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journal of interdisciplinary music studies
spring 2011, volume 5, issue 1, art. #11050103, pp. 41-55 !
•Correspondence: Katty Kochman, IPEM, Universiteit Gent, Blandijnberg 2, Gent, Belgium 9000; tel: +32
(0)9 264 4141 fax: +32 (0)9 264 4143 e-mail: katty.kochman@ugent.be;
• Received: 1 September 2010; Revised: 18 May 2011; Accepted: 18 June 2011
• Available online: 30 July 2011
• doi: 10.4407/jims.2011.07.003
A case-study investigation of respiration in operatic singing:
An implementation of research design and applications
Katty Kochman, Michiel Demey, Dirk Moelants, and Marc Leman
IPEM (Institute for Psychoacoustics and Electronic Music), Ghent University
Background in Music Performance. Previous research proposes a relationship between respiration and
the communicative processes of dramatic expression in operatic singing. Controlled respiration is an
essential component in operatic singing, providing the singer with support for a proper production of tone
and an important factor in the structuring of melodic phrases. Respiratory regulation relates directly to the
effective execution of expressive components of singing performance, including timbral variations,
paralinguistic features, and expressive markings such as dynamic variations and messa di voce. While
respiration is an automatic process controlled by the respiratory center of the nervous system, the rate,
depth and rhythm of breathing can be modified unconsciously by mental emotions or consciously by
different breathing patterns. Both processes are nonlinguistic methods with which a singer is able to
communicate the expressive musical intention of a vocal composition. As such, they may be used as
devices to reveal emotional subtexts and the expressive intentionality of the vocal performance.
Background in Embodied Cognition in Mediation. The theoretical paradigm of embodied music
cognition assists systematic musicology research in the understanding of its role in singing. Embodied
involvement in music allows performers to interpret and communicate effectively the expressive intentions
of a composition to the audience. Furthermore, this theoretical paradigm may provide a better
understanding of the subjective experiences and cognitive processes that enrich musical performance.
Aims. The aim was to develop an ecologically valid methodology relating to both conscious and
unconscious respiration that could be used to examine the role of embodied cognition in dramatic and
expressive vocal performance.
Main Contribution. This paper presents a methodology and the preliminary implementation of an
experimental framework through which the effects of respiration on dramatic expressivity may be
examined. The underlying theme was to examine the role of embodied music cognition in vocal
performance. Since respiration in vocal performance involves both conscious and unconscious processes,
the unconscious and conscious thoughts and decisions in vocal performance were considered as factors
affecting the dramatic expressivity of a vocal performance. Within this context, ecological research
methods were developed and utilized to monitor vocal performance for relevant data and vocal
performance analysis. Timing intervals between rehearsal and performance were reliably consistent for the
three vocal compositions used in the study. Lung volumes varied significantly for 2 of the 3 vocal pieces
performed, and larger variations were observed during the musical climaxes of the compositions. Intensity
was higher, while lung expansion was lower for performers in concert settings. Systematic differences were
found between respiration patterns in the rehearsal and concert performances.
Implications. Respiration is a communicative tool between a singer and audience members. The findings
of the case study showed (1) that singers had strong control over the timing of their inhalations and (2) that
there were systematic differences in breath volume between the rehearsal and public performance. The
findings should assist in developing a better understanding of the respiratory system when it is used for
singing, with implications for vocal pedagogy and performance. Additionally, the research may support
previous studies that delineated between innate and learned behaviors during singing performance. As
demonstrated by Collyer (2009), different stages of our kinematic strategies may not be subject to direct
conscious manipulation. Consequently, behaviors that are not directly manipulated by the singer, or that are
perceived to be different from actual kinematic patterns, may lend insight into an individual’s recurrent and
automatic behavioral patterns within a musical performance.
Keywords: Embodied Music Cognition, Music Performance, Music Communication, Vocal Performance,
Audience Interaction, Respiratory Analysis, Operatic Singing
K. Kochman, M. Demey, D. Moelants, and M. Leman!
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1. Introduction
Respiration is an essential physical function in classical singing. Sound is produced
by repetitive compression and decompression of inhaled air above the glottis and
through resonance and filtering in the vocal tract. The expressive elements that make
classical singing performance interesting (e.g. dynamic changes, timbre variations,
paralinguistic features, etc.) are closely linked with the respiratory mechanism
(Pettersen and Bjørkøy, 2009; Sundberg, 1994). Recent research has demonstrated
that emotional stimulus and expressive markings have an impact on respiratory
patterns during singing (Pettersen and Bjørkøy, 2009, Foulds-Elliot, 2000).
The goal of this research was to develop a better understanding of the role of
embodied communication in singing performance and to demonstrate methods for the
measurement of singing performance, applying theories of corporeal intentionality
and performer interaction with audience members in an ecologically valid and
tangible context. A case study was used to explore differentiated lung volumes, and to
relate these to both the type of piece and audience-performer interaction.
