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The evaluation of a psychological skills training program for rugby players
Abstract and Figures
Evaluation of a psychological skills training programme with a group of nine South African Under-21 provincial rugby players revealed its general effectiveness. An age-matched quasi-experimental control group design was used. Over a period of four months, rugby players improved in psychological skills and psychological well-being as assessed on standardized measures and as experientially evaluated. Comparisons with a matched control group indicated significant differences between rugby players and control group's perceptions of improvement in total psychological skills and especially those involving mental preparation, as well as anxiety and worry management. In terms of psychological wellbeing, the rugby group perceived themselves to have improved significantly more than the control group with regard to personal growth. Its adaptability and comparisons with related studies indicate ready transferability of the programme in sport, health and related community contexts.
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... Mental skills training have been identified as an important strategy to facilitate and develop an athlete's capacity to focus on performance, and to cope more effectively with negative situations [4]. Mental skills training techniques are used to develop and improve a variety of naturally occurring psychological abilities, which include attention and emotional arousal [5]. Similarly, improving essential cognitive abilities associated with peak mental functioning such as executive functioning, processing speed, and working memory have also demonstrated a significant improvement in cognitive abilities [6] that can be applied to elite athletes. ...
... Both mindfulness and cognitive brain training have previously been demonstrated to be effective interventions in enhancing mental functioning [5], [6]. Combined with efficient and easy to access smartphone technology, it was hypothesized that athletes would engage with these apps (compared to control) and as a result, show effects across a range of psychological attributes. ...
... Smartphone technology is growing at a rapid rate and is efficient and accessible [11]. The results of the current study are contrary to that of previous research that has investigated the effect of mental skills training [5]. It should be noted, however, that the present study differed from [5]. ...
... In addition to perceived social support, challenge appraisals are thought to be influenced by a range of personal resilient qualities (e.g., positive personality, confidence), which have also been suggested to influence thriving (see Fletcher & Sarkar, 2012;Sarkar & Fletcher, 2014a). Moreover, research has highlighted various psychological skills (e.g., goal-setting, imagery) that are believed to assist with adaptive stress responses and relate to sporting success and well-being (see e.g., Edwards & Edwards, 2012;Mahoney, Gabriel, & Perkins, 1987;Rees et al., 2016), and are, thus, worthy of study in relation to thriving in sport. ...
... The second personal enabler considered in the present study, use of psychological skills, was found to significantly decrease the likelihood of membership to the below average and low-functioning profiles compared with thriving; no prediction effect was found for membership to the above average profile. Identifying that psychological skills use can be used to predict membership to thriving versus lower functioning response profiles supports previous findings, suggesting that mental skills use is associated with enhanced performance and well-being (e.g., Boat & Taylor, 2015;Edwards & Edwards, 2012). However, the inability of scores on the use of psychological skills to differentiate between the likelihood of membership to above average profile when compared with the thriving profile challenges the utility of this enabler as a predictor across all functioning responses displayed by sport performers. ...
Although considerable research exists on performers' responses to sporting encounters, little is known about thriving in sport contexts. The current study examined if distinct response patterns existed between sport performers who thrived in competitive encounters compared with those who did not. Participants were 535 sport performers (134 women; Mage = 23.60 years, SDage = 8.08; Mcompeting = 11.84 years, SDcompeting = 7.11). Results of factor mixture analysis supported a four-profile solution comprising a thriving group (n = 146), a low-functioning group (n = 38), and two groups characterized by scores marginally above (n = 131) and below (n = 209) the sample mean. Profile membership was found to be predicted by personal enablers (viz., personal resilient qualities, psychological skills use) and process variables (viz., basic psychological need satisfaction and frustration, challenge appraisal). This examination of thriving in sport performers offers significant implications for research and practice.
