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The Elasmobranch Husbandry Manual: Captive Care of Sharks, Rays and their Relatives Editors
Abstract
Sharks and rays are an important attraction for public aquariums where they provide an interesting and invaluable educational tool. Elasmobranchs are also maintained in public aquariums and marine laboratories for the purposes of scientific investigation. Much of what we know about these inscrutable animals has been learned through observing them in aquaria.
Elasmobranchs exhibit a K-selected life history strategy, characterized by low fecundity, slow growth rates, and late sexual maturity. Unfortunately, this life history strategy makes sharks and rays susceptible to overexploitation. Reproduction of elasmobranchs in aquariums is poorly understood and is frequently restricted by the physical limitations of facilities. In addition, unless appropriate husbandry practices are adopted, elasmobranch survivorship in aquariums can be lower than in their natural habitat.
As a basic conservation measure, the elasmobranch caretaker community needs to increase its level of peer review, constantly exchange information, and continually update prevailing husbandry practices. In addition, it should provide assistance to new and developing facilities, where less than ideal husbandry protocols may be adopted through lack of training or readily available information.
Until the present day there has been no handbook enumerating the captive care of sharks and rays. Information has been available in scientific journals, the gray literature, and predominantly within the memories of experienced aquarium veterans, but it has been typically scattered and difficult to access. It seems incredible that the husbandry of such an important and charismatic group of animals has not been more comprehensively addressed in the literature. The Elasmobranch Husbandry Manual: Captive Care of Sharks, Rays and their Relatives attempts a first step toward addressing this oversight.
The development of the Manual was slightly unorthodox and merits some description. It began as a bullet list of husbandry topics, tabled and discussed at the 1999 Regional Aquatic Workshop in Minneapolis, Minnesota (USA). This list was then fine-tuned over ensuing months by a steering committee established at the same meeting. The initial premise was to generate an exhaustive list of elasmobranch husbandry topics and then solicit contributions to match those topics from individuals considered to be leaders in their respective fields. As the Manual was conceived to be a conservation initiative, participation was to be, and indeed remained,
entirely voluntary.
As a catalyst to the development of the Manual the 1st International Elasmobranch Husbandry Symposium was held in Orlando, Florida (USA), between the 3rd and 7th of October in 2001. The first three days of the Symposium included invited papers, representing the formal chapters of the Manual, and an additional day was made available for the presentation of voluntary contributions and the discussion of a plan of action. Bringing together ~180 learned individuals from 16 countries, the Symposium provided an opportunity to exchange information about the husbandry of elasmobranchs and to conduct an informal peer review of the contributions made by invited speakers. Following the Symposium, invited contributions were then peer-reviewed in a more
formal manner and the result is the Manual you are now reading.
The ultimate objective of the Manual was to produce a single-reference handbook that could be used as a guide to the captive care of elasmobranchs, assisting in the development of new exhibits, aiding the training of husbandry personnel, and answering specific husbandry questions about this important taxonomic group. In addition, it was a project objective to make the Manual available free-of-charge, via the World Wide Web, allowing anyone who might work with elasmobranchs ready access to the information. The resulting website is to be used as a forum to distribute the Manual, to post Manual updates, and to provide additional information
and husbandry tools useful to elasmobranch caretakers.
A number of articles presented at the 1st International Elasmobranch Husbandry Symposium were deemed to be of lesser immediate relevance and were not included in the Manual. These articles, in combination with archive articles from previous issues of Drum and Croaker, have been compiled by Peter J. Mohan (editor of Drum and Croaker) and published as The Shark Supplement: 40 Years of Elasmobranch Husbandry Science, Speculation, and Apocrypha (Drum and Croaker Special Edition No. 2). This supplement may be accessed through either the Manual or the Drum and Croaker websites.
Aquariology is an emerging science and many experienced aquarium professionals have little formal scientific training, yet many of these individuals have years of valuable hands-on experience. Conversely, many workers who actively cooperate with public aquariums are professional academics and respected leaders in their respective fields. The Manual brings together contributions from both ends of this spectrum. This process has given the Manual an inclusive and, at times, a slightly eclectic feel. Rather than detract from the merit of individual contributions, or indeed the broad coverage of the manual, we believe that this unique characteristic enhances the accessibility and ultimately the applicability of the Manual. It was always considered that the Manual would serve, in part, as a bridge between pure science and applied aquariology, and we trust that this goal has been achieved.
