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Do Highly Sensitive Persons Experience More Nonordinary States Of Consciousness During Sensory Isolation?
Abstract
Our aim was to investigate whether or not highly sensitive persons experienced more nonordinary/altered states of consciousness (ASC) during 45 minutes of sensory isolation in a flotation tank, than did less sensitive persons. Psychology students (N = 57) were allocated to 1
of 2 groups (high and low levels of sensitivity) depending on their score on the Highly Sensitive Person Scale. Prior to the flotation session participants completed questionnaires to assess their degree of depression, anxiety, optimism, absorption, and how often they had experienced a mystical
state. After the flotation session we assessed degree of ASC. The main finding was that the highly sensitive individuals experienced significantly more ASC during flotation than did the individuals in the low sensitivity group. Further, the highly sensitive participants had significantly more
absorption and anxiety, and had experienced mystical states more frequently prior to flotation, in comparison to individuals with low-level sensitivity.
... High SPS has consistently shown negative impacts on well-being, life satisfaction, and health-related quality of life (HRQOL) [15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28] . Research has linked higher SPS to poorer quality of life across several domains, including physical, cognitive, emotional, and social domains 29 . ...
... Notably, higher SPS has been linked to adverse outcomes in both physical and mental health (e.g., anxiety and depression) 15,30 , which are integral components of HRQOL. In particular, higher SPS has been shown to significantly impact physical health as it is often associated with increased vulnerability to physical symptoms and illnesses [16][17][18][19] . Interestingly, the three sensitivity components of SPS-Low Sensory Threshold, Ease of Excitation, and Aesthetic Sensitivity-are distinctly correlated with physical and mental health outcomes. ...
... Interestingly, the three sensitivity components of SPS-Low Sensory Threshold, Ease of Excitation, and Aesthetic Sensitivity-are distinctly correlated with physical and mental health outcomes. When experiencing stress, individuals high in Low Sensory Threshold and Ease of Excitation are more prone to experiencing physical health issues, including more frequent symptoms of ill health (e.g., back pain, colds or cough, and fatigue) 16 and higher rates of somatic problems (e.g., migraines, headaches, chronic pain, and chronic fatigue) [17][18][19] . These findings indicate a significant association between these SPS components and subjective health complaints. ...
Sensory processing sensitivity (SPS), linked to processing external and internal stimuli, has drawn attention to its associations with clinical factors, particularly with health-related quality of life (HRQOL) variables. This study examined the relationships among SPS, stress, sleep quality, and HRQOL, establishing an explanation model. Eight hundred adults (M = 26.66 years, SD = 12.24; range age: 18–85 years) completed self-administered questionnaires on SPS, stress, sleep quality, and HRQOL. Correlation analysis and structural equation modeling (SEM) were used to analyze HRQOL pathways. Stress positively correlated with sleep quality disturbances (r = 0.442, p < 0.001), and SPS (r = 0.344, p < 0.001). Sleep quality disturbances were weakly positively associated with SPS (r = 0.242, p < 0.001). Weak negative correlations emerged between stress and physical (r = -0.283, p < 0.001) and mental (r = − 0.271, p < 0.001) health, HRQOL main dimensions. SEM results showed SPS positively influenced sleep quality disturbances (β = 0.242, p < 0.05) stress (β = 0.413, p < 0.001) while negatively affecting physical health (β = − 0.126, p < 0.001). Sleep quality disturbances negatively affected physical (β = − 0.168, p < 0.001), and mental (β = − 0.189 , p < 0.001) health, and stress on mental health (β = − 0.492, p < 0.01). Indirect effects between SPS and physical (β = -0.036, p < 0.001) and mental (β = − 0.091, p < 0.001) health through sleep were observed, as well as a mediation of stress between SPS and mental health (β = − 0.196, p < 0.001). SPS, sleep quality disturbances, and stress emerged as significant predictors of self-rated physical and mental health in adults.
... The regression analysis provided insight into which aspects of SPS are significant for particular burnout symptoms. Additional analyses were dedicated to investigating gender differences because previous findings have shown significantly higher sensitivity scores among women (e.g., Jonsson et al., 2014;Şengül-lnal and Sümer, 2020) and significant differences in burnout symptoms between men and women (Ahola et al., 2006). ...
... Following previous findings that indicated higher levels of sensitivity among women (e.g., Jonsson et al., 2014;Şengül-lnal and Sümer, 2020), this study explores gender differences. The presented results confirm this tendency: women demonstrated higher scores on the general HSP scale and on each of the HSP subscales. ...
The aim of the study is to analyze the relationship between sensory processing sensitivity and occupational burnout. This analysis makes it possible to explore the problem of sensitivity as a predictor of burnout syndrome and to discuss adequate coping strategies in the work environment to improve employee well-being. The sample consists of 516 employees (236 women; Mage = 28.97, SD = 6.62 years). The Highly Sensitive Person Scale (HSPS; 27 items) was used to measure sensory processing sensitivity; the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory (OLBI; 16 items) was used to measure exhaustion and disengagement from work. The analysis of sensitivity is based on the ‘DOES’ model of a highly sensitive person, which includes depth of processing (D), overstimulation (O), emotional reactivity and empathy (E), and sensing the subtle (S). Burnout due to exhaustion and disengagement is analyzed. The factor analysis of the HSPS confirms its three-factor structure. The results indicate significant relationships between sensory processing sensitivity and burnout symptoms. However, the influence of specific aspects of sensitivity on the burnout problem varies: the results indicate that higher emotional reactivity is linked to worse burnout symptoms, but sensing the subtle shows the opposite effect and may be a protective factor against exhaustion. Significant gender differences were observed [F(511,1) = 136.63, p < 0.001; η² = 0.21]; women revealed a significantly higher level of general sensitivity (Mwomen = 4.66, SD = 0.62) as compared to men (Mmen = 4.01; SD = 0.64). Awareness of one’s high sensory-processing sensitivity and its potential outcomes in the work environment may be essential in order to implement appropriate regulatory strategies. Proactive strategies aimed at reducing prolonged emotional overload may be critical for highly sensitive employees. Recognizing high sensitivity may reduce burnout symptoms and improve well-being at work.
... It depends on a variety of factors. Generally, research suggests, that in adults, high sensitivity may be associated with physical and mental health issues such as pain, anxiety, and depression (Benham, 2006;Boyce et al., 1995;Engel-Yeger & Dunn, 2017;Liss et al., 2005;Jonsson, Grim, & Kjellgren, 2014;Liss, Mailloux, & Erchull, 2008;Neal, Edelmann, & Glachan, 2002). Also, SPS seems to be associated with lower levels of life and work satisfaction in adults (Booth, Standage & Fox, 2015;Sobocko & Zelenski, 2015). ...
... As noted previously, in adults SPS is linked to higher levels of psychopathology-related traits, including anxiety (Jonsson et al., 2014;Liss et al., 2008;Meredith et al., 2016;Neal et al., 2002), depression (Bakker & Moulding, 2012;Liss et al., 2008;Liss et al., 2005), internalizing problems (Boterberg & Warreyn, 2016), poor stress-management, difficulties in emotion regulation (Brindle, Moulding, Bakker, Nedeljkovic, 2015) and panic disorder (Bakker & Moulding, 2012;Liss et al., 2005;Liss et al., 2008;Neal et al., 2002). A recent theory purports that the association between SPS with depression, anxiety, and somatic symptoms is largely driven by maladaptive thoughts and related negative emotions in response to sensory information (Bratholm Wyller, Bratholm Wyller, Crane, & Gjelsvik, 2018). ...
... Sensory processing sensitivity itself is not a disorder, but under adverse conditions, it may be associated with numerous difficulties and increase the risk of abnormal development (Baryła-Matejczuk et al., 2020;Greven et al., 2019). Research indicates associations of high sensitivity with, among others: anxiety (Bakker & Moulding, 2012;Jonsson et al., 2014), higher stress levels (Bakker & Moulding, 2012;Benham, 2006), depression (Bakker & Moulding, 2012;Serafini et al., 2017), internalisation problems (Boterberg & Warreyn, 2016), lower life satisfaction (Booth et al., 2015), insecure attachment styles, and suboptimal parenting styles (Branjerdporn et al., 2019). However, research also points to numerous associations between high sensitivity and positive dimensions of functioning. ...
Manifestations of high sensitivity can be recognized even in the youngest children. Therefore, it is not possible to test it through activities that may disrupt its proper functioning. The research presented aims to investigate the development of this trait. There have been no longitudinal studies focusing on this trait in children, as they have not been widely researched or passed between devices that connect children with their parents. The study analyzed data from 131 children aged 8–11, including 84 tested twice, and 33 pairs of parents. The Highly Sensitive Child Scale in the Polish adaptation by Baryła-Matejczuk and Poleszak, and the Highly Sensitive Person Scale translated by Golonka and Gulla were used for measurement.
... In one of the few studies to use the HSPS to explore the relationship between SPS and AEs, Irwin et al. (2015) found an increased proneness to AEs and an increased proneness to attribute AEs to paranormal phenomena on the Survey of Anomalous Experiences (SAE) in those with higher scores on the HSPS. In the only other two studies, to the authors' knowledge, that have explored SPS and AEs, Jonsson et al. (2014) found that higher scores on the HSPS were associated with higher scores for absorption and mystical experiences and with more altered states of consciousness during sensory isolation in a flotation tank, and more recently, Williams et al. (2021), found that the number of AEs reported on the SAE was significantly associated with higher overall scores on the HSPS, but not with the three subscales of LST, EOE, and AES. Findings from these preliminary studies suggest that further research is warranted to establish what, if any, is the relationship between AEs and SPS. ...
Individual differences are among the most studied correlates of anomalous experiences and beliefs (AEs), but few have focussed on personality measures specifically defined by sensitivity. Of interest in this study is the personality trait of Sensory Processing Sensitivity (SPS), characterised by aesthetic sensitivity, being easily overwhelmed by internal and external stimuli, emotional reactivity and empathy, and deeper processing. An online survey investigated the relationship between SPS, and other personality constructs, in part, defined by sensitivity (transliminality and boundary-thinness) with anomalous experiences, beliefs, and abilities. Two hundred participants (mean age = 32.23; 151 females, 41 males, 6 non-binary and 2 preferred not to say) completed the Revised Transliminality Scale, the Boundary Questionnaire Short-Form, the Highly Sensitive Person Scale - Brief Version (measuring SPS), the Anomalous Experiences Inventory, and open-ended questions on SPS and AEs. There were significant and positive correlations between all four variables. Both transliminality and boundary thinness positively predicted anomalous beliefs with transliminality being the stronger, however, only transliminality predicted anomalous experiences and abilities. The findings suggest a relationship between SPS and anomalous experience and belief, but this is mediated by transliminality and boundary thinness.
