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Terpenoids and Phenolic Compounds Production of Mint Genotypes in Response to Mycorrhizal Bio- Elicitors
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Mentha spicata is known as a rich source of valuable secondary metabolites with lots of medicinal properties. Application of many fungal species as bio-elicitors to improve secondary metabolite biosynthesis is recommended, but few studies have been conducted regarding the obvious effect of mycorrhizal fungi on the content of secondary metabolites and their biosynthetic pathways in host plants. In this study, the effect of two species of mycorrhizal fungi Glomus etunicatum and Glomus mosseae on concentrations of essential oil, expression of limonene synthase gene (the key regulating gene in the biosynthesis pathway of terpenoids) and amount of total phenolic compounds in three genotypes of Mentha spicata with origin of Isfahan, Kermanshah and Yazd was investigated. In addition, activity of the phenylalanine ammonia lyaz (PAL) enzyme and the number of trichome (main sites of essential oil synthesis) in fresh leaves was measured. In this study, application of mycorrhizal bio-elicitors increased content of phenolic compounds (especially in root), to higher degree compared to essential oil content and limonene synthase gene expression in mint genotypes. The results of increasing of phenolic compounds accumulation in treated mint genotypes were observed following increase in PAL enzyme activity. Increased Essential oil in mint inoculated plants, was associated to biomass content and number of glandular trichomes significantly. Also the mycorrhiza inoculation did not lead to significant changes in expression of limonene synthase gene in these plants. This study showed that difference in the increase of secondary metabolites is dependent on fungal species of Glomus as bio-elicitor and host plants' genotype.
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... These are in line with the findings of this study, whereas increases in the vegetative growth and yield of oil in both localities and cuts were recorded from plants grown in soil infested with VAM integrated with the tested yeast followed by VAM alone as compared to the control. A Significant relationship between the density of gland trichome and essential oil concentration in mint genotypes was reported by Bagheri et al. (2014). The greater number of glands in mycorrhizal plants may be associated with changes in the hormonal profiles and increased levels of auxin, cytokinin, and gibberellin in plants, which eventually lead to the increase of the essential oil content (Torelli et al., 2000). ...
This study evaluates the efficacy of vascular arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi (a mixture of Glomus intraradices and G. etunicatum) and yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), separately and in combination against spearmint root rot and wilt diseases at Giza and Qalubiya governorates. Egypt. Isolation from diseased roots yielded Fusarium oxysporum, Rhizoctonia solani, Pythium ultimum and F. solani. Spearmint plants grown in soil infested with the tested mycorrhiza in combination with S. cerevisiae in presence/absence of any of the tested pathogens reduced the percentage of infection in the two cuts with 90 days apart and localities and increased the level of mycorrhizal root colonization, number of mycorrhiza spores and the population of S. cerevisiae in the rhizosphere of spearmint plants relative to the control. Mycorrhiza alone or integrated with yeast showed increment in the agronomic characters of spearmint plants including, number of stolons/plant, stolon length/plant, stolon fresh weight, herb fresh weight and oil yield. Also, the Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC) analysis showed increment in carvone as the main oil component in spearmint plants grown in soil infested with mycorrhiza + yeast + F. oxysporum in comparison to the control.
... Arbuscular mycorrhizal association and some plant growth promoting bacteria by making symbiotic association can be helpful for obtaining appropriate amount of absorbable phosphorus from organic matters and minerals by production of phosphatase enzymes as well as increased diffusion zone around root architecture 16 . AM associations and plant growth promoting bacteria have been reported to have functions in improving the growth of medicinal plants and the productivity of medicinal compounds [17][18][19][20][21] . ...
This investigation was carried out in a poly-house, to verify the efficacy of dominant arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Glomus mosseae and Acaulospora laevis) and phosphate solubilizing bacteria (Pseudomonas fluorescens) as bio-fertilizers either independently or in combination on uptake of nutrient, vegetative growth as well as flower yield of Viola odorata L. grown in earthen pot. Our findings suggest that all co-inoculation treatments showed beneficial effects on all the growth, nutrient uptake, phosphatase activity and flower yield of V. odorata. The results of present investigation also demonstrate that co-inoculation of biofertilizers like Pseudomonas fluorescens with AM fungi, significantly promotes higher root colonization and spore density enhancing the phosphorus (P) uptake and improving the content of photosynthetic pigments.
