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Seed Germination and Growth Requirements of Selected Wildflower Species
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This edition updates a narrative that has been at the forefront of soil science for more than a century. The first edition, published in 1909, was largely a guide to good soil management for farmers in the glaciated regions of New York State in the northeastern U.S. Since then, it has evolved to provide a globally relevant framework for an integrated understanding of the diversity of soils, the soil system and its role in the ecology of planet Earth.
The 15th edition is the first to feature full-color illustrations and photographs throughout. These new and refined full color figures and illustrations help make the study of soils more efficient, engaging, and intellectually satisfying. Every chapter has been thoroughly updated with the latest advances, concepts, and applications. Hundreds of new key references have been added. The 15th edition, like preceding editions, has greatly benefited from innumerable suggestions, ideas, and corrections contributed by soil scientists, instructors, and students from around the world. Dr. Nyle Brady, although long in retirement and recently deceased, remains as co-author in recognition of the fact that his vision, wisdom and inspiration continue to permeate the entire book.
This edition,1082 pages in length, includes in-depth discussions on such topics of cutting edge soil science as the pedosphere concept, new insights into humus and soil carbon accumulation, subaqueous soils, soil effects on human health, principles and practice of organic farming, urban and human engineered soils, cycling and plant use of silicon, inner- and outer-sphere complexes, radioactive soil contamination, new understandings of the nitrogen cycle, cation saturation and ratios, acid sulfate soils, water-saving irrigation techniques, hydraulic redistribution, cover crop effects on soil health, soil food-web ecology, disease suppressive soils, soil microbial genomics, indicators of soil quality, soil ecosystem services, biochar, soil interactions with global climate change, digital soil maps, and many others. In response to their popularity in recent editions, I have also added many new boxes that present either fascinating examples and applications or technical details and calculations. These boxes both highlight material of special interest and allow the logical thread of the regular text to flow smoothly without digression or interruption.
For students: This book provides both an exciting, accessible introduction to the world of soils as well as a reliable, comprehensive reference that you will want to keep for your professional bookshelf. What you learn from its pages will be of enormous practical value in equipping you to meet the many natural-resource challenges of the 21st century. The book demonstrates how the soil system provides many opportunities to see practical applications for principles from such sciences as biology, chemistry, physics, and geology. Throughout, the text highlights the countless interactions between soils and other components of forest, range, agricultural, wetland, and constructed ecosystems.
As the global economy expands exponentially societies face new challenges with managing their natural resources. Soil as a fundamental natural resource is critical to sustained economic growth and the prosperity of people in all parts of the world. To achieve balanced growth with a sustainable economy while improving environmental quality, it will be necessary to have a deep understanding of soils, including their properties, functions, ecological roles and management. I have tried to write this textbook in a way designed to engage inquisitive minds and challenge them to understand soils and actively do their part as environmental and agricultural scientists, in the interest of ensuring a prosperous and healthy future for humanity on planet Earth. It is my sincere hope that this book, previous editions of which have served so many generations of soil students and scientists, will continue to help future generations of soil scientists to benefit from a global ecological view of soils.
Seeds of six wildflower species [Aster novae-angliae (New England aster), Rudbeckia hirta (Black-eyed Susan), Liatris spicata (Blazing star), Hesperis natronalis (Dame's rocket), Gaillardia aristata (Perennial gaillardia), and Asclepias tuberosa (Butterfly weed)] were matrically primed in fine, exfoliated vermiculite. Seeds were primed for 7 days at 15C (59F) at an initial matric potential of−0.5 MPa (−5 bars) in darkness, then dried for 7 days before sowing. A seed: vermiculite (1:2 by wt) ratio was found to be the most appropriate of several ratios because it increased germination rate of all species except Black-eyed Susan, increased the germination percentage of Perennial gaillardia, and prevented germination of Dame's rocket and Perennial gaillardia during priming. Under restricted water availability [−0.25 and−0.50 MPa (−2.5 and−5.0 bars)] priming increased the germination percentage of Perennial gaillardia and Butterfly weed and increased the germination rate of all species. In a glasshouse study, priming increased the emergence percentage of Perennial gaillardia and increased the emergence rate of all species. Compared with hydration of the vermiculite with water, using 10−3 M gibberellic acid during priming increased the emergence rate of Dame's rocket, increased the emergence percentage of Perennial gaillardia, and increased the shoot dry weights of New England aster and Black-eyed Susan.