... SPS is a fundamental, evolutionarily conserved trait (Pluess, 2015) and individual differences stem from a combination of genetic and environmental factors (Aron et al., 2012;Belsky & Pluess, 2009;Greven et al., 2019;Homberg et al., 2016). Also known as "high sensitivity," higher SPS has been associated with a plethora of observed healthrelated outcomes: more internalizing problems, burnout, anxiety, and depression symptoms; more displeasure with work and need for recovery; less subjective happiness, life satisfaction, stress-management, and emotion regulation; more illhealth symptoms and nonprescription medication use; and more susceptibility to distractions, moderating memory retention (Andresen et al., 2018;Bakker & Moulding, 2012;Benham, 2006;Booth et al., 2015;Brindle et al., 2015;Damatac et al., 2023;De Gucht et al., 2022;Evers et al., 2008;Iimura & Takasugi, 2022;Jonsson et al., 2014;Liss et al., 2005Liss et al., , 2008Marhenke et al., 2023;Meredith et al., 2016;Neal et al., 2002;Sobocko & Zelenski, 2015;Yano & Oishi, 2018). Therefore, characterizing the underlying neural mechanisms of SPS can be informative for improving symptom prevention and health promotion in relation to environmental sensitivity. ...
Sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) is an evolutionarily conserved trait describing a person's sensitivity to subtle stimuli, their depth of processing, emotional reactivity, and susceptibility to being overwhelmed. SPS is considered a fundamental and evolutionarily conserved trait, yet its neural mechanisms remain insufficiently understood. Therefore, we investigated whether SPS relates to processing movies differently in the central executive (CEN), default mode (DMN), and salience (SN) networks. We obtained positive and negative dimension Sensory Processing Sensitivity Questionnaire (short-form) scores and (neutral and threat aural framing) movie-fMRI data from a population-based sample (Healthy Brain Study, N=238, age mean=34years). We performed a priori inter-subject representation similarity, activation, and inter-subject functional connectivity analyses to characterize SPS-dimension-related neural responses during movie-viewing. More similar negative dimension SPS score related to more neural synchrony in the CEN and SN during threat. Higher negative dimension SPS score related to reduced CEN-DMN functional connectivity during threat, an effect shared across between-network regions but most strongly driven by reduced connectivity between right dorsomedial prefrontal cortex and left lateral prefrontal cortex. Our findings suggest that highly sensitive individuals exhibit distinct CEN differences shaping environmental perception, process threat differently, and each SPSQ-SF dimension may involve unique neurological mechanisms.
... Molecular genetic studies found that dopamine-related genetic system accounted for 15% of the variance of SPS (Chen et al., 2011). Correlational survey studies have shown that SPS is often associated with anxiety or stress-related affective symptoms, such as neuroticism , behavioural inhibition (Aron & Aron, 1997), anxiety state (Jonsson et al., 2014), and distress (Bakker & Moulding, 2012). These symptoms are believed to be correlated with maladaptive emotion-attention interactions (Dolcos et al., 2020). ...
While interest grows in investigating sensory processing sensitivity (SPS), few studies have employed objective behavioural measures to directly explore the underlying attentional processing. The present study utilised two modified versions of the Emotional Attention Networks Test Integration (E-ANTI) to investigate whether and how emotion interacts with three attentional networks associated with SPS when emotion information was target-irrelevant (Experiment 1) and target-relevant (Experiment 2), respectively. Both experiments involved four manipulated within-subject factors: Signal (tone vs. no-tone), Cue Validity (valid vs. invalid), Flanker Congruency (congruent vs. incongruent), and Emotion (fearful vs. happy). Linear mixed models were employed, and three attentional networks were successfully captured in both experiments. In Experiment 1, we observed that as SPS increased, the difference in reaction time between valid and invalid cue conditions decreased, especially in incongruent trials. Participants rated fearful faces as more arousing than happy faces as SPS increased. In Experiment 2, we found that slow responding to fearful faces reduced as SPS increased, particularly in incongruent trials. The observed effects related to SPS in both experiments were particularly pronounced in incongruent conditions, suggesting that SPS may modulate attentional processes in high-conflict situations. Overall, higher SPS may be associated with increased cautiousness in conflict contexts.
... Perhaps this might clarify the null findings with respect to response to positive stimuli. The present results also speak to a relatively large body of work showing that individuals with SPS are more susceptible to anxiety [30][31][32], depression [7], negative affectivity [4,6], internalizing problems [33], and difficulties in emotion regulation [7]. Again, it would be useful to include such measures in future studies, as well as a measure of neuroticism, to examine responsivity to emotional visual stimuli as a function of SPS. ...
Sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) is a biological trait associated with heightened sensitivity and responsivity to the environment. One important question is how those with the trait perceive their environments, thus giving rise to differential responses and outcomes. In this study, we used an artificial intelligence (AI) model—SPS Vision Net—to investigate perceptual differences associated with SPS and to begin to predict sensitivity levels based on a visual perception task. 190 participants (M age = 22.91; 102 (53%) females), completed an online experiment where they rated 100 images from the Open Affective Standardized Image Set (OASIS) on arousal, valence, and visual saliency. They also completed the Highly Sensitive Person (HSP) Scale measure of SPS. Results showed that SPS was positively associated with arousal in response to negative (vs. positive and neutral images), and, namely, sad (vs. happy, neutral, or fear) images. Also, SPS was negatively associated with positive ratings of negative images, specifically those showing frightening images. SPS was unrelated to response times and the number of salient selection blocks made. However, the AI model showed high accuracy (83.31%) in predicting SPS levels (R² = 0.77). Consistent with theory and research, this study showed that SPS is associated with higher arousal and lower positive ratings in response to the OASIS image rating task. Novel findings showed that a new, accurate AI-backed SPS measurement system, based on a visual selection, was predictive of HSP scores with high accuracy. Finally, the AI model indicates that visual perception differs as a function of SPS.
... The more sensitive an individual's BIS, the more sensitive they are to new stimuli (Aron and Aron, 1997). Higher levels of SPS have been associated with mental illnesses such as anxiety, depression, and somatoform disorders (Liss et al., 2005(Liss et al., , 2008Bakker and Moulding, 2012;Jonsson et al., 2014;Greven et al., 2019). A twin study examining the heritability of SPS found that 47% of the variance could be explained by genetic factors (Assary et al., 2021). ...
Background
Sensory processing sensitivity is mainly captured based on questionnaires and it’s neurophysiological basis is largely unknown. As hitherto no electroencephalography (EEG) study has been carried out, the aim of this work was to determine whether the self-reported level of SPS correlates with the EEG activity in different frequency bands.
Methods
One hundred fifteen participants were measured with 64-channel EEG during a task-free resting state. After artifact correction, a power spectrum time series was calculated using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) for the following frequency bands: Delta: 1–3.5 Hz, theta: 4–7.5 Hz, alpha1: 8–10 Hz, alpha2: 10.5–12 Hz, beta1: 12.5–15 Hz, beta2: 15.5–25 Hz, gamma: 25.5–45 Hz, global: 1–45 Hz. Correlations with the ‘Highly Sensitive Person Scale’ (HSPS-G) scores were determined. Then, the lowest and the highest 30% of the cohort were contrasted as polar opposites. EEG features were compared between the two groups applying a paired two-tailed t-test.
Results
The HSPS-G scores correlated statistically significantly positive with beta 1 and 2, and global EEG power during resting with eyes open, but not during resting with eyes closed. The highly sensitive group revealed higher beta power (4.38 ± 0.32 vs. 4.21 ± 0.17, p = 0.014), higher gamma power (4.21 ± 0.37 vs. 4.00 ± 0.25, p = 0.010), and increased global EEG power (4.38 ± 0.29 vs. 4.25 ± 0.17, p = 0.041). The higher EEG activity in the HSP group was most pronounced in the central, parietal, and temporal region, whereas lower EEG activity was most present in occipital areas.
Conclusion
For the first time, neurophysiological signatures associated with SPS during a task free resting state were demonstrated. Evidence is provided that neural processes differ between HSP and non-HSP. During resting with eyes open HSP exhibit higher EEG activity suggesting increased information processing. The findings could be of importance for the development of biomarkers for clinical diagnostics and intervention efficacy evaluation.
... Key elements in these traits are reflective thinking, cognitive exploration, a refined sense of aesthetics, emotional involvement and creative phantasy (DeYoung, 2015). These findings are endorsed by experimental studies on sensory restrictions showing that highly sensitive individuals experience more mystical and altered states of consciousness than low sensitives (Jonsson et al., 2014;Kjellgren et al., 2009). These characteristics fit well with the core elements of the highly sensitive person such as sensitivity to environmental subtleties, deep and complex cognitive processing of sensory information and intense aesthetic experiences (Homberg et al., 2016). ...
Sensory Processing Sensitivity (SPS) is a heritable personality related trait which includessensitivity to a variety of stimuli, emotional, cognitive, and behavioural reactions such asstrong positive and negative emotional responses, deep cognitive processing of stimuli, andempathic behaviour. Two studies are reported. Study 1 investigated the factor structure ofthe Highly Sensitive Person scale (HSP) and gender differences in HSP. Study 2 describeddifferences in Big Five personality traits between two HSP groups. Study 1 comprised asample of adults, mostly university students, matched on gender (N men ¼ 548, N women¼ 548; total N ¼ 1096). Study 2 was based on a sample consisting of a High (N ¼ 164) andLow (N ¼ 164) HSP group also matched on gender (N men ¼ 82 and N women ¼ 82 inboth groups; total N ¼ 328). There were no age differences between men and women inthe two samples. Results from Study 1 showed a correlated three-factor solution: The firstfactor reflected excitability, easily aroused, negative emotional reactivity, frustration,avoidance of upsetting situations and childhood shyness. Factor 2 comprised low sensorythreshold and sensory discomfort. Factor 3 captured intensity of aesthetic reactions,preoccupation with details in the environment, and socio-emotional sensitivity. Genderdifferences were found, women had elevated HSP scores on all scales, also when controlledfor personality traits. Study 2 showed that the highly sensitive individuals had a uniquepersonality trait profile compared to low sensitives. They had higher scores on neuroticism,agreeableness, openness, and lower scores on conscientiousness. There were no differencesin extraversion i.e., there was no tendency towards introversion among the high sensitives
... Deviations from normal states of consciousness during the interventions were reported for both, Flotation R.E.S.T [65,66]. and WATSU [24]. ...
