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Brainscape's "Confidence-Based Repetition" Methodology
Abstract
Brainscape is a synchronous web and mobile flashcard program designed to improve the retention of declarative knowledge. It is different from other spaced-repetition flashcard programs in that its pattern for re-assessment is based not on a random algorithm nor on the user's past history of correctness, but rather on the user's own judgment of confidence in each piece of information – a process that Brainscape calls Confidence-Based Repetition (CBR). In this paper, the designers of Brainscape evaluate the claim that CBR can optimize a learner's use of study time, and we highlight the large body of research that supports this claim. Our analysis concludes that Brainscape is most useful when learners have a strong intrinsic motivation to learn the topic at hand. Brainscape is particularly useful for time-starved individuals preparing for a high-stakes exam or studying a foreign language that they are very interested in learning (rather than being forced to learn).
In this thesis is first considered how energy is taught and learned about in school, focusing on the discrepancies between a scientific definition of energy and a societal definition of energy, and discussing units of energy and the confusion they induce. Perspectives for education and energy management are provided. Then, focus is placed on the representations of energy provided in home energy management systems, seeking to propose an original classification based on educational strategies. The major obstacles met by designers reveal how energy management tools can be adapted to human cognition. Next, human numerical and magnitude processing abilities are discussed in depth, taking the viewpoint of grounded cognition and building a framework through which the impact of external representations of energy on learning and comparing can be established, understood, and predicted. This leads to two empirical studies. The first study tests the effect of external representation (symbolic or spatial) on recall and comparisons from memory. Accuracy and response time at comparisons are used as dependent variables. Results indicate analog processing of magnitude in both conditions, and show that external representation affects performance at both recall and comparison, with symbolic external representation increasing recall and comparison accuracy, and spatial external representation increasing comparison speed. The second study tests the effects of spatiality, groundedness, and physicality in external representations, also on recall and comparisons from memory, using the same dependent variables. Results indicate analog processing in all conditions. Spatiality decreases recall accuracy but increases comparison speed. Groundedness and physicality show no effect. Results are consistent with grounded cognition's mental simulations hypothesis (Barsalou, 1999, 2008; Wilson, 2002) as well as Dehaene's (1997) view on numerical cognition, in which number sense is based on a continuous accumulator that does not directly process discrete numbers. Theoretical implications and practical applications are discussed.
The 2001 U.S. Supreme Court Case of Falvo v. Owasso School System (Owasso Independent School District No I-011 v. Falvo) has focused national attention on the common classroom practice of peer-grading. In a unanimous decision the court reaffirmed the popular view that students grading each others' tests is valuable, saving teachers' time and augmenting student learning. Our study puts these presumed benefits to the test in 4 middle school science classrooms. We compared teacher-assigned grades to those awarded either by students to themselves or by their peers. By training students to grade with the help of a scoring rubric, a very high correlation was obtained between students and their teacher on test questions (r = 0.91 to 0.94). We found patterns of bias when students assigned grades. When grading others, students awarded lower grades to the best performing students than their teacher did. When grading themselves, lower performing students tended to inflate their own low scores. Performance on an unannounced, 2nd administration of the same test 1 week later measured the degree to which student-grading resulted in any increased understanding. Students who graded their peers' tests did not gain significantly more than a control group of students who did not correct any papers but simply took the same test again. Those students who corrected their own tests improved dramatically. Self-grading and peer-grading appear to be reasonable aids to saving teachers' time. Self-grading appears to result in increased student learning; peer-grading does not.
As Web sites grow larger and more complex, the challenge of designing effective user navigation increases. We offer designers (as well as those evaluating existing Web sites) a set of 12 guidelines encompassing that attempt to cover the most important and broadly relevant navigation issues. These guidelines are grouped under four topics: (1) Designing an effective link, (2) Managing large numbers of links, (3) Providing orientation information, and (4) Augmenting link-to-link navigation. With each guideline there is an example and a synthesis of the most relevant and compelling research, theory, and expert opinion. These guidelines apply to what can be broadly termed informational Web sites rather than sites for game-players, art sites, and sites intended for whimsy and fun.
The ACT-R computational modeling system encapsulates an activation-based system of declarative memory. While this model has had a variety of successes in modeling memory phenomena, in its current conception it has no mechanism that would produce the spacing effect. A paired-associate memory experiment was conducted and the data from this experiment were fit with an ACT-R memory model using a new decay mechanism. Rather than a set decay rate, this mechanism bases decay for a trial on the current activation at the time of that trial. The spacing effect is a result of this mechanism.