... Em peixes teleósteos os procedimentos básicos para a colheita de sangue já estão bem estabelecidos (ISHIKAWA et al., 2010;TAVARES--DIAS;, entretanto, em tubarões a colheita de sangue é recomendada na região dorsal, procedimento conhecido como punção caudal (ARNOLD, 2005;RIJN;REINA, 2010;WALSH;LUER, 2004;WILHELM-FILHO et al., 1992). Para as arraias marinhas a via mais utilizada para colheita do sangue é a punção cardíaca (WALSH; LUER, 2004;WILHELM-FILHO et al., 1992) e essa mesma via é a recomendada para as arraias de água doce (DUNCAN et al., 2009). ...
... Em peixes teleósteos os procedimentos básicos para a colheita de sangue já estão bem estabelecidos (ISHIKAWA et al., 2010;TAVARES--DIAS;, entretanto, em tubarões a colheita de sangue é recomendada na região dorsal, procedimento conhecido como punção caudal (ARNOLD, 2005;RIJN;REINA, 2010;WALSH;LUER, 2004;WILHELM-FILHO et al., 1992). Para as arraias marinhas a via mais utilizada para colheita do sangue é a punção cardíaca (WALSH; LUER, 2004;WILHELM-FILHO et al., 1992) e essa mesma via é a recomendada para as arraias de água doce (DUNCAN et al., 2009). ...
... Em peixes teleósteos os procedimentos básicos para a colheita de sangue já estão bem estabelecidos (ISHIKAWA et al., 2010;TAVARES--DIAS;, entretanto, em tubarões a colheita de sangue é recomendada na região dorsal, procedimento conhecido como punção caudal (ARNOLD, 2005;RIJN;REINA, 2010;WALSH;LUER, 2004;WILHELM-FILHO et al., 1992). Para as arraias marinhas a via mais utilizada para colheita do sangue é a punção cardíaca (WALSH; LUER, 2004;WILHELM-FILHO et al., 1992) e essa mesma via é a recomendada para as arraias de água doce (DUNCAN et al., 2009). ...
A aquariofilia é um hobby praticado em todo o mundo, assim com esse crescente aumento de demanda, o mercado de espécies ornamentais vem se expandindo, nos Estados Unidos e Europa. Neste mercado, o Brasil é um grande exportador, com predomínio marcante de espécies de água doce provenientes em sua maioria da bacia
amazônica, principalmente do Estado do Amazonas, responsável por 90% de toda a produção, incluindo as arraias pertencentes à família Potamotrygonidae. A exploração das arraias vem ocorrendo há mais de 25 anos e os procedimentos que envolvem as atividades de pesca até o transporte para os exportadores em Manaus, são os mesmos praticados desde o início da atividade na região, ou seja, ocorrem de forma artesanal
e rudimentar. As arraias potamotrigonídeos vivem a maior parte do tempo semienterradas na areia ou lama do fundo dos rios e lagos, e possuem ferrões na cauda, o que pode causar graves acidentes durante sua captura e manuseio também para colheita de qualquer material biológico. Porém, há necessidade de cuidados para esses
procedimentos em arraias, principalmente para estudos fisiológicos. A Embrapa Amapá, Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia (IFAM) e a Universidade Federal do Amazonas (UFAM), em parceria, disponibilizaram informações sobre procedimentos corretos e seguros de manuseio de arraias de água doce e também para a padronização de análises sanguíneas dessas espécies de animais, na publicação técnica “Procedimentos de manuseio e de colheita do sangue em arraias de água doce”, visando assim contribuir com aqueles que coletam amostras biológicas de arraias para fins de
estudos.
... Gnathiids are the parasitic larval stage of certain isopods (Stachowitsch, 1992). Gnathiids are common in marine and estuarine habitats (Smith et al., 2004). These isopods are not limited to one host throughout their parasitic larval stage. ...