Background
.
Low back pain (LBP) is among the most common physical ailments and its chronic manifestation is a leading cause for disability worldwide. LBP is not attributable to a known diagnosis in 85% of the cases and therefore called chronic non-specific LBP (cnLBP). Passive immersion in warm water is commonly claimed to reduce muscular tension and pain, but not yet sufficiently investigated with regard to cnLBP. The current study compares three passive aquatic interventions regarding their effects on cnLBP: floating (resting in a supine immersed position on flotation devices), WATSU (a passive hands-on treatment, in which a practitioner stands in warm water, gently moving and massaging the client), and a Spa session.
Methods
.
In this randomized cross-over clinical trial, all 24 adult participants with cnLBP will undergo the three interventions in balanced order with a washout-period of at least two weeks in between. Assessments will take place at baseline and follow-up of study and immediately before and after each intervention. Assessments cover the primary outcome self-reported current pain (Visual Analog Scale, range: 0–100 mm), other self-report questionnaires (addressing, e.g., personality traits or -states), and physiological parameters (e.g., measurement of spinal range of motion).
Discussion
.
The study adds estimates of intervention-specific effect-sizes of widespread passive aquatic interventions to cnLBP. The study also points to potential underlying pain-reducing mechanisms.
Trial registration
.
The protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Canton Bern (ProjectID: 2018–00461). Trial registration is intended at ClinicalTrials.gov.
... To float safely and effortlessly in an apparently infinite, constantly warm fluid is an experience out of the conventional. A body of literature reports on altered states of consciousness as one effect of restricted environmental stimulation therapy (R.E.S.T., flotation) that employs immersion in warm water in an unlit container to reduce familiar stimuli [93][94][95]. Observations that might be considered altered states of consciousness are also reported in the scientific literature on WATSU (e.g., measured changes in the perception of the passing of time [11]), and the grey literature on WATSU attests "[…] visions of vivid colors with eyes closed, the impression of flying or floating in the air, feelings of utter connectedness with all beings, and inner stillness" [5]. In line with such observations, some researchers contemplate the suitability of WATSU to unfold healing potential based on its holistic approach [22]. ...
Introduction
WATSU (WaterShiatsu) is a treatment administered in warm water. The present study investigated if and how frequently scientifically studied application areas and effects of WATSU occur in practice, whether similar effectiveness of WATSU is observed in trials and practice, and whether practitioners can contribute additional application areas and effects of WATSU.
Methods
Application areas and effects of WATSU reported in a recent systematic review were extracted verbatim to be assessed in a worldwide multilingual cross section online survey, generating quantitative and qualitative data. A pre-test and retest were conducted to ensure quality and evaluate the questionnaire's psychometric properties.
Results
Answers of 191 respondents were processed. All proposed 26 application areas and 20 effects were confirmed, each with relatively high ratings of observed effectiveness of WATSU. WATSU was frequently applied in healthy individuals (including during pregnancy), and individuals in various pain- (e.g., low back pain, neck pain, myofascial pain, fibromyalgia) and stress-related (e.g., stress, depression, sleep disorders, fatigue, anxiety disorders) conditions. Frequently confirmed effects were physical relaxation, relief of physical tension, pain relief, increased mobility and flexibility, improved quality of life, spiritual experiences, and increased psychological health. Respondents contributed 73 additional application areas and effects (both, mental and physical) of WATSU.
Conclusions
Application areas and effects of WATSU are consistently employed practically and scientifically. Respondents’ ratings of effectiveness of WATSU match tentative research efforts. WATSU is cautiously recommended for the use in pain- and stress-related conditions. Short- and long-term effectiveness of WATSU need to be evaluated in high level intervention studies.
... Also, this personality trait includes being more sensitive to aesthetic details, loud noises, caffeine level, pain threshold, and moods and emotions of others (Aron & Aron, 1997). Highly sensitive individuals are more sensitive to somatic symptoms that others may not notice, and they have a higher rate of somatic problems (such as headache, migraine, chronic fatigue, and chronic pain) (Jonsson et al., 2014). ...
Researches reveal that approximately one-third of the general population has high sensory processing sensitivity and the highly sensitive individuals are more prone to have psychological problems. This study aimed to examine the relationships among sensory sensitivity, emotion regulation skills, dysfunctional attitudes, depression, anxiety, and stress. The study group consisted of 355 undergraduate students (239 females [67.3%], 116 males [32.7%]) aged between 17 and 32 (Mean = 20.8, SD = 1.90). Using the mixture structural equation modeling, at the first step, the direct and indirect relationships between the variables were analyzed through structural equation modeling. In the second step, using latent class analysis it was aimed to determine individual differences based on the relationships between the variables determined by the structural equation model. There was a positive relationship between depression, anxiety, stress and sensory sensitivity. Besides, emotion regulation skills and dysfunctional attitudes had a mediating effect in this relationship. Latent class analysis extracted two latent classes. The first group (30.1%) has higher levels of depression, anxiety, stress sensory sensitivity and negative attitudes, and they used suppression more but cognitive reappraisal less. The second group (69.1%) has lower levels of depression, anxiety, stress, sensory sensitivity and negative attitudes, and they used cognitive reappraisal more but suppression less. Individuals with psychological problems such as depression, anxiety, and stress might show different characteristics in terms of sensory processing sensitivity and that it might be useful to consider this differentiation in mental health interventions.
... The HSP is a self-reported measure of the experience of perceptual sensitivity that has been linked to greater neural responses in higher order visual areas (e.g., Jagiellowicz et al., 2011), increased experience of non-ordinary states of consciousness under sensory deprivation (Jonsson, Grim, & Kjellgren, 2014;Kjellgren, Lindahl, & Norlander, 2009) as well as an overall increase in subjective reporting of health symptoms and stress (e.g., Benham, 2006;Grimen & Diseth, 2016). In order to gather a large enough sample to achieve statistical power that would allow us to identify correlations with self-report measures, we attempted to contact all participants who completed bCFS tasks in our lab during the 18 months prior to data collection. ...
Perceptual conscious experiences result from non-conscious processes that precede them. We document a new characteristic of the cognitive system: the speed with which visual meaningful stimuli are prioritized to consciousness over competing noise in visual masking paradigms. In ten experiments (N = 399) we find that an individual's non-conscious visual prioritization speed (NVPS) is ubiquitous across a wide variety of stimuli, and generalizes across visual masks, suppression tasks, and time. We also find that variation in NVPS is unique, in that it cannot be explained by variation in general speed, perceptual decision thresholds, short-term visual memory, or three networks of attention (alerting, orienting and executive). Finally, we find that NVPS is correlated with subjective measures of sensitivity, as they are measured by the Highly Sensitive Person scale. We conclude by discussing the implications of variance in NVPS for understanding individual variance in behavior and the neural substrates of consciousness.
... Research evidence suggests that higher SPS is linked to a range of psychopathologies, especially internalizing and stress-related problems such as higher levels of anxiety, depression, and social anxiety; lower levels of subjective happiness and life satisfaction; and higher stress-management difficulties including emotion regulation difficulties, increased levels of stress, physical symptoms resulting from ill health, greater work displeasure, and need for recovery from work-related factors (Greven et al., 2019). Yet, studies also make clear that higher SPS is linked to a range of positive outcomes, such as being more creative, empathic, and having good mental health when environments are supportive (Andresen, Goldmann, & Volodina, 2018;Bakker & Moulding, 2012;Evers, Rasche, & Schabracq, 2008;Greven et al., 2019;Jonsson, Grim, & Kjellgren, 2014;Miriam Liss, Mailloux, & Erchull, 2008;Meredith, Bailey, Strong, & Rappel, 2016;Neal, Edelmann, & Glachan, 2002;Sobocko & Zelenski, 2015). SPS may therefore be an overlooked factor in resolving the large individual, social, and economic burden of stress-related problems (Cuijpers, Beekman, & Reynolds, 2012;OECD, 2012;Samele et al., 2018;Whiteford, Ferrari, Degenhardt, Feigin, & Vos, 2015), preserving human capital, and promoting human flourishing. ...
Human behavior is fundamentally context-dependent. Humans (and other species) are sensitive to environmental influences to varying degrees with those with high sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) being exceptionally sensitive to the environment. In this chapter, we review several frameworks on heightened sensitivity to the environment, including diathesis-stress, biological sensitivity to context, differential susceptibility, vantage sensitivity, SPS theory, and the environmental sensitivity metaframework. We then place SPS in the context of these frameworks to elucidate how they inform SPS theory. Next, we present empirical evidence showing that SPS is indeed linked to greater sensitivity to negative and positive environments. We conclude by discussing implications of SPS for general public health and practical applications for building a diversity-aware society.
... When comparing perceived and actual duration of the WATSU sessions in their trials, Cunha et al., 2010, found overestimations (while lasting 36 ± 2 minutes, sessions were perceived to last for one hour or more by 74% of the participants) and Hora et al., 2017, underestimations (sessions lasting 40 ± 5 minutes were perceived as lasting 29.4 ± 1.9 minutes) [54, 62]. Such deviations from normal states of mind, as frequently described in the grey literature about WATSU, have been investigated in depth with respect to sensory isolation in flotation tanks, where individuals float in darkness on the surface of a thermoneutral saline solution [100][101][102]. Interestingly, despite the human contact in WATSU compared to isolation in flotation tanks, similar effects were reported. ...
Background
WATSU (portmanteau word: water and shiatsu) is a form of passive hydrotherapy in chest-deep thermoneutral water (35°C = 95°F = 308.15 K). It combines elements of myofascial stretching, joint mobilization, massage, and shiatsu and is reported to be used to address physical and mental issues. The objective of this systematic review (PROSPERO Registration No. CRD42016029347) and the meta-analyses was to assess the applications, indications, and the effects of WATSU to form a basis for further studies.