This paper proposes a framework for understanding people's theories about their own cognition. Metacognitive theories are defined broadly as systematic frameworks used to explain and direct cognition, metacognitive knowledge, and regulatory skills. We distinguish tacit, informal, and formal metacognitive theories and discuss critical differences among them using criteria borrowed from the developmental literature. We also consider the origin and development of these theories, as well as implications for educational research and practice.
Most theories predict that when people indicate that they are highly confident they are producing their strongest responses.
Hence, if such a high confidence response is in error it should be overwritten only with great difficulty. In contrast to
this prediction, we have found that people easily correct erroneous responses to general information questions endorsed as
correct with high-confidence, so long as the correct answer is given as feedback. Three potential explanations for this unexpected
hypercorrection effect are summarized. The explanation that is tested here, in two experiments, is that after a person commits
a high-confidence error the correct answer feedback, being surprising or unexpected, is given more attention than is accorded
to the feedback to low-confidence errors. This enhanced attentional capture leads to better memory. In both experiments, a
tone detection task was presented concurrently with the corrective feedback to assess the attentional capture of feedback
stimuli. In both, tone detection was selectively impaired during the feedback to high confidence errors. It was also negatively
related to final performance, indicating that the attention not devoted to the tone detection was effectively engaged by the
corrective feedback. These data support the attentional explanation of the high-confidence hypercorrection effect.
A Region of Proximal Learning model is proposed emphasizing two components to people’s study time allocation, controlled by different metacognitive indices. The first component is choice, which is further segmented into two stages: (1) a decision of whether to study or not and (2) the order of priority of items chosen. If the people’s Judgments of Learning (JOLs) are sufficiently high that they believe they know the items already, they will choose to not study. If they do choose to study, the order is from that which they believe is almost known to that which they believe is more difficult (high JOL to low JOL). The second component is perseverance, with emphasis on the rule for stopping studying once study has begun on an item. We propose that people use a previously unexplored process-oriented metacognitive marker: their judgments of the rate of learning (jROLs), to decide when to stop. When learning is proceeding quickly and the jROL value is high they continue studying. When the jROL approaches zero, and their subjective assessment indicates learning is at a standstill they stop. The extant literature bearing on this model is reviewed, and eight new experiments, all of which support the model, are presented.
This research explored the possibility that a metacognitive control process (namely, the allocation of self-paced study time) might be affected by the output from metacognitive monitoring processes (i.e., ease-of-learning and/or feeling-of-knowing judgments). In three experiments, university undergraduates received instructions that emphasized either accuracy of learning or speed of learning. The major findings were: (a) ease-of-learning judgments and feeling-of-knowing judgments are reliably related to study-time allocation, with more self-paced study time being allocated to the supposedly more difficult items; (b) even when instructed to master every item and when allowed unlimited study time to do so, people terminate study before learning is completed; and (c) large increases in self-paced study time can yield little or no increase in the subsequent likelihood of recall (the "labor-in-vain effect"). Implications are drawn for a model of the interplay between metacognitive monitoring processes and metacognitive control processes.
We compared judgments of learning (JOLs) that were made either (a) after 1 study trial, (b) 2 study trials, or (c) in-between the 1st and 2nd study trials. In regard to the absolute accuracy of JOLs at predicting subsequent recall, we replicated previous findings of an underconfidence-with-practice effect for immediate JOLs and report for the first time a new finding of an underconfidence-with-practice effect for delayed JOLs (i.e., delayed JOLs after one trial overestimated the likelihood of subsequent recall, whereas delayed JOLs after two trials underestimated that likelihood). Also, although delayed JOLs always had a greater relative accuracy than did immediate JOLs, the relative accuracy of immediate and delayed JOLs was approximately the same after 1 versus 2 study trials. These results demonstrate that additional study trials affect the absolute accuracy of all JOLs but not the relative accuracy of any JOLs. Thus an increase in the number of study trials produced an increasing bias to be underconfident about the subsequent likelihood of recall but did not affect people's ordering of which items had been more (versus less) well-learned.