... Arbuscular mycorrhizal association and some plant growth promoting bacteria by making symbiotic association can be helpful for obtaining appropriate amount of absorbable phosphorus from organic matters and minerals by production of phosphatase enzymes as well as increased diffusion zone around root architecture 16 . AM associations and plant growth promoting bacteria have been reported to have functions in improving the growth of medicinal plants and the productivity of medicinal compounds [17][18][19][20][21] . ...
This investigation was carried out in a poly-house,
Department of Botany, Kurukshetra University,
Kurukshetra, India, to verify the efficacy of dominant
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Glomus mosseae and
Acaulospora laevis) and phosphate solubilizing
bacteria (Pseudomonas fluorescens) as bio-fertilizers
either independently or in combination on uptake of
nutrient, vegetative growth as well as flower yield of
Viola odorata L. grown in earthen pot. Our findings
suggest that all co-inoculation treatments showed
beneficial effects on all the growth, nutrient uptake,
phosphatase activity and flower yield of V. odorata.
The results of present investigation also demonstrate
that co-inoculation of biofertilizers like Pseudomonas
fluorescens with AM fungi, significantly promotes
higher root colonization and spore density enhancing
the phosphorus (P) uptake and improving the content
of photosynthetic pigments.
... These are in line with the findings of this study, whereas increases in the vegetative growth and yield of oil in both localities and cuts were recorded from plants grown in soil infested with VAM integrated with the tested yeast followed by VAM alone as compared to the control. A Significant relationship between the density of gland trichome and essential oil concentration in mint genotypes was reported by Bagheri et al. (2014). The greater number of glands in mycorrhizal plants may be associated with changes in the hormonal profiles and increased levels of auxin, cytokinin, and gibberellin in plants, which eventually lead to the increase of the essential oil content (Torelli et al., 2000). ...
This study evaluates the efficacy of vascular arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi (a mixture of Glomus intraradices and G. etunicatum) and yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), separately and in combination against spearmint root rot and wilt diseases at Giza and Qalubiya governorates. Egypt. Isolation from diseased roots yielded Fusarium oxysporum, Rhizoctonia solani, Pythium ultimum and F. solani. Spearmint plants grown in soil infested with the tested mycorrhiza in combination with S. cerevisiae in presence/absence of any of the tested pathogens reduced the percentage of infection in the two cuts with 90 days apart and localities and increased the level of mycorrhizal root colonization, number of mycorrhiza spores and the population of S. cerevisiae in the rhizosphere of spearmint plants relative to the control. Mycorrhiza alone or integrated with yeast showed increment in the agronomic characters of spearmint plants including, number of stolons/plant, stolon length/plant, stolon fresh weight, herb fresh weight and oil yield. Also, the Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC) analysis showed increment in carvone as the main oil component in spearmint plants grown in soil infested with mycorrhiza + yeast + F. oxysporum in comparison to the control.
Mycorrhizal fungi are known to modulate the destructive effects of environmental stresses on plants. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) symbiosis increases growth and stimulates the biosynthesis of bioactive compounds, thereby influencing polyphenolics content in medicinal plants under salt stress. The present study investigated the effects of AMF on growth traits, cell death, non-enzymatic antioxidants, and changes in the profile of phenolic compounds of Dracocephalum moldavica L. by HPLC analysis under different salinity concentrations. The experiment was performed as a factorial experiment based on a randomized complete block design including salinity treatment at four levels (0, 50, 100, and 150 mM NaCl) and mycorrhizal fungus treatment at three levels including non-inoculation and inoculated with Funneliformis mosseae and Claroideoglomus etunicatum with three replications. The experiment was performed in sterile controlled conditions in laboratory. The results showed that salinity reduced root colonization compared to the control conditions. Inoculation with AMF increased growth parameters and salinity tolerance of Deracocephalum Moldavica under all salinity levels. Through high-performance liquid chromatography, nine phenolic acids and flavonoids were analyzed in all treatments. Salinity and AMF inoculation altered the polyphenol profiles of Moldavian balm. F. mosseae inoculation increased most of the polyphenols at 50 and 150 mM NaCl, and C. etunicatum inoculation increased polyphenols at 100 mM NaCl more than F. mosseae. suggesting that F. mosseae and C. etunicatum mitigated the adverse effects of salinity, triggering non-enzymatic antioxidant activity by the accumulation of the flavonoid in roots and shoots and phenol in roots, enhancing growth parameters and reducing root cell death compared to non-mycorrhizal plants. As a positive point, salinity and mycorrhizal inoculation influenced the polyphenol content of D. moldavica and improved the production of phenolic compounds.