Methods
A search for “WATSU OR watershiatsu OR (water AND shiatsu)” was conducted without any restrictions in 32 databases. Peer reviewed original articles addressing WATSU as a stand-alone hydrotherapy were assessed for risk of bias. Quantitative data of effects on pain, physical function, and mental issues were processed in random model meta-analyses with subgroup analyses by study design. Effect sizes were expressed as Hedges's g (± 95% confidence intervals).
Results
Of 1,906 unique citations, 27 articles regardless of study design were assessed for risk of bias. WATSU has been applied to individuals of all ages. Indications covered acute (e.g. pregnancy related low back pain) and chronic conditions (e.g. cerebral palsy) with beneficial effects of WATSU regarding e.g. relaxation or sleep quality. Meta-analyses suggest beneficial effect sizes of WATSU on pain (overall Hedges’s g = -0.71, 95% CI = -0.91 to -0.51), physical function (overall Hedges’s g = -0.76, 95% CI = -1.08 to -0.44), and mental issues (overall Hedges’s g = -0.68, 95% CI = -1.02 to -0.35).
Conclusion
Various applications, indications and beneficial effects of WATSU were identified. The grade of this evidence is estimated to be low to moderate at the best. To strengthen the findings of this study, high-quality RCTs are needed.
... Hasil penelitian Jonsson et al. (2014) menilai hubungan derajat HSP (diukur dengan HSPS) dengan ansietas dan depresi, optimisme, absorbsi, dan pengalaman mistis. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan hubungan yang signifikan pada derajat HSP yang rendah dengan variabel ansietas dan depresi (F(1, 54) = 9.95, p < .01, ...
Highly Sensitive Person atau HSP adalah sifat yang diasosiasikan dengan sensitivitas dan responsitivitas yang lebih tinggi terhadap stimulus dari internal maupun eksternal, lingkungan maupun sosial. Sifat ini dimiliki oleh 20% populasi manusia dan diturunkan secara gentik. Faktor yang berperan dalam terjadinya HSP diketahui adalah genetik dan lingkungan. Aktivitas otak pada HSP lebih tinggi daripada non-HSP hal ini akan menyebabkan overstimulasi pada otak sehingga pada HSP membutuhkan periode istirahat, dan overstimulasi ini seringkali diikuti oleh ketidakmampuan mengontrol emosi sehingga menyebabkan HSP lebih mudah mengalami gangguan kesehatan mental diantaranya adalah depresi, ansietas, dan stress. Tujuan dari artikel literature review ini adalah untuk mengenal tentang HSP, apa perbedaan HSP dengan non-HSP, bagaimana cara mengetahui individu dengan HSP, dan pengaruh HSP terhadap kesehatan mental. Metode yang digunakan dalam artikel ini adalah penelusuran artikel melalui database NCBI dan Google Scholar, lalu artikel dipilih dengan meninjau judul dan abstrak artikel. Tahun penerbitan sumber pustaka adalah dari tahun 2011 sampai 2019. Hasil dari berbagai artikel yang dicantumkan dalam artikel ini untuk menunjukkan adanya hubungan antara HSP dengan gangguan kesehatan mental seperti depresi, ansietas, dan stres. Kata kunci : highly sensitive person, depresi, ansietas, stres HIGHLY SENSITIVE PERSON AND ITS EFFECT ON MENTAL HEALTH ABSTRACTHighly Sensitive Person or HSP is a trait associated with higher sensitivity and responsiveness to internal and external stimuli, environmental and social. This trait found in 20% of human population and genetically inherited. Factors that play a role in the occurrence of HSP are known to be genetic and environmental. Brain activity in HSP is higher than non-HSP, this will cause overstimulation of the brain so the HSP requires resting period, and this overstimulation often followed by inability to control emotion that cause HSP more vulnerable to mental health problem such as depression, anxiety, and stress. The purpose of this literature review article is to get to know about HSP, the difference between HSP and non-HSP, how to know the individuals with HSP, and HSPs effects on mental health. The method used in this article uses a review of articles from NCBI and Google Scholar databases, then the article are selected by reviewing the article titles and abstracts. The year of publication of these articles are from 2011 to 2019. The results of various articles included in this article are to show the correlations between HSP and mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, and stress. Keywords : highly sensitive person, depression, anxiety, stress
... With regard to communication skills, Gearhart and Bodie (2012) found that a higher score on the sensitivity trait was associated with greater communication apprehension. Researchers also investigated the link between SPS and spiritual experiences, and found a positive association between SPS and parapsychological experiences such as altered state of conscientiousness and mystical states (e.g., Irwin, Schofield & Baker, 2014;Jonsson, Grim & Kjellgren, 2014;Kjellgren, Lindahl & Norlander, 2009). ...
Bu çalışmanın amacı Aron ve Aron (1997) tarafından geliştirilen ve son yıllarda özellikle kişilik psikolojisi alanında yaygın olarak çalışılan Duyusal İşlemleme Hassasiyeti (DİH; sensory processing sensitivity) üzerine yapılan çalış-maları derlemektir.DİH iç veya dış kaynaklı uyarıcılara karşı aşırı hassas olma durumu olarak tanımlanan kalıtımsal bir yetişkin mizaç özelliğidir. Bu yazıda DİH üzerine yapılmış geçmiş çalışmalar sistematik olarak taranmış ve altı alt bölümde derlenen 35 görgül çalışma ışığında konu detaylı olarak ele alınmıştır. Yapılan çalışmalarda DİH'in biyolojik altyapıya dayandığı ve utangaçlık, içekapanıklılık ve negatif duygulanım gibi kişilik özellikleriyle yakın ilişkili olduğu görülmüştür. DİH'in stres ve depresyon gibi olumsuz psikolojik değişkenlerle ilişkili bulunması aşırı hassas kişiler için dezavantaj olarak görülse de dış ve iç kaynaklı uyaranlara karşı hızlı farkındalık ve tepkisellik bu kişilik özelliğinin işlevsel yönünü ortaya koymaktadır. Alt başlıklarda özetlenen temel bulgular DİH'in kişilik özelliklerinden olumsuz psikolojik sonuçlara kadar birçok alanda önemli doğurguları olduğunu göstermektedir. Bu kapsamda ilgili kültürel faktörler ve gelecek çalışmalara ilişkin öneriler de tartışılmıştır.
Abstract This paper aims to systematically review the current literature on sensory processing sensitivity (SPS), proposed by Aron and Aron (1997), and that has recently been increasingly investigated especially within personality psychology. SPS is a genetically disposed adult temperament trait, which is described as being highly sensitive to internal and external stimulations. In the current review, previous studies on SPS have been thoroughly elaborated with a total of 35 empirical studies in six sub-areas. Reviewed studies have shown that SPS has a biological underpinning and is closely associated with certain personality traits, such as shyness, introversion, and negative affectivity. On the one hand, those with high levels of SPS have a tendency for having negative psychological outcomes, such as stress proneness and depression, which can be seen as a disadvantage. On the other hand, they have rapid awareness and keen reactivity to both external and internal stimuli, which can be considered as a functional aspect of this trait. Overall, findings have demonstrated that SPS has critical implications for a number of personality traits as well as positive and negative psychological outcomes. These implications were discussed considering the potential cultural factors and directions for future research.
... Indeed, research has related SPS to a range of negative outcomes. These include higher levels of psychopathology-related traits, including internalising problems (Boterberg & Warreyn, 2016), anxiety (Bakker & Moulding, 2012;Jonsson, Grim, & Kjellgren, 2014;Liss, Mailloux, & Erchull, 2008;Meredith, Bailey, Strong, & Rappel, 2016;Neal, Edelmann, & Glachan, 2002), depression (Bakker & Moulding, 2012;Liss et al., 2008;Liss et al., 2005, Yano & Oishi, 2018, and traits of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and alexithymia (Liss et al., 2008). SPS has also been associated with lower levels of subjective happiness (Sobocko & Zelenski, 2015), and lower levels of life satisfaction (Booth et al., 2015). ...
Sensory Processing Sensitivity (SPS) is a common, heritable and evolutionarily conserved trait describing inter-individual differences in sensitivity to both negative and positive environments. Despite societal interest in SPS, scientific knowledge is lagging behind. Here, we critically discuss how SPS relates to other theories, how to measure SPS, whether SPS is a continuous vs categorical trait, its relation to other temperament and personality traits, the underlying aetiology and neurobiological mechanisms, and relations to both typical and atypical development, including mental and sensory disorders. Drawing on the diverse expertise of the authors, we set an agenda for future research to stimulate the field. We conclude that SPS increases risk for stress-related problems in response to negative environments, but also provides greater benefit from positive and supportive experiences. The field requires more reliable and objective assessment of SPS, and deeper understanding of its mechanisms to differentiate it from other traits. Future research needs to target prevention of adverse effects associated with SPS, and exploitation of its positive potential to improve well-being and mental health.
... Indeed, research has related SPS to a range of negative outcomes. These include higher levels of psychopathology-related traits, including internalising problems (Boterberg & Warreyn, 2016), anxiety (Bakker & Moulding, 2012;Jonsson, Grim, & Kjellgren, 2014;Liss, Mailloux, & Erchull, 2008;Meredith, Bailey, Strong, & Rappel, 2016;Neal, Edelmann, & Glachan, 2002), depression (Bakker & Moulding, 2012;Liss et al., 2008;Liss et al., 2005), and traits of 16 autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and alexithymia (Liss et al., 2008). SPS has also been associated with lower levels of subjective happiness (Sobocko & Zelenski, 2015), and lower levels of life satisfaction (Booth et al., 2015). ...
Sensory Processing Sensitivity (SPS) is a trait describing inter-individual differences in sensitivity to environments, both positive and negative ones. SPS has attracted growing societal interest. However, (neuro)scientific evidence is lagging behind. We critically discuss how to measure SPS, how it relates to other theories of Environmental Sensitivity and other temperament and personality traits, how SPS interacts with environments to influence (a)typical development, what the underlying aetiologies and mechanisms are, and its relation to mental disorders involving sensory sensitivities. Drawing on the diverse expertise of the authors, we set an agenda for future research to stimulate the field. We conclude that SPS is a heritable, evolutionarily conserved trait, linked to increased risk for psychopathology and stress-related problems in response to negative environments, as well as to greater benefits (e.g., intervention responsivity, positive mood) in positive environments. We need advances in objective assessment of SPS, understanding mechanisms, differentiating it from (seemingly) related mental disorders, to exploit the potential of SPS to improve mental health, preserve human capital, and prevent adverse effects.