... This study aims to add to the current body of knowledge by examining the factor structure of the RPWB in a South African sample. Although various South African studies have used the RPWB as a measuring instrument (see Boers, 2014;Botha, 2006;Edwards & Edwards, 2012;Erhabor & Ndlovo, 2013;Jones, 2014;Steyn & Roux, 2009;Vazi et al., 2013;Vercueil, 2010;Victor, 2013), there have been no published South African peer-reviewed studies investigating the factor structure of the RPWB. Vazi et al. (2013) and Boers (2014) reported on factor structure in the course of answering other, non-related research questions. ...
... The RPWB has been frequently used within South Africa to measure well-being in various peer-reviewed research articles (see Edwards & Edwards, 2012;Erhabor & Ndlovo, 2013;Steyn & Roux, 2009;Van Schalkwyk & Wissing, 2010;Vazi et al., 2013) and post-graduate research studies (see Boers, 2014;Botha, 2006;Jones, 2014;Vercueil, 2010;Victor, 2013). Additionally, the instrument is used by practitioners to determine a student or an employee's level of well-being when needed relating to health behaviour and possible workplace interventions. ...
Orientation: South African studies investigating the factor structure of the Ryff Scales of Psychological Well-being (RPWB) are needed to ensure that the instrument is valid and reliable within the South African context. Research purpose: The objective of this study was to investigate the factor structure of the RPWB within two South African samples. Motivation for the study: Although a substantial number of studies have been undertaken, results regarding the factor structure of the Ryff Scales of Psychological Well-Being are inconclusive. There is a dearth of information in relation to South African studies examining the scales’ factor structure. Research design, approach and method: A quantitative research approach using a cross-sectional field survey design was utilised. An adult working group (n = 202) was selected using convenience sampling, and a student group (n = 226) was selected by means of purposive non-probability sampling. An Exploratory Factor Analysis and a Confirmatory Factor Analysis were conducted to examine the factor structure. Main findings: The preferred model was a two-factor model where all the positively worded items were grouped in the first factor and all the negatively worded items were grouped in the second factor. Practical/managerial implications: The factor structure of the original RPWB was not satisfactorily replicated and remains seemingly unsettled. The utility of negatively worded items should be considered carefully, and alternatives such as mixed response options and phrase completion should be explored. The scales should be used with caution. Contribution/value-add: The study contributes to the literature concerning the factor structure of the RPWB with an emphasis on the South African context. It contributes to ensuring that researchers and practitioners use a valid and reliable instrument when measuring psychological well-being.
... Results demonstrated that imagery together with seven other psychological skills improved well-being at both the individual and group level, which was assessed by six distinct components (i.e., self-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth; Ryff, 1989). A few years later, Edwards and Edwards (2012) employed a mixed method design to evaluate a similar PST program with a sample of provincial rugby players. The findings revealed that athletes increased their well-being over time compared to a control group and the aspect of personal growth was perceived as highly valued. ...
Objectives
The purpose of the present study was to examine the effectiveness of an imagery intervention on eudaimonic well-being (EWB) of soccer players using a single-subject multiple baseline design.
Methods
Five female varsity level soccer players ( M age =19.80, SD =1.64) participated in the study. Each athlete engaged in eight individual imagery sessions (i.e., intervention phase) aimed at increasing EWB.
Results
Visual and statistical analyses demonstrated a small increase on EWB for two participants. However, post-intervention interviews revealed that all the players believed the intervention was beneficial and had a positive impact on their EWB.
Conclusions
The utility of employing imagery interventions for enhancing athletes’ EWB in various contexts within and outside sport was highlighted.
... Consequently, stress management programmes, including psychological well-being and resilience workshops, became integral components of public health promotion in many countries (Brown, Cochrane, & Cardone 1999). In the humanistic orientated, positive mental health context of the present research, "psychological well-being" refers to a particular theoretical, empirical construct, which integrates various psychological well-being components (Ryff & Keyes, 1995), and sport psychological skills, such as resilience, mindfulness, physiological arousal, cognitive arousal, mental imagery, attention, concentration, self-confidence, goal-setting and motivation (Edwards & Edwards, 2012). Resilience, in particular, has received increasing recognition (Smith, Epstein, Ortiz, Christopher, & Tooley, 2013). ...