... These isopods are not limited to one host throughout their parasitic larval stage. After feeding on the blood or other bodily fluid of the host, it will swim down to the benthos to moult and then infect a new host (Smith et al., 2004). The high infection rate in Terengganu waters is most likely due to their voracious nature, high mobility, low host specificity and ability to continue living apart from the host for significant periods. ...
... The dorsal side of the body containing the gill slits is exposed and accessible to gnathiids exchanging hosts after moulting. Currently, there have not been any reports indicating the occurrence of disease or mortality of chondrichthyan directly caused by this parasite (Smith et al., 2004). In this study, the maximum number of gnathiid to infect a single host was 82 individuals. ...
This study focuses on the parasites of Pateobatis uarnacoides. The commercial value of P.uarnacoides creates a need for a comprehensive checklist of its parasites to ensure its safety and quality. This study aims to identify parasites of P.uarnacoides and analyse their prevalence and mean intensity in Terengganu waters. In October 2018, 30 P. uarnacoides samples were collected from Pulau Kambing Fisheries Complex. A total of 346 individual parasites were retrieved, representing three phyla, three classes, three orders, three families, and one genus. Class Hexanauplia, class Palaeacanthocepha and phylum Nematoda are represented by only a single individual. Ninty-nine percent (343 individuals) of all parasites collected were from the family Gnathiidae. Gnathiids have the most intense infection rate at 19 compared to all other parasites having the least intensity of one each. The mean intensity of parasites infecting P.uarnacoides is 5.5. The prevalence of infection of gnathiids is 60%, exceeding the prevalence of other parasites at 3.30% each. The site of attachment of gnathiids is limited to the gills. It was observed that the parasites found did not cause significant physical damage to the host or risk of mortality. However, a heavy infestation of gnathiids may cause difficulty breathing as it congests the gills, thus reducing the general fitness of the host. Overall, the results of this study show that the parasitic fauna of P.uarnacoides does not concern with public health and the economy. It also finds that this species is highly susceptible to infection by gnathiids, which was unrecorded in previous studies.
... Following zebra shark husbandry recommendations (Watson and Janse 2017), the data acquired were entered into the integrated animal registration system Species360 (http://www. species360.org) with the aim of generating synergy across entities so the data can be used to enhance zebra shark breeding in other aquariums. ...
... Furthermore, the genetic composition of the current population is being studied to assist preservation of genetic variability and health in future generations of zebra sharks. All entities share the common goal of maintaining a self-sufficient and genetically diverse aquarium population that provides a valuable living resource to learn more about this species while reducing pressures on wild populations (Watson and Janse 2017). ...
Breeding programmes have been developed at the Loro Parque Aquarium for the past eight years focusing mainly on zebra sharks Stegostoma tigrinum. These programmes provide the possibility to study the growth of specimens and the relation between age, length and weight. Data obtained from a total of 288 biometric measurements from 24 (12:12:0) specimens were analysed, of which 18 (9:9:0) were born at Loro Parque. At the time of birth (t 0) the average total length (TL) of the new-borns was 26.5 cm and the average total weight (TW) was 71.94 g. The von Bertalanffy growth function (vBGF) obtained, where y=186.78×[1−e −0.56×(x−0.27) ], shows accelerated growth (k=0.56) within the first 3.5 years (1200 days) of life. No significant difference was found between growth of males and females. To study the length-weight relationship, a regression analysis was performed with TW=2.16×10−4×TL 3.54 presenting a positive allometric relationship and R²=0.9857, which demonstrates strong correlation between the variables.
... The sharks are found at depths from 73 m to over 450 m (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953), residing between 8.5 °C (Springer 1979) to 14 °C (Duffy 1999;Ajemian and Sanford 2007). While Chain catsharks are popular in the aquarium trade their physiological responses to thermal change are poorly studied (Duffy 1999;Smith et al. 2004;Fredston-Hermann et al. 2020). Previous Chain catshark research has focused on ontogenetic changes during development (Bello et al. 2015), electroreception (Bellono et al. 2018), and reproductive biology (Castro et al. 1988;Sminkey and Tabit 1992;Flammang et al. 2007). ...