The germination responses of wild blue indigo [Baptisia australis (L.) R. Br.], purple coneflower [Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench.], Maximilian sunflower (Helianthus maximiliani Schrad.), spike goldenrod (Solidago petiolaris Ait.), and Missouri ironweed (Vernonia missurica Raf.) seeds after 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, or 10 weeks of stratification at 5C were investigated. Seed viability was determined using triphenyl tetrazolium chloride staining and germination based on the percentage of viable seeds. Germination percentage (GP) increased in all five species as weeks of stratification increased. Days to first germination and germination range (days from first to last germinating seed) decreased with increasing weeks of stratification, but the effect beyond 4 to 6 weeks was minimal. The number of weeks of stratification for maximum GP was 4 for purple coneflower, 6 for Maximilian sunflower, 8 for Missouri ironweed, and 10 for wild blue indigo and spike goldenrod.
Growth, flowering, and survival of black-eyed susan (Rudbeckia hirta L.) from three seed sources - Northern Florida (NFL), central Florida (CFL), and Texas (TEX) - Were evaluated under low input conditions for one growing season at four sites in Florida. Two sites were in American Horticultural Society (AHS) Heat Zone 9 while the other two were in AHS Heat Zones 10 and 11. Growth, onset date of flowering, and number of flowers at peak flowering varied by site. With few exceptions, plants tended to reach peak flowering at about the same time. Flower diameter varied by seed source with TEX>NFL>CFL. While TEX plants were perceived as the showiest, NFL and CFL plants persisted longer under the low input conditions in Florida, and hence provided some evidence of adaptation to regional site conditions.
Coreopsis lanceolata L. and Salvia lyrata L. from local (Monticello, FL) and nonlocal seed sources were transplanted into a field and maintained under low input, noncompetitive landscape conditions for 2 years. Plants of both species from local seed sources began flowering and were in full bloom earlier than plants from the nonlocal seed sources. Nonlocal C. lanceolata were larger throughout the study. Local S. lyrata were taller than nonlocal plants only when local plants were in flower and nonlocal plants were not. Survival percentage of C. lanceolata was equivalent from both seed sources, but higher for local S. lyrata compared to nonlocal, at the conclusion of the study. Index words: lanceleaf coreopsis, lyreleaf sage, provenance, seed source, wildflowers. Species used in this study: lanceleaf coreopsis, Coreopsis lanceolata L.; lyreleaf sage, Salvia
Seed germination patterns were studied in E. purpurea (L.) Moench grouped by seed source, one group of seven lots from commercially cultivated populations and a second group of nine lots regenerated from ex situ conserved wild populations. Germination tests were conducted in a growth chamber in light (40 μmol·m(-2)·s(-1)) or darkness at 25 °C for 20 days after soaking the seeds in water for 10 minutes. Except for two seed lots from wild populations, better germination was observed for commercially cultivated populations in light (90% mean among seed lots, ranging from 82% to 95%) and in darkness (88% mean among seed lots, ranging from 82% to 97%) than for wild populations in light (56% mean among seed lots, ranging from 9% to 92%) or in darkness (37% mean among seed lots, ranging from 4% to 78%). No germination difference was measured between treatments in light and darkness in the commercially cultivated populations, but significant differences were noted for treatments among wild populations. These results suggest that repeated cycles of sowing seeds during cultivation without treatments for dormancy release resulted in reduced seed dormancy in E. purpurea.