... In contrast to the FFM, the Psychobiological Model of Temperament and Character (PMTC) model includes the more purely experiential construct of self-transcendence (a sense of con- nectedness with aspects transcending the self) as a character trait (Cloninger, Svrakic, & Przybeck, 1993) Absorption (the propensity to experience strong attentional involvement epi- sodes and adopt an experiential cognitive set) is a dimension of another taxonomy, measured by the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (Tellegen, 1981(Tellegen, , 1992Tellegen & Atkinson, 1974). Other psychological constructs that at least partly seem to index individual differences in the likelihood of exhibiting alterations of consciousness and AEs include imagination, fantasy-proneness (extensive involvement in one's fantasy life); hypnotizability (the magni- tude of response to imaginative or counterfac- tual hypnotic suggestions, Woody & Barnier, 2008); mental boundary thinness (no strong boundaries across states of consciousness, psy- chological processes, or between the self and others, Hartmann, Harrison, & Zborowski, 2001); dissociation (experiential and/or cogni- tive disconnection and disengagement; Cardeña, 1994); transliminality (sensitivity to different psychological processes such as imag- ery, affect, and preconscious processes; Sherwood & Milner, 2005); positive schizotypy (proneness to unusual perceptual experiences and beliefs; Mohr & Claridge, 2015); and sen- sory processing sensitivity (high sensory pro- cessing and responsivity, Jonsson, Grim, & Kjellgren, 2014). The heritability of some of these constructs hovers around 50% (e.g., Tellegen et al., 1988, for absorption;Morgan, 1973, for hypnotizability;Gillespie, Cloninger, Heath, & Martin, 2003, for self-transcendence; Pieper, Out, Bakermans-Kranenburg, & Van IJzendoorn, 2011, for dissociation), with also substantial contribution from environmental factors (e.g., Becker-Blease et al., 2004;Morgan, 1973). ...
This essay presents the rationale to consider anomalous experiences (AEs, such as synesthesia, lucid dreaming, hallucinations, psi-related experiences, and near-death experiences) as an essential topic in psychology. These experiences depart from the typical or customary characteristics of consciousness (e.g., out-of-body experiences), or from ordinary or normative consciousness (e.g., synesthesia), and sometimes offer an alternative perspective to the nature of self and reality. We review the concept of AEs, methodological issues, and research findings, including their relation to individual differences, psychopathology, culture, and positive psychology. We suggest that mainstream psychology has neglected the study of AEs far too long, although they often engender profound and sometimes highly positive personal and social consequences, and provide valuable insights into the full range of human experience. We propose that the time is ripe to advance the scientific interest in AEs and subject them to rigorous empirical examination in studies that explore their prevalence, phenomenology, and sequelae, and take into account the direct and interactive effects of multiple variables (e.g., genetic predisposition, psychophysiology, personality differences, sociocultural factors). This will extend the purview of inquiry and understanding of our uniquely human nature and potential.
... Another explanation is that highly sensitive people are more aware of somatic symptoms that others may not notice. Accordingly, persons scoring high on SPS are more affected by pain (Aron, 1996b), medications, caffeine, and to have a higher rate of somatic problems like migraine, headaches, chronic pain, and chronic fatigue (Jawer, 2005;Jonsson, Grim, & Kjellgren, 2014). However, the findings of Liss et al. (2008) and Evers et al. (2008) indicate that EOE and LST are more related to poor psychological health and distress, compared with AES, which seems to measure the more positive aspects of being a highly sensitive person. ...
The aim of the present study was to examine the factor structure of a Norwegian version of the Highly Sensitive Person Scale (HSPS) and to investigate how sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) is related to personality traits of neuroticism, extraversion, and openness and to subjective health complaints (SHC) in a sample of 167 undergraduate psychology students. The results showed that the variance in a shortened version of the HSPS was best described by three separate factors: ease of excitation (EOE), aesthetic sensitivity (AES), and low sensory threshold (LST). Furthermore, the result showed than an overall SPS factor (EOE, LST, and AES combined) was predicted positively by neuroticism and openness and negatively by extraversion. With respect to SHC, the results showed that EOE and LST were positively associated with psychological health complaints. However, the personality trait of neuroticism contributed more than the SPS factors as predictor of SHC. In conclusion, the present study supported a shortened version of the HSPS and its relation to personality factors and SHC.
... Laws exist to help prevent legal counsel from seeking the silence of potential human evidence that might be helpful for opposing counsel (noncooperation and secrecy), but ambiguity and interpretation are also the specialty of jurisprudence. Johnston (1997) asks whether compensating witnesses should be different for the prosecuting or defending attorneys, if it might compromise the perceived integrity of the process of adjudication itself. In addition, like the scientific struggle to "arrange randomness," jurymandering struggles to arrange judicial outcomes via selective jury selection (King, 1993). ...
What is silence? Is there a psychology of silence—and what does the literature reveal? The exploration of the concept of silence in the psychological literature reveals an almost biological entity—that speaks, grows, hurts, and conceals—despite being nothing at all. Humans are a verbal species, so verbal in fact that the very absence of sound seems to make humans uncomfortable. This verbal world—so dependent on manifest explanation—may make silence one of the most effective means of communication (even though it appears to communicate nothing). This research paper will explore the psychological literature, and show that silence speaks though it says nothing, grows though it has no substance, hurts though it can touch nothing, and conceals though it cannot hide from perception. Though it consists of nothing in particular, it generates psychological phenomena such as pressure, anxiety, suspicion, isolation, rejection, inner conflict, ambiguity, and agitation. Despite its lack of sound or meaning, the language of silence is spoken by all—and once silence is here, its missing explanation is too absent to ignore.
Manifestations of high sensitivity can be recognized even in the youngest children. Therefore, it is not possible to test it through activities that may disrupt its proper functioning. The research presented aims to investigate the development of this trait. There have been no longitudinal studies focusing on this trait in children, as they have not been widely researched or passed between devices that connect children with their parents. The study analyzed data from 131 children aged 8–11, including 84 tested twice, and 33 pairs of parents. The Highly Sensitive Child Scale in the Polish adaptation by Baryła-Matejczuk and Poleszak, and the Highly Sensitive Person Scale translated by Golonka and Gulla were used for measurement. The collected data confirm the validity of distinguishing three significantly different groups among children that are under control. It was noticed that girls have a higher sensitivity level than boys, and high sensitivity characterizes them more often than boys at a statistically significant level. The similarity in sensitivity levels between children and their parents has also been confirmed, along with the statistical significance in both parents. The percentage of highly sensitive children in the study group does not align with Elaine Aron’s theory assumptions and previous research findings. Additional predictions have been partially supported by the data. While the obtained validation results have been expanded upon, it is important to note the absence of this type of testing, and these initial findings can serve as preliminary values for further in-depth analyses in the future.
The Qur’an often compares its own inspiration and revelation with previous scriptures to its audience. However, the Jews and Christians in Late Antiquity had manifold understandings of the inspiration and revelation of scripture. The rabbinic tradition posits various degrees of inspiration behind canonical scriptures: the Torah was dictated by God to Moses, while other prophets had lesser degrees of divine inspiration. Many Christian churches typically held a dual authorship concept, where the human author wrote under the inspiration of a divine author. Many Muslim traditions held various understandings of the agency, or lack thereof, of Muḥammad in the utterances of the Qur’an. Nonetheless, the Qur’an claims that its own inspiration is no different from some biblical books. Since the rabbinic and Christian views differ, it is imperative to understand the Qur’anic concept of itself on inspiration and revelation (waḥy and tanzīl), especially since it compares itself with other scriptures. Additionally, it is argued that the Qur’an’s self-referentiality as a “kitāb” that descends does not necessarily denote a “book” (neither heavenly nor earthly), but an order or commandment, which is more loyal to the root definition.
Markers of an increased sensitivity to environmental influences have been observed and investigated across several domains, phenotypically and endophenotypically. Currently, the most direct measures for capturing sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) are a series of questionnaires that cover the lifespan from middle childhood to adulthood; and more recently, an observational measure for preschoolers has also been proposed. This chapter provides an overview of theoretical perspectives of SPS within the environmental sensitivity framework and it introduces investigated phenotypic SPS markers and measures for assessing SPS in children and adults. It also provides the measures’ psychometric properties across cultures, their associations with other temperament and personality traits, and the interaction with environmental quality in predicting developmental outcomes and adjustment across the lifespan. Finally, the existence of sensitivity groups and how to assess group differences is discussed, together with new directions of research.
This chapter examines traditional shamanism and Neo-shamanism, citing their similarities and differences. It describes the technology and process of the shamanic journey and examines its apparent ability to integrate normal waking consciousness and the executive brain with the unconscious and the limbic system. The chapter includes precautions regarding using this ancient technology without the proper instruction and/or supervision and group environment and discusses Neo-shamanism as a cultural phenomena that is anomalous to both our current cultural paradigm and academic inquiry.
This rational and sensible conclusion arises from the difficulty attributing Tom’s vision to a psychiatric disorder, or the influence of psychedelic drugs.
For the purpose of understanding how dissociation can generate paranormal experiences, it helps that Mitchell is self-aware of the change in his global condition since he’s able to provide a verbal summary of what it feels like to be in a dissociated state (if indeed he has undergone dissociation), just as self-awareness helps to characterise what ordinary consciousness feels like (qualia).
This psychometric synthesis reviewed all 29 articles meeting criteria and possessing psychometric results from the 20-year history (1997 to 2017) of the Highly Sensitive Person Scale (ITSPS). Aggregated internal consistency (coefficient alpha) was .874. Convergent comparisons were provided between the PISPS total score and 12 measures of constructs similar to the sensory processing sensitivity construct. Structural validity primarily supported both the original one- and three-factor models, as did the pattern of high intra-subscale and total scale correlations, but a unidimensional interpretation is suggested given the low reliabilities for subscale scores. The HSPS performed adequately for a screening-level instrument. Mental health counselors are well suited to use the HSPS within their regular practice of assessing and valuing normal human development in addition to diagnosing and treating mental health disorders.
