed the effect of routine iron
supplementation on growth in children. A systematic
review analyzed 25 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that
evaluated the effect of iron supplementation on physical
growth in children (interventions included oral or parenteral
iron supplementation, or iron-fortifi ed formula milk or
cereals). The pooled estimates (random effects model) did
not document a statistically signifi cant (P > 0.05) positive
effect of iron supplementation on any anthropometric
variable (Weight [Wt]-for-age, Wt-for-height [Ht],
Ht-for-age, mid-arm circumference [MAC], skinfold
thickness, HA). However, greater Wt-for-age in
supplemented children in malaria hyper-endemic regions
and greater Wt-for-Ht for children above 5 years of age
were noted, along with a negative effect on linear growth
in developed countries and with supplementation for
6 months or longer.[11] Two other meta-analysis of 21 RCTs
examining iron (supplementation) interventions in children
aged <18 years found that the iron-supplementation had
no signifi cant effect on growth.[12]
AQ2
Corresponding Author: Prof. Ashraf T. Soliman, Department of Pediatrics, Hamad General Hospital, P. O. Box 3050, Doha, Qatar.
E-mail: atsoliman@yahoo.com
Anemia and growth
Ashraf T. Soliman, Vincenzo De Sanctis1, Sanjay Kalra2
Department of Pediatrics, Hamad Medical Centre, Doha, Qatar, 1???, Pediatric and Adolescent Outpatient Clinic, Private Accredited Quisisana
Hospital, Italy, 2???, Indian Journal Endocrinology and Metabolism, Journal of Social Health in Diabetes, Bharti Hospital and B.R.I.D.E.,
Karnal 132001, Haryana, India
AQ1
Editorial
Access this article online
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Website:
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DOI:
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Soliman, et al.: Anemia and growth
Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism / 2014 / Vol 18 | Supplement 1
S2
The second meta-analysis included iron-fortifi ed foods,
iron-fortifi ed formula, or iron supplements and evaluated
Ht, Wt, MAC, head circumference (HC), birth weight, or
length of gestation in infants, children, and adolescents,
and seven studies conducted in pregnant women.[13]
The overall pooled result (random-effects model) showed
no signifi cant effects of iron intervention on any of
the parameters measured. When results were stratifi ed
according to dose of iron, duration of intervention,
age, and baseline iron status, only doses of 40–66 mg of
supplemental iron and intervention in children ≥6 years of
age showed a slight but signifi cant association with weight
and MAC.[13]
Effect of antenatal and infant anemia on growth
Early ID appears to have specifi c effects on the central
nervous system. In the rat, a brief period of ID during
the brain growth spurt (10–28 days) causes a lasting
defi cit in brain iron, which persists into adulthood despite
correction of the anemia. Altered neurotransmitter
function is present in the brains of iron-defi cient rats.
The activity of monoamine oxidase and aldehyde oxidase
are reversibly diminished, as is the functional activity
of dopamine Dd2 receptors. Many dopamine-mediated
behaviors are modifi ed.[14-16] Pregnant rats on Fe restricted
diet produced litters with a signifi cant reduction in the
physical growth indexes (body weight, body length, tail
length, and head length) compared with the control group.
These results suggest that adequate Fe is essential during
both intrauterine and neonatal life.[17]
In human, both brain and body growth, especially during
the phase of rapid infantile growth, requires relatively high
energy supply and metabolism. Cellular energy metabolism
is dependent on oxygen. Fe defi ciency decreases oxygen
dependent cellular energy metabolism due to decreased
heme and Hb synthesis, decreased red blood cells (RBC)
synthesis, and decreased RBC survival due to increased
oxidative stress in RBC, Hb autoxidation, generation of
toxic oxygen radicles scrambling and increased removal
by macrophage. Consequently, IDA leads to impaired
cognitive abilities and defective linear growth.[18-23]
Effect of anemia and iron supplementation, on growth in
anemic children
Only few controlled studies have investigated the effect
of IDA, and the effect of treatment with iron, on growth
in children with IDA. Aukett et al., showed that treatment
of IDA with oral iron for 2 months was associated with a
signifi cantly greater increase in weight velocity compared
to the placebo group.[24] Other studies have confi rmed
these observations, and also suggest that the correction
of anemia is associated with a reduction in the increased
morbidity (fever, respiratory tract infections, diarrhea) seen
in children with IDA.[21,22] Bandhu et al., studied the effects
of IDA, and its correction with Fe, in school going children
on anthropometric parameters. Pre-supplementation values
of IDA children were signifi cantly lower for MAC and
HC in girls and for Ht and MAC in boys, when compared
to the control group. Iron supplementation-induced
improvement in hematological parameters was associated
with signifi cant improvement of Ht, Wt and MAC. Post
therapy, the anemic girls and boys grew faster than their
respective control groups.[25]
Soliman et al. measured growth and parameters in 40
children (aged 17.2 ± 12.4 months) with IDA before
and for 6 months after iron therapy in comparison with
normal controls. Before treatment children with IDA were
signifi cantly shorter and had slower growth compared
with age-matched controls. After treatment, their growth
velocity (GV), length standard deviation scores (SDS) and
body mass index (BMI) increased signifi cantly (signifi cant
catch-up of growth). Their GV was correlated signifi cantly
with mean Hb concentration.[26] Similarly, Bhatia et al.