In contrast to the dominant discrepancy reduction model, which favors the most difficult items, people, given free choice, devoted most time to medium-difficulty items and studied the easiest items first. When study time was experimentally manipulated, best performance resulted when most time was given to the medium-difficulty items. Empirically determined information uptake functions revealed steep initial learning for easy items with little subsequent increase. For medium-difficulty items, initial gains were smaller but more sustained, suggesting that the strategy people had used, when given free choice, was largely appropriate. On the basis of the information uptake functions, a negative spacing effect was predicted and observed in the final experiment. Overall, the results favored the region of proximal learning framework.
This article investigated individual control of spacing strategies during study. Three predictions were outlined: The spacing hypothesis suggests that people choose to space their study to improve long-term learning via the spacing effect. The massing hypothesis suggests that people choose to mass their study because of illusions of confidence during study. The metacognitive hypothesis suggests that people control their spacing schedules as a function of their metacognitive judgments of specific to-be-learned items. To test these hypotheses, the authors asked participants to study and make judgments of learning for cue-target pairs. Then, participants were given three choices; they could study the pair again immediately (massed), study the pair again after the entire list had been presented (spaced), or choose not to restudy (done). Results supported a metacognitively controlled spacing strategy-people spaced items that were judged to be relatively easy but massed items that were judged as relatively difficult.
One of the most important reasons to investigate human metacognition is its role in directing how people study. However, limited evidence exists that metacognitively guided study benefits learning. Three experiments are presented that provide evidence for this link. In Experiment 1, participants' learning was enhanced when they were allowed to control what they studied. Experiments 2a-d replicated this finding and showed contributions of self-regulated study to learning. Experiments 3a and 3b showed that, when forced to choose among items they did not know, participants chose the easiest items and benefited from doing so, providing evidence for the link between metacognitive monitoring/control and learning, and supporting the region of proximal learning model of study-time allocation.
The authors performed a meta-analysis of the distributed practice effect to illuminate the effects of temporal variables that have been neglected in previous reviews. This review found 839 assessments of distributed practice in 317 experiments located in 184 articles. Effects of spacing (consecutive massed presentations vs. spaced learning episodes) and lag (less spaced vs. more spaced learning episodes) were examined, as were expanding interstudy interval (ISI) effects. Analyses suggest that ISI and retention interval operate jointly to affect final-test retention; specifically, the ISI producing maximal retention increased as retention interval increased. Areas needing future research and theoretical implications are discussed.
Information that is spaced over time is better remembered than the same amount of information massed together. This phenomenon, known as the spacing effect, was explored with respect to its effect on learning and neurogenesis in the adult dentate gyrus of the hippocampal formation. Because the cells are generated over time and because learning enhances their survival, we hypothesized that training with spaced trials would rescue more new neurons from death than the same number of massed trials. In the first experiment, animals trained with spaced trials in the Morris water maze outperformed animals trained with massed trials, but there was not a direct effect of trial spacing on cell survival. Rather, animals that learned well retained more cells than animals that did not learn or learned poorly. Moreover, performance during acquisition correlated with the number of cells remaining in the dentate gyrus after training. In the second experiment, the time between blocks of trials was increased. Consequently, animals trained with spaced trials performed as well as those trained with massed, but remembered the location better two weeks later. The strength of that memory correlated with the number of new cells remaining in the hippocampus. Together, these data indicate that learning, and not mere exposure to training, enhances the survival of cells that are generated 1 wk before training. They also indicate that learning over an extended period of time induces a more persistent memory, which then relates to the number of cells that reside in the hippocampus.
Three experiments investigated whether study choice was directly related to judgments of learning (JOLs) by examining people's choices in cases in which JOLs were dissociated from recall. In Experiment 1, items were given either three repetitions or one repetition on Trial 1. Items given three repetitions received one on Trial 2, and those given one repetition received three on Trial 2-equating performance at the end of Trial 2, but yielding different immediate Trial 2 JOLs. Study choice followed the "illusory" JOLs. A delayed JOL condition in Experiment 2 did not show this JOL bias and neither did study choice. Finally, using a paradigm (Koriat & Bjork, 2005) in which similar JOLs are given to forward and backward associative pairs, despite much worse performance on the backward pairs, study choice again followed the mistaken JOLs. We concluded that JOLs-what people believe they know-directly influence people's study choices.