Public health, social well-being, and human rights worldwide have all been impactd by the effects of anxiety and depression. The helping fields have spent over a century attempting to improve people’s emotional well-being through traditional methods. However, there has been a recent explosion of holistic treatments that are growing in acceptance and evidenced-based support. This paper will provide a broad overview of several unconventional, alternative treatment interventions with growing evidence of their effectiveness as either a complementary or stand-alone treatment for anxiety and depression. Clinicians may learn about these emerging interventions in an effort to stay abreast of the most beneficial treatment models available and meet ethical guidelines.
The aim of the present study was to examine the factor structure of a Norwegian version of the Highly Sensitive Person Scale (HSPS) and to investigate how sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) is related to personality traits of neuroticism, extraversion, and openness and to subjective health complaints (SHC) in a sample of 167 undergraduate psychology students. The results showed that the variance in a shortened version of the HSPS was best described by three separate factors: ease of excitation (EOE), aesthetic sensitivity (AES), and low sensory threshold (LST). Furthermore, the result showed than an overall SPS factor (EOE, LST, and AES combined) was predicted positively by neuroticism and openness and negatively by extraversion. With respect to SHC, the results showed that EOE and LST were positively associated with psychological health complaints. However, the personality trait of neuroticism contributed more than the SPS factors as predictor of SHC. In conclusion, the present study supported a shortened version of the HSPS and its relation to personality factors and SHC.
In this study we investigated the value of flotation Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy (REST) as a stress-management tool. We focused on the physiological effects of REST, its influence on well-being, and on performance. Twenty-seven studies published in 25 articles or book chapters were included in a meta-analysis. The total number of participants was 449, with a mean age of 29 years (ranging between 20 and 45). Sixty-four percent was male and 36% was female. The results showed that REST has positive effects on physiology (e.g., lower levels of cortisol, lower blood pressure), well-being, and performance. The pre–post mean effect size and the overall randomized control group effect size were relatively strong. This suggests that despite some limitations of the original studies, flotation REST can be a useful stress management tool in addition to or instead of other stress management tools.
The aim of this study was to investigate if the highly sensitive personality variable affects the occurrence of mystical experiences and degree of altered states of consciousness during sensory isolation in flotation-tank. Forty-eight persons (20 males, 28 females) were included. Background variables and the Highly Sensitive Personality Scale (HSP) were assessed. The independent variable was derived from this scale, where two groups were formed: low sensitivity and high sensitivity. The treatment lasted 45 minutes in the flotation tank. Dependent variables were assessed through scales measuring mystical experiences and degree of altered states of consciousness. The group with highly sensitive persons experienced significantly more mystical experiences and higher degree of altered states of consciousness during the treatment compared to the other group. Also, the highly sensitive persons exhibited more stress and anxiety at arrival, but no differences in depression and optimism were found between the groups.
This article reviews theoretical and empirical work on absorption and the relationship of absorption with selected variables.
Absorption is defined as a characteristic that involves an openness to experience emotional and cognitive alterations across a variety of situations. The nature and assessment of absorption and the relationship of absorption with (a) hypnosis and hypnotizability, (b) imagery, daydreaming, and consciousness, and (c) attentional processing and psychophysiological responding are considered. Conceptual and methodological issues are examined, and directions for future research are specified. Absorption is argued to be central to an understanding of the nature of subjective experience as well as to aspects of cognition and behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Sensory-Processing Sensitivity (SPS) refers to a trait-like difference in the extent to which individuals strongly and deeply process a variety of stimuli in the environment. While such sensitivities may be positive (i.e., greater appreciation and awareness of the environment) or negative (i.e., being overwhelmed by such stimuli), the majority of the literature to date has focused on the negative aspect of this relationship e.g., the higher propensity for depression and anxiety. Therefore, this research examined variables that may impact or moderate the relationship between SPS and distress. One prime moderator candidate is mindfulness – the ability to attend to and be accepting of present experience. In this research we aimed to investigate the relationship between SPS, mindfulness and distress using a cross-sectional methodology in a non-clinical sample. While SPS related to higher levels of depression, anxiety and stress, the results were taken to support the moderation hypothesis with respect to anxiety. In particular, SPS only related to anxiety when mindfulness and acceptance were low, but the relationships were not significant when mindfulness and acceptance were high. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.
This study examined the effect of light on relaxation associated with flotation restricted environmental stimulation therapy (REST), as measured by plasma cortisol, mean arterial pressure, and psychometric parameters. Twenty-one subjects were paired by baseline cortisol levels into two groups: one experiencing flotation REST in the presence of light (REST-L) and one experiencing flotation REST in the absence of light (REST-D). Subjects were 15 male and 6 female students aged 22–28 in normal health who had not experienced REST. Repeated flotation REST (8 sessions) either with light or without light was associated with a decrease in plasma cortisol and a decrease in mean arterial pressure, with no differences in effectiveness between groups. The psychometric assessment of mood, using the POMS scale, before and after sessions 1 and 8 revealed mood state improvement in both REST-L and REST-D groups. These data suggest that the presence of light did not compromise the flotation REST experience, as evidenced by the lack of difference between REST-L and REST-D groups.
Researchers often use the term “sensitivity ” when theorizing that certain persons may be more readily affected by various influences than others. Through a review of the literature, it is argued that some individuals are disposed toward a range of sensitivities that, in novelty as well as intensity, distinguish them from the general population. The author cites evidence indicating that such persons exhibit greater susceptibility to a range of environmental factors including allergies, migraine headache, chronic pain, and chronic fatigue. Their immediate family members appear to be similarly affected. Additionally, these “sensitive” individuals report a high degree of anomalous perception. While no single factor in a person’s background is likely to distinguish him/her as sensitive, eight demographic or personality factors are found to be significant.
This article reviews the literature on sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) in light of growing evidence from evolutionary biology that many personality differences in nonhuman species involve being more or less responsive, reactive, flexible, or sensitive to the environment. After briefly defining SPS, it first discusses how biologists studying animal personality have conceptualized this general environmental sensitivity. Second, it reviews relevant previous human personality/temperament work, focusing on crossover interactions (where a trait generates positive or negative outcomes depending on the environment), and traits relevant to specific hypothesized aspects of SPS: inhibition of behavior, sensitivity to stimuli, depth of processing, and emotional/physiological reactivity. Third, it reviews support for the overall SPS model, focusing on development of the Highly Sensitive Person (HSP) Scale as a measure of SPS then on neuroimaging and genetic studies using the scale, all of which bears on the extent to which SPS in humans corresponds to biological responsivity.
This exploratory study examined the extent to which individual differences in sensory processing sensitivity (SPS), a temperament/personality
trait characterized by social, emotional and physical sensitivity, are associated with neural response in visual areas in
response to subtle changes in visual scenes. Sixteen participants completed the Highly Sensitive Person questionnaire, a standard
measure of SPS. Subsequently, they were tested on a change detection task while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI). SPS was associated with significantly greater activation in brain areas involved in high-order visual processing (i.e.
right claustrum, left occipitotemporal, bilateral temporal and medial and posterior parietal regions) as well as in the right
cerebellum, when detecting minor (vs major) changes in stimuli. These findings remained strong and significant after controlling for neuroticism and introversion,
traits that are often correlated with SPS. These results provide the first evidence of neural differences associated with
SPS, the first direct support for the sensory aspect of this trait that has been studied primarily for its social and affective
implications, and preliminary evidence for heightened sensory processing in individuals high in SPS.
The aim of the present study was to explore, for the first time, sex differences among patients diagnosed with stress-related pain before and after flotation restricted environmental stimulation technique (REST) treatment, delivered 12 times during seven weeks. The present study included 88 patients (69 women, 19 men) from three different studies (post hoc analysis). They had been diagnosed by a physician as having chronic stress-related muscle tension pain. The analyses indicated that the flotation- REST treatment had beneficial effects on stress, anxiety, depression, sleep quality and pain and that there were few sex differences. Women were more depressed than men before treatment, but after treatment there was no difference between sexes. However, there was a sex difference in the ability to endure experimentally induced pain, suggesting that men exhibited greater endurance both before and after the flotation-REST treatment. The results also showed, for the first time, that both sexes improved their ability to endure experimentally induced pain (higher scores for upper pain threshold) following the successful flotation-REST pain treatment.
This article describes a scale measuring dispositional optimism, defined in terms of generalized outcome expectancies. Two preliminary studies assessed the scale's psychometric properties and its relationships with several other instruments. The scale was then used in a longitudinal study of symptom reporting among a group of undergraduates. Specifically, respondents were asked to complete three questionnaires 4 weeks before the end of a semester. Included in the questionnaire battery was the measure of optimism, a measure of private self-consciousness, and a 39-item physical symptom checklist. Subjects completed the same set of questionnaires again on the last day of class. Consistent with predictions, subjects who initially reported being highly optimistic were subsequently less likely to report being bothered by symptoms (even after correcting for initial symptom-report levels) than were subjects who initially reported being less optimistic. This effect tended to be stronger among persons high in private self-consciousness than among those lower in private self-consciousness. Discussion centers on other health related applications of the optimism scale, and the relationships between our theoretical orientation and several related theories.
Administered a questionnaire containing items of varied content believed to be related to hypnotizability to 481 female undergraduates. 2 subsamples of 142 and 171 Ss, respectively, also completed Block's Ego Resiliency and Ego Control questionnaire scales and the Group Scales of Hypnotic Susceptibility. Analysis of the combined questionnaire data yielded 3 replicated higher order factors: the familiar dimensions of Stability and Introversion and a 3rd factor, Absorption. Absorption is interpreted as a disposition for having episodes of "total" attention that fully engage one's representational (i.e., perceptual, enactive, imaginative, and ideational) resources. This kind of attentional functioning is believed to result in a heightened sense of the reality of the attentional object, imperviousness to distracting events, and an altered sense of reality in general, including an empathically altered sense of self. Only Absorption was consistently correlated with hypnotizability. Absorption appears to be of interest for the study of hypnosis and personality. (38 ref)
Over a series of 7 studies that used diverse samples and measures, this research identified a unidimensional core variable of high sensory-processing sensitivity and demonstrated its partial independence from social introversion and emotionality, variables with which it had been confused or subsumed in most previous theorizing by personality researchers. Additional findings were that there appear to be 2 distinct clusters of highly sensitive individuals (a smaller group with an unhappy childhood and related variables, and a larger group similar to nonhighly sensitive individuals except for their sensitivity) and that sensitivity moderates, at least for men; the relation of parental environment to reporting having had an unhappy childhood. This research also demonstrated adequate reliability and content, convergent, and discriminant validity for a 27-item Highly Sensitive Person Scale.