This brief report constitutes an evidence based, evaluation of a resilience workshop for 328 male professional rugby players, with mean age of 25 and standard deviation (SD) of 4.7 years. Quantitative findings revealed significant changes in pre-test to post-test resilience scale scores. Qualitative findings indicated helpful experiential dimensions and those needing change. Integral findings pointed towards ongoing, humanistic, dynamic and systemic approaches involving all stakeholders in the professional rugby fraternity are recommended.
... With regard to PST packages, Edwards and Edwards (2012b) presented a four-month PST programme to U21 players from a provincial rugby academy. The participants' mental preparation, imagery ability and management of anxiety improved significantly, whereas the scores of the age-matched non-rugby playing students remained unchanged. ...
The development of psychological skills is an important, but often neglected part of sport. This study aimed to determine the effects of a psychological skills training (PST) programme delivered to underserved club rugby players. Twenty-four (n=24) rugby union players (Age: M=27.02 years) shared their views about psychological skills development in rugby and completed the Psychological Skills Inventory (PSI) and the Peak Performance Profile (PPP). A quasi-experimental research design was used in which 11 participants took part in a six-week PST programme, with 13 participants acting as non-attentional controls. Repeated measures two-way ANOVAs revealed significant main time effects, with paired t-tests showing statistically significant pre-to post-test improvements for 10 of the 11 psychological skills among the experimental group. The programme's effectiveness was further validated by the experimental group's feedback. Recommendations are made for future research, as well as practical application within existing rugby development programmes in South Africa.
The aim of this systematic review was to investigate the prevalence of mental health symptoms and disorders in rugby players. Six electronic databases were searched in December 2020. Studies were included if they provided quantitative data on mental health symptoms and disorders and consisted of adult rugby players. Eight studies were included, covering symptoms of anxiety, depression, alcohol use/misuse, distress, sleeping/sleep disturbance, and eating disorders/adverse nutrition behaviors. Prevalence of mental health symptoms ranged from 6% (depression) to 68.8% (alcohol use/misuse). Most rates were similar to the general population, while symptoms of sleeping/sleep disturbance were lower, and symptoms of eating disorders/adverse nutrition behaviors and alcohol use/misuse were higher than the general population. One study included female rugby players. Epidemiological evidence comprising of rigorous diagnostic data and inclusive of gender, race, ethnicity, sexuality, and other protected characteristics is needed to inform future mental health support in this population.
Using a single-subject research design, a 1-to-1 tailored mental-skills-training (MST) program was created, implemented, and evaluated. During the 20-wk intervention phase, 6 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I college golfers received a series of individually tailored MST sessions aimed at enhancing their mental skills and athletic performance. Each athlete's golf performance, mental-skill frequency, and response to service were evaluated using visual inspection. Despite some limitations, results suggested that the 1-to-1 training program was effective, with nearly 50% of the performance and perception metrics improving from baseline and almost 80% of the mental skills improving. Follow-up analyses indicated that the program continued to positively affect performance into the next competitive season.
The purpose of the study was to determine the current situation regarding the implementation of mental skills training (MST) programmes by netball coaches. A total of 265 South African provincial netball players from 28 teams and their respective coaches (n=28) participated in the study. Despite the fact that 89.90% of the coaches regard MST as very important, only 46.43% implemented MST programmes themselves or made use of sport psychologists. In addition to this just more than half (55.56%) of the players are psychologically well prepared for competitions (according to their coaches), with the rest (44.44%) showing average or below average preparation. Among the coaches who implemented MST programmes goal-setting, self-confidence and concentration skills were the most frequently implemented skills. Financial limitations, unavailability of sport psychologists and a lack of knowledge were reported as the most prolific reasons for not implementing MST programmes. An evaluation by the players of their coaches ability to implement certain mental skills as part of MST programmes revealed the coaches' ability to foster team cohesion, enhance self-confidence and commitment, set goals and conduct post-match performance analysis as their best attributes. The opinions, abilities and limitations regarding MST, necessitate further coach education regarding MST programmes and the implementation thereof.