Our understanding of thermal ecology of elasmobranch fishes is grossly understudied. Currently, thermal niche requirements are known for only four elasmobranch species: Atlantic stingray, Hypanus sabina, (Fangue & Bennett 2003), Little skate, Leucoraja erinacea, (Stoler 2016), Blue-spotted ribbontail stingray, Taeniura lymma, (Dabruzzi et al. 2012), and Whitespotted bamboo shark, Chiloscyllium plagiosum, (Porter 2020). The purpose of our study was to use standardized Critical Thermal Methodology (CTM) to quantify thermal niche parameters of the chain catshark and quantify thermal niche requirements of juvenile Chain catsharks (Scyliorhinus retifer), from a New England population. The chain catshark is a small demersal species inhabiting the outer shelf, and upper slope waters in temperate regions from southern New England to Nicaragua. Our research compares catshark data to laboratory values from other elasmobranchs to bridge the knowledge gap surrounding elasmobranch thermal ecology. The data defined the upper and lower critical temperatures along the experimental acclimation range, as well as define the upper and lower thermal chronic limits (Becker and Genoway 1979; Beitinger and Bennett 2000). The Chain catshark data presented here is the first from an elasmobranch belonging to the family Scyliorhinidae.
... It is classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN Red List (last consulted in March 2022), with a decreasing population trend (18). Although the species has been consistently housed in aquaria since the 1860s, studies involving this species are still quite limited in comparison to the frequently studied Smallspotted Catshark (Scyliorhinus canicula) (19). In addition, to the authors' knowledge, population-based RV have not been determined for this species. ...
Studies determining baseline hematological reference intervals (RI) in elasmobranchs are very limited. In this study, blood samples were collected from 94 clinically healthy Nursehound Shark (Scyliorhinus stellaris) maintained under human care. Median (RI) in major leukocyte types were similar to other Carcharhinid sharks as lymphocytes were the predominant leukocyte with 38.0 (28.2-53.5)%, followed by coarse eosinophilic granulocytes with 20.0 (12.2-31.7)%, fine eosinophilic granulocytes with 6.0 (1.2-12.8) %, monocytes with 2.0 (0.0-6.0)%, and neutrophils with 2.0 (0.0-6.0)%. Nursehound Shark produced granulated thrombocytes, which were classified as granulocytes and represented 28.5 (12.4-39.7)% of all leukocytes. Median (RI) manual red blood cell and white blood cell counts were 177.50 (132.50-210.00) x 10 9 cells/l and 8.26 (5.24-14.23) x 10 9 cells/l, respectively. Median (RI) plasma chemistry values showed alkaline phosphatase 7.7 (4.2-13.0) U/l, aspartate aminotransferase 7.6 (3.3-17.1) U/l, blood urea nitrogen 281.6 (261.2-305.0) mmol/l, calcium 3.97 (3.59-4.47) mmol/l, total cholesterol 2.04 (1.02-3.91) mmol/l, chloride 233.0 (215.2-259.0) mmol/l, iron 3.79 (1.74-6.93) µmol/l, glucose 0.87 (0.47-1.44 mmol/l), potassium 3.8 (2.9-4.6) mmol/l, sodium 243.0 (227.7-271.0) mmol/l, phosphorus 1.58 (1.13-2.10) mmol/l, total protein 24.0 (20.0-35.0) g/l, and triglycerides 0.97 (0.49-3.35) mmol/l. Creatine kinase, gamma glutamyl transferase, and lactate dehydrogenase levels were below the instrument reading range.
... Aquariums serve as an indispensable research tool for the study of elasmobranchs, as by keeping them since 1860s, they have contributed to our knowledge base of sharks and rays in a wide variety of fields including, but not limited to, nutrition, reproduction, physiology, behavior, and pathology (1). They provide an easy and economical way for the scientific community to collect data on these animals that would otherwise be very difficult to obtain in the wild (2,3). ...