assessed the growth status of 117 anemic (Hb 7–10 g/dl)
and 53 normal (11 g/dl) children (3–5 years). The anemic
children had signifi cantly lower body weight, height and
weight for age. Iron treatment (40 mg elemental iron/day)
for both groups of children for 6 months produced a
signifi cant increase in Hb levels of both groups (1.6 g/dl in
the anemic and 0.8 g/dl in the non-anemic) compared to their
respective controls who received sugar placebos.[27] Growth
performance of anemic children supplemented with iron
was superior to that of anemic placebo-treated children as
indicated by a better weight gain and a signifi cantly higher
weight for height.[28] In summary, IDA in children, especially
during the fi rst 2 years of life signifi cantly impairs growth
that can be corrected by adequate iron therapy.
Effect of iron defi ciency anemia and iron treatment on
growth hormone-insulin-like growth factor-I axis
Novel endocrine pathways have been proposed to explain the
effect of IDA on growth. Anemia imposes a hypoxic condition
on hepatocytes. Hepatic protein synthesis is inhibited by
hypoxia. In vitro, low oxygen conditions inhibit insulin-like
growth factor-I (IGF-I) action by increasing IGF binding
protein -1 (IGFBP-1), especially phosphorylated IGFBP-1,
which inhibits IGF-I action. In addition, IGF-I-induced cell
proliferation is also inhibited in low oxygen conditions.[27,29,30]
Transferrin (Tf) is the major circulating iron binding protein.
In addition to its function as the Fe3+-carrier protein in
serum has a unique ability to bind IGFs and to interact with
IGFBP-3. Tf can abolish IGFBP-3-induced cell proliferation
and apoptosis in different cell lines. On the other hand, the

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Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism / 2014 / Vol 18 | Supplement 1 S3
Fe3 ± Tf complex might facilitate the transport of IGFs
across the capillary wall by receptor-mediated transcytosis.
Therefore, increased Tf during IDA may adversely affect
the integrity of IGF-I system.[31]
Animal studies
In Wistar rats, dietary ID decreased hematocrit and Hb
concentrations, IGF-I, 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol,
IGF-I, and osteocalcin concentrations and bone mineral
density of the femur and vertebrae compared with control
rats. Bone histomorphometric parameters showed that the
bone formation rate and osteoclast surface in the lumbar
vertebra were signifi cantly reduced in the ID group compared
with the control group.[32-34] Calves with IDA were found to
have low plasma IGF-I concentrations. After recombinant
growth hormone (GH) administration, increments in
IGF-I in IDA calves were reduced despite high plasma
GH levels. This suggested decreased sensitivity (partial
resistance) to GH during anemia.[35] Gestational ID in rats
attenuates postnatal hippocampal IGF signaling and results
in markedly suppressed hippocampal IGF activation and
protein kinase B signaling. Early postnatal iron treatment
of gestational ID reactivates the IGF system and promotes
neurogenesis and differentiation in the hippocampus.[36]
Human studies
In 40 infants and young children with IDA
(Hb = 8.2 ± 1.2 g/dl) treated for 6 months with iron
therapy, circulating IGF-I increased signifi cantly, along with
acceleration of GV and increased length SDS and BMI.[37]
Isguven et al., studied 25 prepubertal children with IDA
and 25 healthy controls. IGF-I, Ghrelin, and insulin levels
were signifi cantly lower in the ID group.[38] They suggested
that low ghrelin and insulin levels might be the cause of
the appetite loss in IDA. In addition, low Ghrelin (a GH
secretagogue) may decrease GH and subsequently IGF-I
secretion. They related growth delay both to low IGF-I
secretion and appetite loss.[39]
In adolescents, Choi and Kim reported significant
correlation between Hb concentration and serum iron on
the one hand and IGF-I concentration on the other hand.[40]
In a large adult cohort (n = 1,093) the association of
IGF-1 with Hb concentration was studied. Anemic
adults exhibited signifi cantly lower IGF-1 compared with
non-anemic controls.[41]
Effect of thalassemia on growth and growth
hormone-insulin-like growth factor-I axis
Thalassemia and growth are linked by different,
multifactorial mechanisms. Growth retardation occurs
almost invariably in homozygous β-thalassemia. Signifi cant
size retardation is observed in stature, sitting height, weight,
biacromial (shoulder), and bicristal (iliac crest) breadths.