The impact of psychological skills training (PST) package programs on life, health,
well-being in general and South African youth in particular has been relatively
neglected. For example, prior to this research the impact of PST on the core health
component of psychological well-being had not been evaluated, nor had the
conceptual and/or empirical relationship between psychological skills and
psychological well-being been investigated. While PST is often conducted
individually due to its personal and specific nature, group training should not be
overlooked especially in South Africa where community interventions are an
important part of health promotion. With the above considerations in mind a
triangulated design involving individual, group and community interventions, as well
as elite and expert case studies was utilized to evaluate the effectiveness of a PST
program and to investigate the relationship between psychological skills and
psychological well-being. Results based on quantitative and qualitative outcome and
process measurements indicated general improvement in psychological skills,
psychological well-being and sporting performance. Psychological skills and
psychological well-being were found to be interrelated concepts, with overlapping
components. Recommendations for ongoing and future research at individual, group
and community level are made.
This article introduces, describes and evaluates a phenomenological, breath based, psychological skills training programme for health and sport. The programme as such is grounded on a holistic conception of psychology and the recognition of breath as an essential vital function and learnable skill from which all other forms of psychological skills can develop through practise. Programme evaluation with a group of young provincial rugby players revealed its effectiveness in improving psychological skills, health and sport as assessed on a standardized measure of psychological skills and as experienced by players. Implications for further research and implementation of the programme are discussed with special reference to South Africa.
Developed in the United Kingdom, the Bull's Mental Skills Questionnaire (BMSQ) is now being used within South Africa in a range of contexts including sport and exercise psychology settings. The BMSQ is comprised of seven mental skill subscales: imagery ability, mental preparation, self-confidence, anxiety and worry management, concentration ability, relaxation ability and motivation. It produces individual subscale scores, which collectively result in a total mental skills score. South African sport norms are needed for this measure. The aim of this study was to establish preliminary South African high school rugby norms for the BMSQ. The sample consisted of 152 male high school rugby players from two schools in the Ethekwini region. Preliminary norms are presented in the form of means and standard deviations. Results are compared with those of previous South African studies on the BMSQ, involving similar age groups. Findings indicate that high school rugby players' mental skills scores, except for mental preparation and concentration ability, are lower compared to non-playing rugby samples of similar age range. This highlights the need for mental skills training for rugby players.
Reigning measures of psychological well-being have little theoretical grounding, despite an extensive literature on the contours of positive functioning. Aspects of well-being derived from this literature (i.e., self-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth) were operationalized. Three hundred and twenty-one men and women, divided among young, middle-aged, and older adults, rated themselves on these measures along with six instruments prominent in earlier studies (i.e., affect balance, life satisfaction, self-esteem, morale, locus of control, depression). Results revealed that positive relations with others, autonomy, purpose in life, and personal growth were not strongly tied to prior assessment indexes, thereby supporting the claim that key aspects of positive functioning have not been represented in the empirical arena. Furthermore, age profiles revealed a more differentiated pattern of well-being than is evident in prior research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A theoretical model of psychological well-being that encompasses 6 distinct dimensions of wellness (Autonomy, Environmental Mastery, Personal Growth, Positive Relations with Others, Purpose in Life, Self-Acceptance) was tested with data from a nationally representative sample of adults (N = 1,108), aged 25 and older, who participated in telephone interviews. Confirmatory factor analyses provided support for the proposed 6-factor model, with a single second-order super factor. The model was superior in fit over single-factor and other artifactual models. Age and sex differences on the various well-being dimensions replicated prior findings. Comparisons with other frequently used indicators (positive and negative affect, life satisfaction) demonstrated that the latter neglect key aspects of positive functioning emphasized in theories of health and well-being.
The Mental Game Plan. Getting Psyched for Sport
- S Bull
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- C Shambrook
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Promoting community mental health through team sport in Zululand (Doctoral dissertation in Community Psychology)
- D Danariah
Danariah, D. (2007). Promoting community mental health through team sport in Zululand
(Doctoral dissertation in Community Psychology). University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa,
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