Research on judgments of verbal learning has demonstrated that participants' judgments are unreliable and often overconfident The authors studied judgments of perceptual-motor learning. Participants learned 3 keystroke patterns on the number pad of a computer, each requiring that a different sequence of keys be struck in a different total movement time. Practice trials on each pattern were either blocked or randomly interleaved with trials on the other patterns, and each participant was asked, periodically, to predict his or her performance on a 24-hr test. Consistent with earlier findings, blocked practice enhanced acquisition but harmed retention. Participants, though, predicted better performance given blocked practice. These results augment research on judgments of verbal learning and suggest that humans, at their peril, interpret current ease of access to a perceptual-motor skill as a valid index of learning.
Thirty-five individuals who had learned and relearned 50 English-Spanish word pairs were tested for recall and recognition after an interval of 8 years. Two variables, the spacing between successive relearning sessions and the number of presentations required to encode individual word pairs, are excellent predictors of the likelihood of achieving permastore retention. Optimum recall occurs for words encoded in 1-2 presentations and accessed at intervals of 30 days. Both variables yield monotonic retention functions that account for a range of variation from 0% to 23% recall. These variables also have very significant effects on the recognition of unrecalled words.
Following the presentation of a single list of word pairs consisting of a three-letter word on the left and a five-letter word on the right, groups of 64 Ss each were asked to recall the (a) three-letter words, (b) five-letter words, (c) intact pairs, or (d) five-letter words with the three-letter words provided. Two types of repeated pairs were presented, one in which the same three- and five-letter words were repeated together (same pairs) and one in which the same five-letter word was repeated with different three-letter words (different pairs). For half of the Ss in each recall group, the repetitions of a pair containing a given five-letter word were massed (MP); for the other half, the repetitions were distributed (DP). Recall of MP same pairs and the eomponents of these pairs was consistently poorer than that of DP same pairs. Recall of the repeated component of the different pairs was also poorer under MP than under DP. The results were interpreted as supportive of an attenuation-of-attention explanation of the spacing effect.
We contrasted several ways that an individual's judgments of learning (JOLs) can be utilized when allocating additional study (“restudy”) during the learning of Swahili-English translation equivalents The findings demonstrate how metacognitive monitoring can be utilized to benefit multitrial learning Computer-controlled allocation of restudy based on people's JOLs was equivalent to most people's own allocation of restudy (indicating that the computer algorithm can provide a sufficient account of people's allocation of restudy) and was more effective than a computer-controlled allocation based on normative performance (indicating that people's metacognitive monitoring of idiosyncratic knowledge has functional utility in causal chains for learning)
In a 9-year longitudinal investigation, 4 subjects learned and relearned 300 English-foreign language word pairs. Either 13 or 26 relearning sessions were administered at intervals of 14, 28, or 56 days. Retention was tested for 1.2.3. or 5 years after training terminated. The longer intersession intervals slowed down acquisition slightly, but this disadvantage during training was offset by substantially higher retention. Thirteen retraining sessions spaced at 56 days yielded retention comparable to 26 sessions spaced at 14 days. The retention benefit due to additional sessions was independent of the benefit due to spacing, and both variables facilitated retention of words regardless of difficulty level and of the consistency of retrieval during training. The benefits of spaced retrieval practice to long-term maintenance of access to academic knowledge areas are discussed.
Judgments of learning (JOLs), which pertain to knowing what one knows and which help to guide self-paced study during acquisition, have almost never been very accurate at predicting subsequent recall. We recently discovered a situation in which the JOLs can be made to be extremely accurate. Here we report the conditions under which such high accuracy occurs, namely, when the JOL made on the stimulus cue is delayed until shortly after study rather than being made immediately after study. Discussion is focused both on theoretical explanations (to be explored in future research) and on potential applications of the delayed-JOL effect.