Effects of season and fertilization on seed production were investigated for a central Florida ecotype of Leavenworth's coreopsis (Coreopsis leavenworthii Torr. & A. Gray) grown in containers. Since container-grown ecotypes of native, herbaceous species are frequently grown using nutrient regimes lower than those for production of typical garden plants, Osmocote 18N–2.6P–10K (18–6–12;8–9 month formulation) was incorporated into the soilless substrate at one-half the low, low, and medium label rates for container-grown herbaceous plants [1.8, 3.6, and 5.4 kg/m3 (3.0, 6.0, and 9.0 lb/yd3], respectively. Seed were harvested from mature heads (capitulescences) in late May to mid-July, and then again from late July to late October after plants had been cut back and reflowered. Seed yield and quality were greatest for the May–July harvest. Averaged over fertilizer rate, there were 3-fold more filled seed per mature head for the May–July harvest than during July–October. Mature head production was most responsive to increases in fertilizer rate during May–July. Percent germination of viable seed was nearly 90% or more for both harvests, but there were more viable seed for May–July than for July–October (75 vs. 57%). Seed also ripened much more uniformly during May–July then during July–October. Based on these conditions and results, the best time to harvest seed was from May to early July.
Seeds of southern seaoats (Uniola paniculata L.) were removed from storage at 4C (39F) and treated with the following selected surface disinfestants, fungicides, or combinations of these chemicals: nontreated (control), 1.3% sodium hypochlorite [NaOCl (chlorine bleach)], 2.6% sodium hypochlorite, RTU® (12.6% thiram + 0.34% thiabendazole), RTU®-PCNB (24% pentachloronitrobenzene), 1.3% sodium hypochlorite and RTU®, 2.6% sodium hypochlorite and RTU®, 1.3% sodium hypochlorite and RTU®-PCNB, or 2.6% sodium hypochlorite and RTU®-PCNB. Following treatment, seeds were germinated at an 8/16 hr thermoperiod of 35/20C (95/68F). The seed treatments and germination thermoperiod utilized were based on three preliminary trials that investigated the influence of selected surface disinfestants, fungicides, and temperature on seed germination of the species. Germination was recorded every 3 days for 30 days. Seed treatment was highly significant (P = 0.0001) for both total percentage germination and total percentage of decayed seeds. Germination of nontreated seeds was 45%, and four treatments resulted in germination > 80% [RTU®-PCNB (81%), 2.6% sodium hypochlorite and RTU® (83%), 1.3% sodium hypochlorite and RTU® (87%), and 1.3% sodium hypochlorite and RTU®-PCNB (89%)]. A subsequent experiment investigated the effects of the aforementioned treatments with the exception of 1.3% sodium hypochlorite and RTU®, both used alone, on initial seedling growth of the species. Following treatment, seeds were sown in containers filled with a peat-based medium and the containers placed in a growth chamber maintained at an 8/16 hr thermoperiod of 35/20C (95/68F) with long day conditions. Emergence data were recorded every 3 days for 45 days. After 45 days, the study was terminated and additional data recorded to include plant height (height of main stem), leaf number, length and width of the two longest leaves, and top and root dry weights. Surface disinfestant, fungicide, and combination treatments were highly significant (P = 0.0004). Percentage emergence of nontreated seeds was 35% and five of the seven treatments resulted in emergence ≥ 75% [2.6% sodium hypochlorite (75%), 1.3% sodium hypochlorite and RTU® (75%), 1.3% sodium hypochlorite and RTU®-PCNB (76%), 2.6% sodium hypochlorite and RTU®-PCNB (81%), and 2.6% sodium hypochlorite and RTU® (83%)] with negligible effects on seedling growth. There were significant treatment differences regarding some of the variables used to evaluate seedling growth. In most cases these differences were due to seedlings from nontreated seeds having lower values for each measured variable than values for the same variables from treated seeds. Results of both experiments demonstrate the potential value of chemical seed treatment during production of seedling transplants of U. paniculata.