Infectious and inflammatory diseases are the most frequently diagnosed pathologies in elasmobranchs maintained under human care. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are frequently used in veterinary medicine for their anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic properties. Meloxicam is a commonly prescribed NSAID in elasmobranchs, but there are still no published pharmacokinetic (PK) studies supporting its use in this group of animals. In this study, meloxicam was administered at a single dose of 0.5 mg/kg to eight healthy adult nursehound sharks ( Scyliorhinus stellaris ) intravenously (IV), intramuscularly (IM), and orally (PO), with a minimum 4-week washout period between administrations. Blood samples were obtained both beforehand and at predetermined times after each administration. Plasma concentrations were measured using a validated high performance liquid chromatography method, and PK data was obtained using a non-compartmental analysis. Meloxicam administered orally did not produce detectable concentrations in blood plasma, while mean peak plasma concentration was 0.38 ± 0.08 μg/ml after IM administration. The mean terminal half-life was 10.71 ± 2.77 h and 11.27 ± 3.96 h for IV and IM injections, respectively. The area under the curve extrapolated to infinity was 11.37 ± 2.29 h·μg/ml after IV injections and 5.98 ± 0.90 h·μg/ml after IM injections. Meloxicam administered IM had a mean absolute bioavailability of 56.22 ± 13.29%. These numbers support meloxicam as a promising drug to be used IM in nursehounds, questions the efficacy of its single PO use in elasmobranchs, elucidate the need for higher dosage regimes, and evidence the need for further PK studies in sharks and rays.
... PZQ has a wide margin of safety, and is generally considered safe in animals, with very low toxicity, and no genotoxic risks identified in yeast, bacterial, drosophila, and mammalian studies (Bartsch et al., 1978;Frohberg, 1984;Kramers et al., 1991). PZQ is widely used as a safe and effective dip or bath treatment for the removal of a range of parasitic flatworms from ornamental fish, elasmobranchs (sharks, rays), teleosts and turtles in residential aquaria, zoos, marinas and research laboratories (Moser et al., 1986;Thoney and Hargis, 1991;Adnyana et al., 1997;Stetter et al., 1999;Chisholm and Whittington, 2002;Vaughan and Chisholm, 2010;Hadfield and Clayton, 2011;Smith et al., 2017). Along with widespread use in human medicine, veterinary practice, and aquaria, PZQ has application in aquaculture. ...
Parasitic diseases are major constraints in fish mariculture. The anthelmintic praziquantel (PZQ) can effectively treat a range of flatworm parasites in a variety of fish species and has potential for broader application than its current use in the global aquaculture industry. In this review we report on PZQ's current use in the aquaculture industry and discuss its efficacy against various flatworm parasites of fish. Routes of PZQ administration are evaluated, along with issues related to palatability, pharmacokinetics and toxicity in fish, while PZQ's effects on non-target species, environmental impacts, and the development of drug-resistance are discussed.
... The white-spotted bamboo sharks Chiloscyllium plagiosum are a small inshore demersal shark species (up to 1 m of adult length) (Chen and Liu, 2006) that are commonly found in home aquariums. They are sedentary, harmless, robust, and fast to mature (less than 5 years) (Smith et al., 2004). They can be bred artificially and domesticated to eat artificial feed (Chen and Liu, 2006), making them suitable for large-scale husbandry. ...
The development of shark single domain antibodies (sdAbs) is hindered by the high cost and tediousness of large-sized shark farming. Here, we demonstrated white-spotted bamboo sharks (Chiloscyllium plagiosum) being cultivated commercially as a promising small animal model to produce sdAbs. We found that immunoglobulin new antigen receptor (IgNAR) presented in bamboo shark genome, transcriptome, and plasma. Four complete IgNAR clusters including variable domains (vNARs) were discovered in the germline, and the Variable–Joining pair from IgNAR1 cluster was dominant from immune repertoires in blood. Bamboo sharks developed effective immune responses upon green fluorescent protein (GFP), near-infrared fluorescent protein iRFP713, and Freund’s adjuvant immunization revealed by elevated lymphocyte counts and antigen specific IgNAR. Before and after immunization, the complementarity determining region 3 (CDR3) of IgNAR were the major determinant of IgNAR diversity revealed by 400-bp deep sequencing. To prove that bamboo sharks could produce high-affinity IgNAR, we isolated anti-GFP and anti-iRFP713 vNARs with up to 0.3 and 3.8 nM affinities, respectively, from immunized sharks. Moreover, we constructed biparatopic vNARs with the highest known affinities (20.7 pM) to GFP and validated the functions of anti-GFP vNARs as intrabodies in mammalian cells. Taken together, our study will accelerate the discovery and development of bamboo shark sdAbs for biomedical industry at low cost and easy operation.