A compendium of articles classified into 5 parts: "Purpose and Scope of This Book," "Pressey's Self-Instructional Test-Scoring Devices," "Skinner's Teaching Machines and Programming Concepts," Contributions from Military and Other Sources," and "Some Recent Work." Part I includes an introductory overview (Lumsdaine) and a preview (Glaser). Part II presents S. L. Pressey's 3 original papers on teaching machines and a paper on a punch board device, as well as experimental studies on programed guidance (J. C. Peterson), drill by machine (J. K. Little), a new self-scoring testing device for improving instruction (G. W. Angell & M. E. Troyer), and law of effect (A. L. Stephens). In Part III, papers by B. F. Skinner, D. Porter, J. G. Holland, L. E. Homme, C. B. Ferster, S. M. Sapon, S. R. Meyer, and W. Hively define the reinforcement approach. In Part IV, general and military papers cover educational invention (I. Mellan), programing (N. A. Crowder, E. Z. Rothkopf), instrumental papers (P. K. Weimer, L. J. Briggs, G. Pask, F. M. Gardner, D. E. Damrin, Glaser), and the technology of teaching (S. Ramo, J. D. Finn). In Part V, recent work covers special projects (J. A. Barlow, Glaser & Homme, J. E. Coulson & H. F. Silberman, E. B. Fry, T. F. Gilbert, A. Amsel) and a general appraisal of machines (J. W. Blyth, D. J. Mayhew & A. F. Johnson, Pressey, Lumsdaine, W. J. Carr). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The "testing" phenomenon refers to the finding that students who take a test on material between the time they first study and the time they take a final test remember more of the material than students who do not take an intervening test. 4 experiments examined the testing phenomenon in student's memory for brief passages and labels for parts of flowers. Experiments 1a and 1b demonstrated the generality of the phenomenon to the methods and materials used in the current study. Experiment 2 ruled out an "amount of processing" hypothesis as a way of accounting for the testing phenomenon. The results of Experiment 3 seemed to indicate that the testing phenomenon resided in the number of complete retrieval events. Experiments 4a, 4b, and 4c focused on the completeness of retrieval events and indicated that the influence of retrieval on later memory performance was determined, at least in part, by the completeness of the initial retrieval event. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
T. K. Landauer and R. A. Bjork (1978) demonstrated that a pattern of expanding retrieval trials following a single study opportunity results in higher final recall than uniform spacing or uniform massing of tests. Although expanding retrieval practice has been described as a powerful mnemonic strategy with wide potential application, it has been infrequently investigated. The authors obtained evidence for the generality of this strategy by exploring systematically in a series of 5 experiments the conditions under which an expanding pattern of retrieval enhances retention. By expanding knowledge of this mnemonic strategy, the authors seek to stimulate research on what appears to be a missed opportunity for applied memory researchers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Conducted 2 experiments to explore the ability of 115 college students to use a rating scale to predict during study which of the to-be-remembered items they would be able to retrieve in a later test of recall. The memory tasks involved paired-associate learning of lists of unrelated nouns and memory for sentences cued by the initial words. Probability of recall was systematically related to predictions in all conditions. Accuracy of prediction was found to increase with prior study experience with the rated material in the absence of prior test trials, although substantial prediction was possible even when predictions were made on the initial, and only, study trial. There was considerable commonality in the ratings of items across Ss, as well as evidence of an idiosyncratic component suggesting that the ratings reflected a monitoring based on privileged access by the S to his/her own encoding and storage operations. Ability to predict accurately which items would be recalled bore little or no relation to memory ability as indexed by the number of items recalled. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Proposed and evaluated 4 optimization strategies for the learning of a large German-English vocabulary using 120 undergraduates. The 1st strategy involved presenting items in a random order and served as a benchmark against which the others could be evaluated. The 2nd strategy permitted S to determine on each trial of the experiment which item was to be presented, thus placing instruction under "learner control." The 3rd and 4th strategies were based on a mathematical model of the learning process; these strategies were computer controlled and took account of S's response history in making decisions about which items to present next. Performance on a delayed test administered 1 wk. after the instructional session indicated that the learner-controlled strategy yielded a gain of 53% when compared to the random procedure, whereas the best of the 2 computer-controlled strategies yielded a gain of 108%. Implications for a theory of instruction are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three experiments, with 276 undergraduates, examined how degree of learning affects normal forgetting. Exp I varied learning of categorized lists and tested retention at 3 intervals (immediately and 1 or 5 days after presentation). Across all measures, study trials affected intercepts but not slopes of forgetting functions. Exp II varied learning of paired-associate lists and tested retention at the same 3 intervals. Across all measures, trials influenced intercepts but not forgetting slopes. Exp III varied learning of sentence lists and tested verbatim and gist memory at the same intervals. Again, trials affected intercepts but not slopes. Results suggest that the forgetting of verbal lists is independent of their degree of learning. No current theories of memory predict these outcomes, but neither does the pattern of results disconfirm any theory. It is argued that present memory theorizing neglects almost entirely the central problem of normal forgetting. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested a 2-process theory of the spacing effect in free recall in 4 experiments with a total of 216 college students and paid Ss. The 1st process, differential organization, produces a positive correlation between the spacing of the presentations of repeated words and the number of different retrieval routes that can provide access to the words. The retrieval process interacts with the differential organization to control performance. If the cues used to retrieve the words provide approximately equal access to all retrieval routes, then the function relating spacing to recall will increase monotonically. If only selected retrieval routes are used, then the spacing function will be nonmonotonic. Results supporting this theory are that (a) the monotonic spacing function was most robust when Ss studied the list using an organizational strategy, (b) cuing and directing retrieval with input words resulted in a nonmonotonic effect of spacing when Ss had used an organizational strategy, and (c) directing retrieval by instructions about the order of recall resulted in a nonmonotonic effect of spacing. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two parametric theories, the Markov model of J. L. Young (1971, Journal of Mathematical Psychology8, 58–81) and A. V. Reed's (1976a, Memory and Cognition4, 453–458) version of the strength-resistance theory (Wickelgren, W. A., 1972, Journal of Mathematical Psychology9, 418–455; Wicklelgren, W. A., 1974a, Contemporary developments in mathematical psychology, Freeman, New York; Wickelgren, W. A., 1974b, Memory and Cognition2, 775–780), were tested against the spacing effects data for A. M. Glenberg (1976, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior15, 1–16). Under the assumption that the position of items in the strength distribution about the mean is due to random variability in perceptual processes at the time of retrieval, the strength-resistance theory fitted the data quantitatively without significant deviations, the X2 value falling between the median and the 90th percentile of the applicable X2 distribution. The strength-resistance theory also accounts for qualitative observations left unexplained by other theoretical schemes.
The revival of interest in the effectiveness of spaced practice, as compared with massed practice, in learning is attributed to the abandonment of the constraints of serial and paired-associate list learning and the discovery of stable benefits from spaced practice in continuous paired-associate learning, short-term memory for individual items, and single-trial free-recall learning. Comments are made about the preceding symposium papers by Underwood, Waugh, and Greeno, and some data on the differential effects of spacing of repetitions in free-recall learning are introduced in an effort to assess the current state of fact and theory.
Encoding strategies vary in their duration of effectiveness, and individuals can best identify and modify strategies that yield effects of short duration on the basis of retrieval failures. Multiple study sessions with long inter-session intervals are better than massed training at providing discriminative feedback that identifies encoding strategies of short duration. We report two investigations in which long intervals between study sessions yield substantial benefits to long-term retention, at a cost of only moderately longer individual study sessions. When individuals monitor and control encoding over an extended period, targets yielding the largest number of retrieval failures contribute substantially to the spacing advantage. These findings are relevant to theory and to educators whose primary interest in memory pertains to long-term maintenance of knowledge.
Optimizing the user experience should be the ultimate aim of the Web usability designer.
An experiment was performed to investigate the effects of practice and spacing on retention of Japanese-English vocabulary paired associates. The relative benefit of spacing increased with increased practice and with longer retention intervals. Data were fitted with an activation-based memory model, which proposes that each time an item is practiced it receives an increment of strength but that these increments decay as a power function of time. The rate of decay for each presentation depended on the activation at the time of the presentation. This mechanism limits long-term benefits from further practice at higher levels of activation and produces the spacing effect and its observed interactions with practice and retention interval. The model was compared with another model of the spacing effect (Raaijmakers, 2003) and was fit to some results from the literature on spacing and memory.
Preferences for certain characteristics of an online shopping experience may be related to demographic data. This paper discusses the characteristics of that experience, demographic data and preferences by demographic group. The results of an online survey of 488 individuals in the United States indicate that respondents are generally satisfied with their online shopping experiences, with security, information quality and information quantity ranking first in importance overall. The sensory impact of a site ranked last overall of the seven characteristics measured. Preferences for these characteristics in e-commerce sites were differentiated by age, education and income. The sensory impact of sites became less important as respondents increased in age, income or education. As the income of respondents increased, the importance of the reputation of the vendor rose. Web site designers may incorporate these findings into the design of e-commerce sites in an attempt to increase the shopping satisfaction of their users. Results from the customer relationship management portion of the survey suggest that current push technologies and site personalization are not an effective means of achieving user satisfaction.
From the experimental study of learning come devices which arrange optimal conditions for self-instruction.
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