Rudbeckia hirta, black-eyed susan, is a popular container-produced native wildflower. However, there is a growing demand for regionally adapted selections because of ecological and sustainability issues. In separate studies in 2001 and 2002, seed from three sources — north Florida (NFL), central Florida (CFL), and Texas (TEX)—were sown in the greenhouse in mid-January. Seedlings were transplanted to cell packs in early February. In early April, liners were potted in 2.5 liter (0.66 gal) containers and placed on an outdoor production bed under full sun. Full bloom occurred about 21.5 to 23 weeks after sowing. TEX achieved full bloom 10 days earlier than NFL or CFL. Except for CFL in 2001, most plants were of a commercially acceptable height. The most uniform growth or flowering trait based on coefficients of variation was date of full bloom, with date of first bloom just slightly more variable. Other growth and flowering traits were moderately to highly variable.
Wildflower plantings have become increasingly more apparent and important on a federal, state, and local level. Numerous research papers and theses have detailed results of various parts of this extensive subject. This review article highlights some of this previous research in an effort to consolidate and elucidate an integrated pattern of recommendations to establish modest-sized (for example, roadsides, meadows, parks, golf courses, gardens) wildflower plantings. Components include: 1) preplanting concerns; 2) planting and maintenance (for example, seed germination and density, seeding method, planting date, fertilization, cover crops, weed control, irrigation, reseeding, and suspending natural succession); 3) wildflower dividends; and 4) wildflower establishment recommendations.
To determine optimum germination temperatures and effective dormancy-breaking procedures, field-grown (1983-85) seeds of `Bandera' Rocky Mountain penstemon (Penstemon strictus Benth), `Cedar' Palmer penstemon (Penstemon palmeri Gray), and firecracker penstemon (Penstemon eatonii Gray) were subjected to various cold stratification and incubation temperature treatments. Increased germination following an 8-week stratification occurred in seed lots containing dormant seeds, but a 2-week stratification generally failed to break dormancy. Older (1983) seeds of `Bandera' and `Cedar' penstemon germinated to full viability without stratification. All species showed a marked decrease in germination percentage above 20C; 15C consistently produced maximum germination after 4 weeks. At 15C, mean times to 90% of total germination were 11, 22, and 29 days for `Bandera', `Cedar', and firecracker penstemon, respectively. Transfer of seeds failing to germinate at warm temperatures (25 and 30C) to 15C and applying 720 μ m gibberellic acid (GA 3 ) solution was effective in breaking primary dormancy of firecracker penstemon and secondary dormancy of `Bandera' penstemon. Our findings suggest that incubation below 20C, combined with 8 weeks of stratification or the use of after-ripened seed, may improve seed propagation efforts for these species.
Two studies in west-central Nebraska to determine the survival of wildflowers planted with buffalo grass [Buchloe dactyloides (Nutt.) Engelm.] and blue grama grass [Bouteloua gracilis (H.B.K.) Lag. ex Steud.)] were conducted in 6 and 10 year studies. In total, 19 forbs and 1 grass were transplanted with ‘Texoka’ buffalo grass in the first study, and 16 forbs were planted in a split-plot design into 3 buffalo grass selections, blue grama or a clean cultivated plot in the second study. Survival between transplants in both studies varied significantly. In the first study, survival was significantly higher for little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium Michx.) (85%), bouncing bet (Saponaria officinalis L.) (100%), and stiff goldenrod (Solidago rigida L.) (100%) over the 6 years of the study. In the second study, there were significant differences between species for survival, with grayhead prairie coneflower [Ratibida pinnata (Vent.) Barnh.] (85%) and pitcher sage (Salvia azurea Lam.) (80%) having the highest survival at the end of the 10-year study. There were significant differences in height and number of flower stalks within S. rigida, R. pinnata, and S. azurea between years and between main plots. This study demonstrates differences in survival and growth of wildflowers when planted in conjunction with buffalo grass and blue grama grass.