Elasmobranchs represent a group of species under considerable anthropic pressure because of the scale of industrial and artisanal fisheries and the loss of essential areas for nursery and feeding, which are causing substantial population losses around the world. Reproduction in an ex situ environment enables a healthy population to be built and maintained in networks of public aquariums, increasing our knowledge of elasmobranch reproductive biology and offering the opportunity for reintroductions in areas where native populations have been removed. The study reports two successful pregnancies of the whitetip reef shark Triaenodon obesus, considered a vulnerable species by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Copulation and gestation data are provided, including ultrasound recordings of the late stage of embryo development. Ultrasonography was performed with the GE Logiq and convex transducer and revealed a fetus with defined fins and organogenesis, with definition of eyes, gills, liver, a heart with individualized chambers, partially defined kidneys, and a well-defined spiral intestine. A cartilaginous skeleton forming a posterior acoustic shadow was detailed, as well as a moving fetus with a biparietal diameter of 6.47 cm and a heart rate of 62 Beats Per Minute on spectral Doppler. This is the first successful reproduction of T. obesus in an aquarium in Brazil.
‘My fish and I’ is an account of the diversity of human-fish interactions. This includes their benefits, detriments/harms as well as their moral and animal welfare. Fish are not easily perceived as individual animals having mental states, interests, needs and a degree of individuality. Additionally, fish have been handled as a simple resource in innumerable human interactions. Important ethical approaches address animal-human interactions based upon the individual’s cognitive ability and capacity to feel pleasure and pain. Given the ample evidence that fish have neuroanatomical structures that support the capacity to feel (sentience) and have complex behavioural and cognitive abilities, a moral duty is imposed upon us. Some human-centered and eco-centered moral views complement different perceptions of the nature of our relationship with fish. This occurs both at the individual level and as species or populations face a serious need for conservation. The concepts and assessments in the developments of animal welfare science provide ample basis for an evolution in the quality of human-fish interactions. However, many stakeholders must take part in this evolution. This is especially true as it concerns those areas of activity involving many individual fish and higher levels of suffering. Examples of these are aquaculture and commercial fisheries where there is much more at stake. Consumers will have the last word in this role, namely by reducing fish consumption.
Reproductive data from 95 mature female shortfin mako sharks, Isurus oxyrinchus Rafinesque, 1810, including 35 pregnant females, together with data on 450 postnatal fish were collected from around the world. Size at birth was approximately 70 cm total length (TL) and litter size varied from 4 to 25. increasing with maternal size. Embryo length-at-capture data predicted a gestation period of 15-18 months and late winter to midspring parturition in both hemispheres. A temporal analysis of uterus width index and gonadosomatic index of pregnant and postpartum females indicated that the reproductive cycle is three years. The median TL-at-maturity of females from the western North Atlantic (2.98 m) was greater than that of females from the Southern Hemisphere (2.73 m) and they were 16-19% heavier in the TL range of 2.5-3.5 m. Recently ovulated females and a litter with 2.6-3.3 cm TL embryos having external gills, a large yolk sac, and still inside their egg cases, are described. We describe a litter of embryos (52.0 cm TL) with huge yolk-filled stomachs. Litters of 59.9- and 68.8-cm-TL embryos showed a decline in the mass of the yolk-filled stomach from 29.1% to 10.9% of total mass and an increase in hepatosomatic indices from 3.7% to 7.0% as gestation advances. When the mass of the yolk-filled stomach was excluded, the mass-length relationship of shortfin mako embryos could be fitted with a power regression similar to that for postnatal fish. The condition factor of lamnid embryos (including yolk-stomach mass) reaches a maximum between 20 and 35 kg/m(3) when the embryos are midterm and have the largest yolk stomachs. The condition factor of alopiid embryos remains constant, indicating that no large yolk-filled stomach develops.