The wisdom of traditional medicine has attained considerable appreciation and experimental research-based exposure in recent era. The emergence of the concept and practice of “complementary and alternative medicine” throughout the globe has considerably heightened the demand of medicinal plants. The trending approach of specific lead targeted drug-delivery system of modern medicine has utilized several plant-derived natural products and structural analog, some of which are under final stage of clinical trial. However, the bottlenecks regarding elucidation of mode of action rendered by active phytoconstituents and accelerated production of secondary metabolites through metabolic engineering are yet to be unveiled in many cases. The nonpathogenic symbiotic association between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and plants has been reported for playing critical role in secondary metabolite accumulation. The mutualistic symbiosis in soil microflora not only influences plant growth and survival but also regulates various physiological features and stress responses. The probable mechanism includes altered stomatal conductance pattern, trichome density, photosynthesis rate, flowering, water and mineral uptake efficiency, plant growth regulator expression, and hormonal function. All these have contributed to cumulative production of secondary metabolites, viz., artemissin, glycyrrhizin, liquiritin, hypericin, pseudohypericin, and hyperforin, and enhanced accumulation is reported. The promising role of medicinal plant and AMF symbiosis in bioharvesting of natural products is an alternative and sustainable approach. The intensified plant biomass production is another positive outcome of this mutualistic association useful to cope with the industrial demand. This review is aimed to decipher the constructive effect of AMF symbiosis on medicinal plants, possible mechanism of bioactive compound accumulation under AMF association and degree of mutualistic effect under variable experimental conditions.
In order to evaluate the effect of Piriformospora indica fungi inoculation on some physiological parameters of peppermint medicinal plant under salt stresses, a field experiment was arranged in a factorial experiment based on completely randomized design with three replications. Treatments including P.indica symbiosis and four salinity levels (irrigation with distilled water and the Caspian Sea water mixture at of 0, 3, 6 and 9 dS m-1). The measured parameters were leaf dry weight, leaf total phenolics, flavonoids, anthocyanins, radical scavenging, essential oil yield and the content of Na, P and K and stomatal conductance. Results showed that with increasing of salinity, the anthocyanins, flavonoids and Na content were increased, while P and K content, leaf dry weight and essential oil yield were decreased. The symbiotic fungi increased anthocyanins and flavonoids content by 17 and 31%, respectively as compared to the uninoculated control plants. Fungal treatment, reduced the negative effects of salinity on stomatal conductance, P and K content, leaf dry weight, essential oil yield and also decreased Na content in saline conditions. In 9 dS m-1 of salinity, fungi inoculation could increase total phenol content and essential oil yield up to 37 and 76%, respectively. It seems, the root inoculation of the peppermint medicinal plants with P. indica, stimulates the synthesis of phenolic compounds and essential oils, also increases the nutrient uptake which ameliorate the negative effects of salinity in the plant.
Lamiaceae and Euphorbiaceae are two families of plants grown as medicinal, aromatic, food and ornamental crops, and are of great commercial importance. The cultivation of these species depends on soil quality and availability of soil resources. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) usually penetrate plants through their roots, supplying plants with water and nutrients and receiving photosynthesis products in return. These types of symbiosis benefit the development and production of crops. To analyze the effects of AMF inoculation on the production of plants of these families, a meta-analysis was performed using 183 data of Lamiaceae plants and 68 data of Euphorbiaceae plants. Meta-analysis consists of compiling data from the literature to obtain the response ratio, calculated by the mean of the experimental group divided by the mean of the control group. The response variables were shoot dry mass (SDM), total dry mass (TDM), plant height and accumulation of phosphorus in the plant shoot (P-shoot). Results showed an increased mean production of AMF-inoculated plants with a 96% and 97% increase of SDM in Lamiaceae and Euphorbiaceae, respectively. Increases of 91% in TDM and 248% in P accumulated in the plant shoot were observed for Lamiaceae; values that were higher than those of Euphorbiaceae at 110% and 675%, respectively. This meta-analysis confirmed the potential of AMF to increase biomass production and P accumulation in medicinal plants of the Lamiaceae and Euphorbiaceae families.