Germination trials of three seedlots were conducted over a temperature gradient for 14 days to determine the optimal germination temperature for the Black-eyed Susan (Rudbeckia fulgida Ait.). The optimal germination temperature for R. fulgida seeds was 30 ± 1C. All three seedlots began germination (radicle emergence) on the second day at 30.2C. By day four, all seedlots sur-passed 50% germination, with three seedlots germinating 53%, 52%, and 73%. Mean germination percentages were higher between 28.3 and 32.6C than at temperatures above or below this range. Significantly higher germination percentages and enhanced germination rates attained at the elevated temperatures may save time, cut production costs, and decrease exposure to detrimental pre-emergent pathogenic fungi.
This research describes conditioning sequences for seven species of wildflower seed: smooth aster (Aster laevis), New England aster (A. novae-angliae), stiff white aster (A. ptarmacoides), swamp aster (A. puniceus), common boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum), mountain mint (Pycanthemum virginicum), and tall prairie coneflower (Ratibida pinnata). The seed conditioning machine sequence that produced acceptable final products was brush-type thresher, round woven-wire screens, air column and indent cylinder. Operating parameters of these machines for the different species are given. The percentage of germinable seed saved for six of seven species averaged 74.7% with a range of 48.6% to 88.7%.
Plantings of six native wildflower species—Cassia fasciculata Michx. (partridge-pea), Coreopsis ianceoiata L. (lanceleaf coreopsis), Gaillardia pulchella Foug. (blanketflow er), Ipomopsis rubra(L.) Wherry (standing cypress), Rudbeck ia hirta L. (black-eyed susan), and Salvia lyrata L. (lyreleaf sage) —were established during winter 1997 at five sites in Jef ferson County, Florida. Seeds of each species were derived from native populations (local ecotype) and purchased from commercial sources outside of Florida (nonlocal ecotype). Plantings were irrigated as needed up until early April to en sure germination but received no supplemental fertilizer. No pesticides were applied except to control weeds on the perim eter of the plantings and fireants; plots were handweeded as necessary. Plants were evaluated once per month from June to October 1997. It was clearly evident from these evaluations that the local ecotypes generally were better adapted to north Florida conditions than were the nonlocal ecotypes. The most noteworthy differences were as follows: 1) local ecotypes of black-eyed susan and blanketflower had longer flowering peri ods than their nonlocal counterparts; 2) the local ecotype of lanceleaf coreopsis flowered profusely while flowering of the nonlocal ecotype was sparse; 3) the local ecotypes of lanceleaf coreopsis and lyreleaf sage had less disease incidence than nonlocal ecotypes; 4) flower color and blooming date of stand ing cypress ecotypes varied substantially.
Low-vigor seeds of black-eyed Susan ( Rudbeckia fulgida Ait.) primed in aerated -1.3 MPa KNO 3 for 7 days at 30C in darkness had double the total germination percentage at 30C and one-half the mean time of germination as nonprimed seeds. Priming the seeds in polyethylene glycol rather than KNO 3 generally resulted in lower total germination percentage and longer mean time of germination. Osmotic priming increased total germination percentage and germination rate of seeds germinated at 21.9 to 32.2C, but the priming benefit on total germination percentage was greater at ≤27.6C. Total germination percentage of primed and nonprimed seeds was highest at 28.8 to 32.2C.
Initial stand establishment and stand retention and development of twelve species of native grasses and forbs (natives) was compared following seeding under varied planting dates, mulch treatments, and planting procedures. Tests were conducted on one site with full sunlight exposure, and on another in partial shade. Both stand establishment and retention varied from species to species. When considering the twelve species as a group, (1) plots in full sunlight had 27 percent better stands than those in partial shade, (2) plots seeded with a seed mixture of natives/cover crops onto a clean tilled site produced 26 percent better stands than those overseeded into previously established cover crops, and (3) August was the best seeding date followed by June, April, and October. Germination and establishment of some species was delayed by wheat straw mulch as compared to wood excelsior mulch or no-mulch, but stand differences due to mulches varied little at the conclusion of this test.