The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether the floating form of the restricted environmental stimulation technique (REST) may be applied within the field of pain relief. Flotation-REST consists of a procedure whereby an individual is immersed in a tank filled with water of an extremely high salt concentration. Thirty-seven patients (14 men and 23 women) suffering from chronic pain consisting of aching muscles in the neck and back area participated in the study. They were randomly assigned to either a control group (17 participants) or an experimental group (20 participants). The experimental group received nine opportunities to use the flotation-REST technique in the water tank over a three-week period. The results indicated that the most severe perceived pain intensity was significantly reduced, whereas low perceived pain intensity was not influenced by the floating technique. Further, the results indicated that circulating levels of the noradrenaline metabolite 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylethyleneglycol were reduced significantly in the experimental group but not in the control group following treatment, whereas endorphin levels were not affected by flotation. Flotation-REST treatment also elevated the participants' optimism and reduced the degree of anxiety or depression; at nighttime, patients who underwent flotation fell asleep more easily. The present findings describe possible changes, for the better, in patients presenting with chronic pain complaints.
This article examines the relation between adult shyness and sensory-processing sensitivity and posits a new model in which the interaction of sensitivity and adverse childhood environment leads to negative affectivity (with the highly sensitive being more impacted), which in turn leads to shyness. Consistent with this model, two questionnaire studies (Ns = 96 and 213) supported three hypotheses: (a) sensory-processing sensitivity interacts with recalled quality of childhood parental environment to predict shyness, (b) sensory-processing sensitivity interacts in the same way with childhood environment to predict negative affectivity, and (c) the interaction effect on negative affectivity mediates the effect on shyness. Hypothesis 2 was tested and supported in an additional questionnaire study (N = 393) and also in an experiment (N = 160) that manipulated negative contemporaneous experience as an analog for adverse childhood environment.
The purpose of the present study was to examine the potential effects of attention-placebo on flotation tank therapy. Flotation-restricted environmental stimulation technique is a method whereby an individual lies in a floating tank and all stimuli are reduced to a minimum.
Thirty-two patients were diagnosed as having stress-related muscular pain. In addition, 16 of the participants had received the diagnosis of burnout depression. The patients were treated with flotation-restricted environmental stimulation technique for six weeks. One-half of the patients were also given special attention for 12 weeks (high attention), while the remainder received attention for only six weeks (normal attention).
The participants exhibited lowered blood pressure, reduced pain, anxiety, depression, stress and negative affectivity, as well as increased optimism, energy and positive affectivity. The results were largely unaffected by the degree of attention-placebo or diagnosis.
It was concluded that flotation therapy is an effective, noninvasive method for treating stress-related pain, and that the method is not more affected by placebo than by other methods currently used in pain treatment. The treatment of both burnout depression and pain related to muscle tension constitutes a major challenge for the patient as well as the care provider, an area in which great gains can be made if the treatment is effective. Flotation therapy may constitute an integral part of such treatment.
The purpose of this study was to investigate if experiences induced by flotation-REST (in flotation-tank) are affected by settings or subjects earlier experiences of altered states of consciousness (ASC). No such significant differences were found. Significant effects owing to flotation-REST were found regarding reduction in experienced pain and enhancement of mood. Flotation-REST was considered a pleasurable technique. Different kinds of visual and acoustic effects, altered time perception, and a sense of weightlessness have been reported. Also, deep transpersonal experiences were quite common, and could be distinguished into three types: experiences of one's own childbirth/delivery; feeling of cosmic unity; and experiences of losing contact with the body or out-of-body experiences. Flotation-REST must be regarded as a consciousness-altering method with promising potential for clinical and therapeutic use.
A measure of reported mystical experience is presented. This "Mysticism Scale, Research Form D (M scale)," has 32 items, four for each of 8 categories of mysticism initially conceptualized by Stace (1960). Items on this scale are both positively and negatively expressed to avoid problems of response set. A factor analysis of the M Scale indicated two major factors, a general mystical experience factor (20 items) and a religious interpretation factor (12 items). Preliminary evidence indicates that those high on the M Scale have more intrinsic religious motivation as defined by Hoge's (1972) scale, are more open to experience as defined by Taft's (1970) ego permissiveness scale, have more intense religious experience as defined by Hood's (1970) scale, and have moderately higher scores on the L, Hs, and Hy scales of the MMPI.
Research over the last 25 years on the contribution of aloneness to creativity enhancement has had mixed results. Early studies of sensory deprivation generally found negative effects while more recent research on flotation isolation has reported positive influence. Sports performance, for example, has been improved by means of directed imagery and flotation aloneness. However, there has been only one study which has attempted to enhance creativity through the flotation method and while this study reported positive results, it lacked several control features and was based on a very small sample of highly selected subjects.The present study was designed to evaluate directly the potential contribution of floating to creativity enhancement as measured by the Guilford fluency test and other measures. Subjects were male and female university students, half of whom spent one hour in a float environment and the other half in a darkened room. Each was tested before and after experimental trial on the Guilford and other creativity measures and on two personality/affect scales. Float subjects showed significant increases on the Guilford test from the pre- to post-float and meaningful increases on other thinking measures as compared to non-floating control subjects. Floating was associated with a decrease in anxiety/tension, depression, hostility, and fatigue, but with an increase in vigor and a maintenance of curiosity scores, and it is speculated that the creativity benefits may be a result of these state changes.
In a mostly Christian American sample (N = 1,379), confirmatory factor analysis of Hood’s (1975) Mysticism Scale verified the existence of Stace’s (1960) introvertive and extrovertive dimensions of mystical phenomenology along with a separate interpretation factor. A second study confirmed the presence of these three factors in not only another group of Americans (N = 188), but also in a sample of Iranian Muslims (N = 185). Relationships of the introvertive and extrovertive factors with the interpretation factor were essentially identical across these two cultures, but the Americans displayed a stronger association between the two phenomenology factors. In both samples, the interpretation factor correlated positively with an intrinsic and negatively with an extrinsic religious orientation, and the introvertive factor predicted psychological dysfunction. Associations of the interpretation factor with relative mental health appeared only in the Iranians. These data offered general support for Stace’s phenomenology of mysticism, although the ineffability he linked with interpretation proved to be as much or even more a feature of the introvertive experience, as hypothesized by Hood.
The present study reports a sublongitudinal experiment involving 15 employees (4 male and 11 female) of an insurance company all of whom underwent a 12-month program of intensive mental training and physical coaching in order to ascertain whether or not certain characteristics of personality, attitudes, beliefs or performance would be altered. Each participant was assessed on a battery of different questionnaires including: background variables, Change and Stability, Life Orientation test, Coping Resources Inventory and the Gordon personal profile and inventory. There was no change in Dispositional optimism or ten other related personality traits. Only four of the personality variables were altered on completion of the training program: the participants' self-evaluations were elevated, the stability of their norms and system of values was reinforced, their emotional stability was reinforced also, and their receptivity to new ideas/innovations was reinforced. These results are discussed in the context of the relative constancy of personality characteristics and the suitability of the observed changes, after the 12-month program, in promoting strategies of coping behavior.
The psychology of consciousness covers a wide range of topics related to normal waking consciousness and altered states of consciousness, including: characteristics of consciousness, factors that influence the stream of consciousness, the distinction between conscious and nonconscious mind, the relationship between the brain and consciousness, introspection, daydreaming, sleep, dreams, hypnosis, meditation, psychedelic drug states, and other topics listed in the first chapter.
I approach the psychology of consciousness from a natural science and cognitive psychology viewpoint. In this view, consciousness is a natural phenomenon—a product of the brain's functioning. I emphasize research on topics of interest to cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuropsychologists, and personality and social psychologists. I also discuss clinical applications for a number of topics, such as hypnosis and meditation.
The incentive to write this textbook developed over a period of years during which I have taught a course on the psychology of consciousness at the University of Maine. . . . It became apparent that a comprehensive textbook on the psychology of consciousness was needed. Thus, the major reason for writing this book is to provide, in a single volume, a review of research and theory on the psychology of consciousness at a level suitable for advanced college courses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Aron and Aron (1997) developed the Highly Sensitive Person Scale (HSPS) to measure individual differences in sensory-processing sensitivity (SPS). The purpose of the present study was to examine further the psychometric properties of the HSPS, and its association with the behavioural inhibition system (BIS) and behavioural activation system (BAS) (Carver & White, 1994), and the “Big Five” (Costa & McCrae, 1992). Results demonstrate that the HSPS is a valid and reliable measure of the construct of SPS. However, in contrast to Aron and Aron’s finding that the scale is unidimensional, the current results support a three-component structure consisting of Aesthetic Sensitivity (AES), Low Sensory Threshold (LST), and Ease of Excitation (EOE). BIS activity was especially associated with the component of EOE. In addition, the components had different patterns of association with the “Big Five”. More specifically, AES showed the strongest relation with Openness to Experience, while LST and EOE were found to be most closely associated with Neuroticism.
ABSTRACT– A self-assessment scale has been developed and found to be a reliable instrument for detecting states of depression and anxiety in the setting of an hospital medical outpatient clinic. The anxiety and depressive subscales are also valid measures of severity of the emotional disorder. It is suggested that the introduction of the scales into general hospital practice would facilitate the large task of detection and management of emotional disorder in patients under investigation and treatment in medical and surgical departments.
Although mindfulness-based therapy has become a popular treatment, little is known about its efficacy. Therefore, our objective was to conduct an effect size analysis of this popular intervention for anxiety and mood symptoms in clinical samples.
We conducted a literature search using PubMed, PsycINFO, the Cochrane Library, and manual searches. Our meta-analysis was based on 39 studies totaling 1,140 participants receiving mindfulness-based therapy for a range of conditions, including cancer, generalized anxiety disorder, depression, and other psychiatric or medical conditions.
Effect size estimates suggest that mindfulness-based therapy was moderately effective for improving anxiety (Hedges's g = 0.63) and mood symptoms (Hedges's g = 0.59) from pre- to posttreatment in the overall sample. In patients with anxiety and mood disorders, this intervention was associated with effect sizes (Hedges's g) of 0.97 and 0.95 for improving anxiety and mood symptoms, respectively. These effect sizes were robust, were unrelated to publication year or number of treatment sessions, and were maintained over follow-up.