Medicinal plants are used by 80% of the world population for their primary health care. The medicinal value of plants is primarily attributed to the secondary metabolite content such as terpenoids, alkaloids, and phenolics. These compounds play a crucial role in plant defense, are merchandised valued for their therapeutic applications and ecological role, and are also used as flavoring agents. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) or Glomeromycota is known to form a symbiotic relationship with many terrestrial plants. AM fungi–plant consortium enhanced the production of plant terpenoids, alkaloids, and phenolics, which are valuable to human health. The potential role of arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) symbiosis in amplification of the secondary metabolite content has attained enormous recognition for sustainable cultivation of medicinally important crops. AMF–plant symbiosis not only improves the growth and nutrients but also exerts a synergistic effect on accumulation of bioactive compounds with medicinal importance. Current studies have also recognized AM-mediated modulation of morphology, biochemistry, and gene expression in medicinal as well as in the industrial important plants. This chapter provides an appraisal on contemporary finding in the area of AMF investigation with a marked emphasis on the yield of pharmaceutically important plant-derived secondary metabolites.
To feed the growing population, global food production needs to be doubled by 2050. The fertilizers cost have increased several folds in the last few years, which necessitates agrarian community to be less reliable on chemicals to grow and protect their crops. Moreover, dependency on chemical fertilizers and pesticides has led to the deterioration of human health, disruption of ecosystem functioning and degradation of our environment. To overcome these problems, there is a need to explore and exploit the beneficial plant-soil microbe interactions to meet the food demand without affecting the relationship between the man and his environment. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are known to form symbiotic association with the roots of more than 90% of the terrestrial plants. They serve as biofertilizer and enhance the plant growth by accelerating nutrient uptake, particularly of inaccessible nutrients like phosphorus and nitrogen from the soil. Beside mineral nutrition, AMF also maintain the root hydraulic conductivity, increase the plant net photosynthetic capacity, improve stomatal conductance. The multifunctional extraradical hyphae of the fungus provide numerous ecological advantages like maintaining the soil health by influencing the beneficial microbes, aggregating soil particle and preventing soil erosion, conferring resistance to various stresses, enhance ecosystem productivity, bioremediation of degraded land, serving as soil carbon sink. In this chapter we attempt to discuss different role played by AMF, which make them potential tool for sustainable agriculture and environment. It is tempting to state that AMF served for 3E's i.e. eco-friendly, economic and enhanced yield.
Background : Pseudomonas aeruginosa is one of important opportunistic pathogen, that cases serious infections . It produces many virulence factors, and this bacterium usually is resistance against antimicrobial agents.
Objective :The aim of this study was evaluate the effects of sub-MICs of essential oils of Mentha spicata and Cumminum cyminum on alginate production, biofilm formation, swimming, twitching and adhesion in P. aeruginosa 8821M.
Method : Minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of essential oils of Mentha spicata and Cumminum cyminum were determined by macrodilution method. Alginate production, biofilm formation, swimming, twitching and adhesion in the present of sub-MICs (1/2, 1/4 and 1/8 MIC) of essential oils were determined in mucoid P. aeruginosa 8821M and compared with controls.
Results : The MICs of essential oils against P. aeruginosa for M. spicata and C. cyminum oils were obtained 16 and 32 μg/ml respectively. The results show that all oils at 1/2 and 1/4 MICs were significantly reduced all tested virulence factors. At 1/8 MICs, M. spicata had effect just on adhesion but C. cyminum had effect on Alginate production, biofilm formation, swimming and twitching .
Conclusion : This study showed that sub-MIC levels of M. spicata and C. cyminum essential oils affected alginate production, biofilm formation, swimming, twitching and adhesion in
P. aeruginosa 8821M and it is probable to use of these medicinal plants for treating.
Leek plants (Allium porrum L.), infected or not with the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungus, Glomus mosseae, were grown in a sand-hydroponic system, fed with a nutrient solution containing 3.2 or 96 µM P and analyzed for root IAA and ZR content, to assess the role played by the fungus and P nutrition on host hormonal balance. IAA was analyzed by HPLC-fluorimetry, ZR by HPLC-UV coupled with a bioassay based on the expression of a phytohormone-regulated GUS reporter gene. Shoot and root weights and shoot FW-DW ratio enhancements, as well as root-to-shoot DW ratio decrement in mycorrhizal plants, were related to P nutrition. Shoot P concentration was increased by mycorrhizae at both P levels, but was comparable in AM plants grown at 3.2 µM P and non mycorrhizal (NM) plants at 96 µM P. Mycorrhizae and P increased IAA at substantially similar values, while P increased ZR much more than mycorrhizae did. These results are discussed in relation to root architecture modifications induced by the AM fungus.