Commercially produced, source identified, natural track seeds of Leavenworth's tickseed (Coreopsis leavenworthii Torr. & Gray [Asteraceae]) harvested in late June expressed a type of physiological dormancy in which seeds became nondormant first at cooler temperatures and then at warmer temperatures. In 2 studies, fresh seeds were buried about 7 cm (3 in) deep in sand in 3.8-l (1-gal) containers, irrigated once per week, and exposed to ambient temperatures. Seeds were excavated monthly during 10 mo in the 2001–2002 study and 9 mo in the 2002–2003 study. Seeds became nondormant in late fall to early winter, approximately 5 to 6 mo after they were buried. Coreopsis leavenworthii showed that it was well-adapted to Florida's climate because its seeds germinated under a wide variety of temperatures typical in Florida during late fall and early winter at shallow seeding depth (light enhanced germination) in sites typical of C. leavenworthii's moist habitat. While C. leavenworthii most closely resembled a facultative winter annual, it also showed the potential to germinate to some degree under temperatures typical of Florida's subtropical summer. No buried seeds germinated, indicating that C. leavenworthii has the potential to form at least a short-term seedbank.
Home region failed to provide any clear short-term improvement in plant growth, vigor, flowering, quality, or survival of Gaillardia pulchella Foug. (Asteraceae; firewheel) when plants derived from natural populations in east Texas, northeast Florida, central west Florida, central east Florida, and southeast Florida were grown under low-input landscape conditions in northwestern, northern central, or southeastern Florida. During the 22-wk study, adaptability of east Texas plants was similar to that of northeast Florida and southeast Florida plants within the different sites. At the 2 northern sites, plant growth, vigor, and flowering were greater than for plants grown in southeastern Florida. The patterns of biweekly changes in plant vigor, flowering, and quality ratings were similar among plants of all seed sources within a site. Averaged over the entire study, these ratings were equally high for plants of all seed sources except central east Florida plants. Within a site, survival of northeast Florida, southeast Florida, and east Texas plants was equally high (83 to 100%). Also, 100% of central west Florida plants survived at the 2 northern sites, yet no central west Florida plants survived past week 16 in southeastern Florida. Differences in growth, vigor, flowering, quality, and survival were likely related to the loamier soils at the 2 northern sites and (or) flooding June rains in southeastern Florida.
This slide script, part of a series of slide scripts designed for use in vocational agriculture classes, deals with commercially important herbaceous ornamental plants. Included in the script are narrations for use with a total of 338 slides illustrating 150 different plants. Generally, two slides are used to illustrate each plant: one slide shows the growth habit of the plant, and the other is a close-up of the plant's flower or foliage. Plants are grouped by flowering period and treated alphabetically in each group by scientific name. At the end of the script are two indexes: one for each plant's scientific name and the other for its common name(s). The introduction to the script also includes suggestions for its use and recommended additional learning activities. (MN)
The use of local seed provenances is often recommended in restoration and habitat creation because they are thought to be better adapted to local habitat conditions. However, spatial scales and the degree of population differentiation are not well known and germination is often not included in comparisons between provenances. We analysed germination as a key trait of plant development in five provenances of four species used for ecological restoration on arable land (wildflower strips). Germination was tested under different conditions in growth chambers (early vs. late spring) and in the field (non-competition vs. competition). We also examined the contribution of non-genetic (maternal) effects to population differentiation.