These results suggest that mindfulness-based therapy is a promising intervention for treating anxiety and mood problems in clinical populations.
Optimism is an individual difference variable that reflects the extent to which people hold generalized favorable expectancies for their future. Higher levels of optimism have been related prospectively to better subjective well-being in times of adversity or difficulty (i.e., controlling for previous well-being). Consistent with such findings, optimism has been linked to higher levels of engagement coping and lower levels of avoidance, or disengagement, coping. There is evidence that optimism is associated with taking proactive steps to protect one's health, whereas pessimism is associated with health-damaging behaviors. Consistent with such findings, optimism is also related to indicators of better physical health. The energetic, task-focused approach that optimists take to goals also relates to benefits in the socioeconomic world. Some evidence suggests that optimism relates to more persistence in educational efforts and to higher later income. Optimists also appear to fare better than pessimists in relationships. Although there are instances in which optimism fails to convey an advantage, and instances in which it may convey a disadvantage, those instances are relatively rare. In sum, the behavioral patterns of optimists appear to provide models of living for others to learn from.
This study investigated the link between meditation, self-reported mindfulness and cognitive flexibility as well as other attentional functions. It compared a group of meditators experienced in mindfulness meditation with a meditation-naïve control group on measures of Stroop interference and the "d2-concentration and endurance test". Overall the results suggest that attentional performance and cognitive flexibility are positively related to meditation practice and levels of mindfulness. Meditators performed significantly better than non-meditators on all measures of attention. Furthermore, self-reported mindfulness was higher in meditators than non-meditators and correlations with all attention measures were of moderate to high strength. This pattern of results suggests that mindfulness is intimately linked to improvements of attentional functions and cognitive flexibility. The relevance of these findings for mental balance and well-being are discussed.
This study examined the effect of light on relaxation associated with flotation restricted environmental stimulation therapy (REST), as measured by plasma cortisol, mean arterial pressure, and psychometric parameters. Twenty-one subjects were paired by baseline cortisol levels into two groups: one experiencing flotation REST in the presence of light (REST-L) and one experiencing flotation REST in the absence of light (REST-D). Subjects were 15 male and 6 female students aged 22-28 in normal health who had not experienced REST. Repeated flotation REST (8 sessions) either with light or without light was associated with a decrease in plasma cortisol and a decrease in mean arterial pressure, with no differences in effectiveness between groups. The psychometric assessment of mood, using the POMS scale, before and after sessions 1 and 8 revealed mood state improvement in both REST-L and REST-D groups. These data suggest that the presence of light did not compromise the flotation REST experience, as evidenced by the lack of difference between REST-L and REST-D groups.
A self-assessment scale has been developed and found to be a reliable instrument for detecting states of depression and anxiety in the setting of an hospital medical outpatient clinic. The anxiety and depressive subscales are also valid measures of severity of the emotional disorder. It is suggested that the introduction of the scales into general hospital practice would facilitate the large task of detection and management of emotional disorder in patients under investigation and treatment in medical and surgical departments.
The restricted environmental stimulation technique or REST is a method of relaxation where the level of environmental sensory inputs is kept very low. A particular REST technique called tank flotation, or flotation REST, consists of 1 h sessions in a tank containing water with a high salt content and maintained at 35.5 degrees C. In this protocol, five normal subjects were studied before and during 2 h after a 60 min flotation REST session and a control session of 60 min in a supine position on a bed. Cortisol, thyreostimulating hormone (TSH), thyroxine (T4), prolactin, melatonin, luteinizing hormone (LH), growth hormone (GH), beta-endorphin, vasopressin (ADH), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and homovanillic acid (HVA) were measured in plasma. HVA, 5-hydroxy-indoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) and vanylmandelic acid (VMA) were measured in urine. There were no changes in hormones concentrations that could be attributed to flotation REST. The urinary excretion of VMA was lower after the flotation REST session. The psychological consequences of flotation REST were more easily demonstrated than the neuroendocrine changes that are assumed to reflect the state of relaxation. Flotation REST increased subjective levels of sedation and euphoria. The possible mechanisms by which flotation REST induces relaxation are discussed.
More than 200 published studies from most medical settings worldwide have reported experiences with the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) which was specifically developed by Zigmond and Snaith for use with physically ill patients. Although introduced in 1983, there is still no comprehensive documentation of its psychometric properties. The present review summarizes available data on reliability and validity and gives an overview of clinical studies conducted with this instrument and their most important findings. The HADS gives clinically meaningful results as a psychological screening tool, in clinical group comparisons and in correlational studies with several aspects of disease and quality of life. It is sensitive to changes both during the course of diseases and in response to psychotherapeutic and psychopharmacological intervention. Finally, HADS scores predict psychosocial and possibly also physical outcome.
The APZ questionnaire was developed in order to explore hypotheses on ASCs. First -- in a series of 11 experiments using different induction methods on N = 393 healthy subjects -- the hypothesis was tested that ASCs have major dimensions in common irrespective of the mode of their induction. In the International Study on Altered States of Consciousness (ISASC) the external validity of the experimental results was assessed. The ISASC was carried out on a total of N = 1133 subjects in six countries. The main results of the experimental studies were corroborated in the field studies. The results can be summarized as follows: the common denominator of ASCs is described by three oblique dimensions, designated as "Oceanic Boundlessness (OSE)", "Dread of Ego Dissolution (AIA)" and "Visionary Restructuralization (VUS)". The reliability and validity of the scales are satisfactory. Tested versions of the APZ scales are available in English (UK, USA), German, Italian and Portuguese. Psychometrically as yet untested versions exist in Dutch, Finnish, French, Greek, Spanish and Russian. The APZ questionnaire has become the international standard for the assessment of ASCs, thus helping to integrate research. A psychometrically improved version exists in German (OAV questionnaire). The BETA questionnaire, which measures the dimensions "Vigilance Reduction (VIR)" and "Auditive Alteration (AVE)" is also available in German. These dimensions are most likely etiology-dependent.
Previously, we proposed a theoretical framework that classified infants into qualitative categories of reactivity, rather than on a continuous dimension. The present research used an objective statistical procedure (maximum covariance analysis, or MAXCOV) to determine if a qualitative latent structure, consistent with our theoretical conjectures, would be found to underlie quantitative indices of reactivity to stimuli in a sample of 599 four-month-old infants. Results of the MAXCOV analysis showed clear evidence of a latent discontinuity underlying the behavioral measures of infant reactivity. The base rate of the latent class (or taxon) was estimated at 10%. Infants within the putative high-reactivity taxon, compared with infants not in the taxon, were elevated on measures of behavioral inhibition at 4.5 years. These results provide objective empirical support for a central tenet in our theoretical model by supporting the taxonicity of infant reactivity.
To review the literature of the validity of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS).
A review of the 747 identified papers that used HADS was performed to address the following questions: (I) How are the factor structure, discriminant validity and the internal consistency of HADS? (II) How does HADS perform as a case finder for anxiety disorders and depression? (III) How does HADS agree with other self-rating instruments used to rate anxiety and depression?
Most factor analyses demonstrated a two-factor solution in good accordance with the HADS subscales for Anxiety (HADS-A) and Depression (HADS-D), respectively. The correlations between the two subscales varied from.40 to.74 (mean.56). Cronbach's alpha for HADS-A varied from.68 to.93 (mean.83) and for HADS-D from.67 to.90 (mean.82). In most studies an optimal balance between sensitivity and specificity was achieved when caseness was defined by a score of 8 or above on both HADS-A and HADS-D. The sensitivity and specificity for both HADS-A and HADS-D of approximately 0.80 were very similar to the sensitivity and specificity achieved by the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ). Correlations between HADS and other commonly used questionnaires were in the range.49 to.83.
HADS was found to perform well in assessing the symptom severity and caseness of anxiety disorders and depression in both somatic, psychiatric and primary care patients and in the general population.
The aim of the study was to examine the relationships between tendencies towards different mental health problems assessed via questionnaires (social phobia, agoraphobia, general anxiety/panic, depression), the two latent dimensions of behavioural inhibition (childhood social/school fears, non-social fears/ illness), and sensory-processing sensitivity.
A cross-sectional design was employed.
Volunteer participants (N = 234) from anxiety and depression self-help organizations completed five mailed questionnaires. These were the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory, Beck Depression Inventory II and Beck Anxiety Inventory; the Highly Sensitive Person Scale, a measure of trait sensitivity to environmental stimuli; and the Retrospective Self-Report of Inhibition.
Higher levels of anxiety, but not depression, were associated with increased self-reported sensitivity to environmental stimuli. Recalled childhood social/school fears were related to elevated scores on measures of social phobia and depression, while recalled non-social fears/illness were not associated with any index of psychopathology.
These results extend those of previous research by suggesting specific patterns of relationships of both sensitivity to environmental stimuli and behavioural inhibition with symptoms of anxiety and depression. It is suggested that in investigating long-term outcome, prospective behavioural inhibition studies would benefit from examining the temporal corollaries of the underlying social and non-social dimensions. Sample and design limitations are discussed.
Jung suggested that innate sensitiveness predisposes some individuals to be particularly affected by negative childhood experiences, so that later, when under pressure to adapt to some challenge, they retreat into infantile fantasies based on those experiences and become neurotic. Recent research by the author and others is reviewed to support Jung's theory of sensitiveness as a distinctly thorough conscious and unconscious reflection on experiences. Indeed, this probably innate tendency is found in about twenty percent of humans, and, in a sense, in most species, in that about this percentage will evidence a strategy of thoroughly processing information before taking action, while the majority depend on efficient, rapid motor activity. Given this thorough processing, sensitive individuals readily detect subtleties-including whatever is distressing or threatening. Hence, as Jung observed, given the same degree of stress in childhood as non-sensitive individuals, sensitive persons will develop more depression, anxiety, and shyness. Without undue stress, they evidence no more of these difficulties than the non-sensitive-or even less, being unusually aware of supportive as well as negative cues from caregivers. Given this interaction, one treatment task is to distinguish the effects of such childhood difficulties from what does not need treatment, which are the typical effects of the trait itself on an adult without a troubled developmental history.
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The experience of flotation-REST (restricted environmental stimulation technique): Consciousness, creativity, subjective stress and pain. Unpublished doctoral dissertation
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