The anthocyanin from the red root of a radish (Iwakuni-aka, one of the horticultural varieties of Raphanus sativus L.) was separated into five pigment components in sufficient purity by means of column chromatography (mixture of cellulose powder and silicic acid) and paper electrophoresis.These anthocyanins are the acylated derivatives of a common basic glycoside called raphanusin (3-diglucosido-5-monoglucoside of pelargonidin). According to the paper chromatographic analyses, the following aromatic acids have been detected: p-coumaric acid in raphanusin A, ferulic acid in raphanusin B-1, caffeic acid in raphanusin B-2, p-coumaric and ferulic acids in raphanusin C-1, and p-coumaric, ferulic and caffeic acids in raphanusin C-2.From the spectrographic studies on these acylated anthocyanins, it is suggested that the cinnamic acid residues are linked to some of the sugar hydroxyl groups of raphanusin.
Secondary phenolic metabolites play an important role in plant defense mechanisms and most of them are known to be valuable in human health. There are only few studies related to the significant role of various mycorrhizal fungi on changes taking place in their host secondary metabolites. Furthermore, grapevine pruning wastes were known as a potential source of high-value phytochemicals with respect to medicinal and antimicrobial properties. Total phenols and quercetin content of four Iranian grape (Vitis vinifera L.) varieties (Asgari, Khalili, Keshmeshi and Shahroodi) were investigated following inoculation with four arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) strains (Glomus mosseae, Glomus fasciculatum and Glomus intraradices and a mixture of three species). Moreover, quercetin content of vegetative parts (leaf and stem tissues) was studied using a simple extraction and isocratic HPLC method. Additionally the effect of a common postharvest processing treatment (oven-drying) on the quercetin content of these grape varieties were also investigated. Higher levels of quercetin were consistently found in Keshmeshi (70.8 μg/g FW) and Shahroodi (100.6 μg/g FW) varieties following inoculation with G. mosseae. The non inoculated plants of the same varieties were found to produce only 35.7 and 16.3 μg/g FW quercetin, respectively. Oven-drying did not affect the leaf quercetin content in none of samples except in Keshmeshi variety in which drying resulted to higher quercetin yield in comparison with fresh leaf tissues (72.4 vs. 37.0 μg/g FW, respectively). The present study suggests that grapevine wastes are valuable sources for extraction of flavonoid quercetin which can also be further increased following inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi.
This study investigated the natural variation of arbuscular mycorrhizal associations and variation in morpho-phenological characteristics and essential oil content of 40 accessions of Mentha species including Mentha spicata L., Mentha piperita L. and Mentha longifolia (L.) Hudson collected from 13 provinces of Iran. The colonization by Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) was naturally found in 38 accessions ranged from 1.4 to 71.8% of infection. There was a significant variation between and within species in terms of essential oil content differing from 0.30 to 3.33% beyond the previously reported range. Accessions collected from colder climate conditions exhibited significantly higher oil content than those from warmer conditions. M. longifolia had significantly higher oil content than the other two species. A high variation in fresh weight and leaf water content was also observed and higher mean values were obtained in accessions of M. piperita and M. longifolia, respectively. A dendrogram generated using the UPGMA algorithm classified the 40 accessions into four distinctive groups based on the species and discriminating characteristics. The high variability in naturally mycorrhizal infection, essential oil content and morpho-phenological characteristics suggests the possibility of improving mint accessions for horticultural and medicinal uses through selection in breeding programs.
Radioactivity from mevalonate-2-14C is incorporated into the mono- and sesqui-terpenes of peppermint (Mentha piperita L.) cuttings when this precursor is fed through the cut stems. When unlabeled sucrose is fed along with labeled mevalonate, the incorporation of mevalonate into mono- and sesqui-terpenes is markedly increased, the turnover period of the labeled terpenes is extended by with little change in turnover rate, and the proportion of label in the two major sesquiterpenes is shifted. These results are discussed in relation to the morphology of peppermint secretory structures and in relation to possible compartmentalization of mono- and sesqui-terpene biosynthesis within these structures, and it is suggested that sucrose may be satisfying an energy requirement at the biosynthetic sites. Exposure to 5% CO2 in the light, coupled with mevalonate-2-14C feeding, produces results similar to the co-administration of sucrose. The addition of unlabeled sodium acetate slightly increases incorporation of mevalonate-2-14C into mono- and coupled with mevalonate-2-14C feeding, produces results similar to the co-administration of sucrose. The addition of unlabeled sodium acetate slightly increases incorporation of mevalonate-2-14C into mono- and sesqui-terpenes, probably by 'sparing' mevalonate rather than by satisfying an energy requirement.