After the age of 4 years, the longitudinal growth patterns
display rates consistently behind those of normal controls.
Growth retardation becomes markedly severe with the failure
of the pubertal growth spurt.[38,42-44] With the introduction
of high transfusion regimes and effi cient iron chelation
in thalassemia management, prepubertal linear growth
has improved markedly.[44,45] However, abnormal growth
is still observed in the majority of patients during late
childhood and adolescence.[46] Hemosiderosis (secondary
to repeated packed cell transfusion) induced damage of
the endocrine glands (pituitary, thyroid, gonads, pancreas),
liver, and growth plate, is a major cause of growth failure.[44]
However, other important factors also contribute to this
growth delay [Table 1].[45-51]
Many studies done on children with thalassemia have
shown a variable prevalence of defective GH secretion
in response to different stimuli (clonidine, glucagon,
Insulin hypoglycemia, GrowthGH-releasing hormone).
Some of the short thalassemic children with normal
GH secretion, have neurosecretory dysfunction of GH
secretion.[44,47,49] In addition, IGF-I concentrations have
been shown to be low in the majority of children and
adults with thalassemia, with or without GH defi ciency.
One-day-IGF-I generation tests have shown lower IGF-I
generation in thalassemic children compared with normal
short children and those with GHD. Defective GH
secretion and hepatic siderosis are major causes of low
IGF-I secretion.[49-51] Acute correction of anemia, by
packed cell transfusion, signifi cantly increases the serum
concentration of IGF-I but does not affect GH secretion
or IGF-I in response to GH stimulation. Increasing
caloric intake and improving nutrition has been shown
to increase IGF-I and growth in these patients. Some
acceleration of linear growth can be achieved by GH
therapy; however this growth response appears inferior
to the response of non-thalassemic children with GH
defi ciency.[45,46,51]
SUMMARY
Chronic anemia has a negative effect on linear growth
during all stages of growth (infancy, childhood and
adolescence). In addition, infants with chronic IDA have
delayed cognitive, motor, and affective development that
may be long-lasting. The mechanisms of defective growth
in IDA includes defective IGF-I secretion. Correction of
anemia is associated with an improvement of catch-up
growth and a signifi cant increase in IGF-I secretion.

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In view of the signifi cant impact of IDA on growth,
endocrinologists should advocate primary prevention and
screening for ID. Although the use of iron supplemented
formulas offers an easy method of primary prevention
of IDA, evidence now indicates that routine iron
supplementation appears useful only in areas with high
prevalence of IDA, including malaria-endemic areas, and
may present some risks for those with normal Hb. Hence,
universal iron supplementation cannot be supported.
In thalassemia, adequate packed cell transfusion
(hypertransfusion) and proper iron chelation, sound
nutrition, early diagnosis and management of dysfunction
of growth and pubertal axes can improve the fi nal outcome
of these children.
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Table 1: Effect of iron defi ciency anemia versus chronic hemolytic anemia on and thalassemia on growth and
endocrine glands
Chronic hemolytic anemia on repeated RBC transfusion Iron defi ciency anemia
Early brain growth and
metabolism
No effect In-utero and early life leads to altered
neurotransmission and monoamine oxidase
and other enzyme metabolism
Psychomotor
development
No effect Defective psychomotor development that may
persist later
In-utero and early infantile
postnatal linear growth
No effect Defective intrauterine and early postnatal
growth
Childhood linear growth Marked effect Marked effect
Pubertal growth spurt Marked effect because of delayed and/or failure of puberty and
defective GH-IGF-I axis
Less signifi cant effect
GH secretion Signifi cant decrease in variable number of patients (pituitary iron
overload)
No effect
IGF-I secretion Marked decrease of IGF-I secretion Hepatic siderosis) Decreases IGF-I secretion
Effect on appetite and
weight gain
Decreases appetite and many have low BMI (correction of nutrition
increases IGF-I and weight gain)
Decreases appetite and is associated with
underweight in many children and adolescents
Effect on other endocrine
glands
Hypothyroidism
Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and diabetes mellitus (iron overload)
are common complications
No effect (in adults thyroid dysfunction may
occur)
Effect on liver Liver fi brosis, cirrhosis and failure may occur secondary to iron
overload (siderosis)
No effect on hepatic function
Effect on heart Arrhythmia and heart failure still occur secondary to iron overload
and hypoxia
Heart failure is rare and occurs in severe
prolonged cases
Effect of treatment of
anemia
Adequate blood transfusion and iron chelation improves IGF-I
secretion, weight gain and linear growth but short stature is still
common complication
Fe therapy; 1 increases IGF-I, weight gain and
linear growth (complete catch-up growth)
GH: Growth hormone, RBC: Red blood cell, IGF-I: Insulin-like growth factor I

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