Seeds from five lots each of Echinacea angustifolia DC, and E. pallida (Nutt.) Nutt. were germinated in a growth chamber in light (40 μmol·m(-2)· s(-1)) or darkness at 25 °C for 16 to 20 d after soaking in 1 mM ethephon or water for 10 min, or moist stratification at 4 - 6 °C for two weeks. Either light or ethephon promoted seed germination of E. angustifolia and E. pallida, in comparison with darkness in nine of ten lots. Ethephon in the dark had similar or greater germination percentages than water with light. Ethephon with light improved germination in three of ten lots compared with ethephon in the dark. The effect of cold, moist stratification in comparison with darkness varied by seed lot. Five lots of E. purpurea (L.) Moench were tested; however, no treatment differences were measured. The finding that ethethon promoted E. angustifolia and E. pallida seed germination in darkness could be useful in the cultivation of these two species. Chemical name used: 2-chloroethylphosphonic acid (ethephon).
Herbaceous perennial plants: a treatise on their identification, culture, and garden attributes. 2 nd ed
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perennials. Timber Press, Portland Ore.
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Barker, J. 2004. Encyclopedia of North American wildflowers. Parragon Publishing,
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Flynn, K. 1997. Woodland wildflowers: a primer. Coop. Ext. Sys. ANR 1071.
Wildflowers in Alabama landscapes
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Kessler, J.R. and B. Carden. 2001. Wildflowers in Alabama landscapes. Ala. Coop. Ext.
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influence of light on Lobelia innata. J.of Agr. Res.52:627-631.
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Norcini, J.G. 2005. Seed production of blanketflower. Univ. of FL. IFAS extension.
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NRCS. 2008a. Plant guide: cardinal flower. 17 June 2008. <http://plantmaterials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant guide: eastern purple cone flower
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NRCS. 2008b. Plant guide: eastern purple cone flower. 17 June 2008. <http://plantmaterials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Growing and propagating wildflowers. The Univ
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Phillips, H.R. 1985. Growing and propagating wildflowers. The Univ. of N.C. Press,
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In the third run, seeds of C. tinctoria, R. hirta (same two sources as in run 2), G. pulchella, and E. purpurea (same two sources as in run 2) were sown on 20
December 2008. <http://www.wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=LOCA2>.
Significance of main effects and interactions for percent survival, LA, SDW, and RDW
were determined at α = 0.05. Contrasts were used to determine trends and paired
comparisons of simple effects of interactions. In the first run, seeds of Coreopsis
tinctoria (golden tickseed) and Rudbeckia hirta (black-eyed Susan) (Native American
Seed Farm, Junction, Tx.) were sown on 5 August 2008, and seeds of Gaillardia
pulchella (firewheel) (Everwilde Farms, Bloomer, Wis.), were sown on 12 August 2008.
Plants were harvested 14 October 2008.
In the second run, seeds of C. tinctoria (Native American Seed Farm, Junction,
Tx.), seeds from two sources of R. hirta (Native American Seed Farm, Junction, Tx.;
Ernst Seeds, Meadville, Pa., but collected from N.C.), seeds of G. pulchella (Everwilde
Farms, Bloomer, Wis.), seeds of Coreopsis verticillata (whorled tickseed) (Ernst Seed,
Meadville, Pa.), and seeds from two sources of Echinacea purpurea (eastern purple
coneflower) (Native American Seed Farm, Junction, Tx.; Everwilde Seed, Bloomer,
Wis.) were sown on 1 June 2009, and harvested 31 July 2009.
In the third run, seeds of C. tinctoria, R. hirta (same two sources as in run 2), G.
pulchella, and E. purpurea (same two sources as in run 2) were sown on 20 August
2009 and harvested 12 October 2009. Marvyn loamy sand was amended with 0.6 g
(0.2 oz) per pot [80 kg·ha -1 (70 lbs/A)] P 2 O 5 (Peafowl Fertilizers, Piedmont Fertilizer,
Inc., Opelika, Ala.), which was incorporated in the top inch of soil before sowing. For
each run, interactions are presented when significant (α = 0.05), otherwise significant