Vocal performance provides a unique context for the application of concepts related
to embodied music cognition, as the body functions as both primary initiator and
expressive mediator of performance. The singer’s respiration can be used as a variable
with which to measure and examine embodied expression and the communication of
emotional and musical intentions. Respiration can be seen as a measure of corporeal
intention and can potentially be used to quantify mutually adaptive behavioral
resonances between musicians and audiences, as articulated through the expressive
intentions of the singer. This is defined as nonlinguistic, bodily communication that
creates shared intention, and which is responsible for the feeling of being unified with
other people (Leman, 2008, p. 21).
Based on the concepts of embodied music cognition, this study examines the
relationship between respiration and dramatic expressivity in a vocal performance.
The presented preliminary results impact future research implementations, which
eventually will further our understanding of singing performance with important
implications for singing pedagogy. Additionally, this research should serve to extend
models of the ‘breathing system’, integrating performance and expressive functions
(Collyer, 2009).
2. Background
In music performance, subjective experience is influenced by bodily mediation.
Within this context respiration can provide one means of investigating the relationship
between autonomous, internal processes and external, socially mediated processes
(Lyon, 1999). Respiration is both under voluntary and involuntary control and can be
conditioned by association with affective states. More specifically, respiration is a
reflection of, and a way to control, physiological and subjective states, reflecting and
influencing interactional rhythms and synchronous behavior within groups. Through
embodied interaction, the performer develops an embodied awareness of their
subjective state in a relational context. This bodily perception also constitutes the
A case-study investigation of respiration in operatic singing!
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cyclical action-reaction cycle inherent in musical communication (Lyon, 1999;
Leman, 2008).
Respiration for classical singing has been found to differ from normal respiration in
several significant ways. The respiratory system and performance habits of the singer
affect phonation, intensity, acoustic features, and muscular strategies used during
singing. Respiration in vocal students has been found to change significantly between
study semesters with both increases and decreases in rib cage and abdominal
excursions during vocal training (Mendes, et al. 2006). Breathing during singing is
characterized by over-pressurizing the air in the lungs. In addition, there is an increase
in muscular ‘support’ in key areas. For example, the intercostal muscles, joining at the
ribs, provide inspiratory and expiratory muscular force. The abdominal and
diaphragmatic muscles also assist in subglottic pressure regulation. Effective
subglottal air pressure regulation results in effective tone production, but also
increased expressive capabilities for the singer (Sundberg, 1987). In addition, when
singing with a ‘supported’ tone singers have been found to increase peak airflow and
change subglottal pressure in comparison to an ‘unsupported’ voice (Griffin et al.,
1995). Therefore, respiration may be regarded as an important mediator, affecting the
performers’ phonation, emotion, and interpretation. These valuable components each
contribute to the training of the respiratory system, and as a result can be used to
systematically monitoring the changes that occur when a singer interacts with an
audience.
2.1 Variations in respiration related to expressive intention
As previously mentioned, respiration has been shown to be an important factor,
impacting vocal production and performance. Foulds-Elliot (2000) measured Sound
Pressure Levels (SPL) and the time taken on inhalation and exhalation when five
participants were asked to sing the same pieces with two differentiated performances:
technically and as if in a performance. Magnetometers were applied to measure the
inclination of the chest and abdomen in combination with a spirometer for the
purposes of calibration. Foulds-Elliot found consistent differences between the two
conditions: participants demonstrated higher lung volume when asked to sing with an
‘emotional connection’ (the in-performance condition). When singing technically,
participants were also requested to sing with different levels of SPL- technical high
(TL), normal (T), and technical soft (TS). The in-performance condition (with
emotion) resulted in higher levels of initial lung volume (ILV) than the technical
conditions, with an SPL approximately equal to the T task. In some cases, this was
related to the change in phrase length, but in others to increased air-flow with little
change in duration.
In Collyer’s (2009) study of the effect of abdominal kinematic directives on
respiratory behavior in female classical singers, participants were found to respond to
and maintain behavioral changes as a result of kinematic instructions. Two respiratory
strategies were used: abdomen in and abdomen out. These were defined as pulling the
abdominal wall inwards or steadily expanding the abdominal wall during each phrase.
Five professional singers were monitored with the use of inductance
plethysmography. Audio recordings were also made to record SPL during tasks.
K. Kochman, M. Demey, D. Moelants, and M. Leman!
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Changes in kinematic behavior were observed at the beginning of the musical phrases,
but were closer to the habitual respiratory behaviors as the phrase progressed. Rib-
cage expansion and lung volume changes were not observed to change as a result of
directives. Collyer argued that these findings may indicate delineation between
learned and innate respiratory behaviors for classical singers. Singers were able to
modify and maintain behavioral changes.
Research by Pettersen and Bjørky (2009) extended the study by Foulds-Elliot (2000)
and investigated the effects of emotional stimulus on respiratory patterns involving
inter-costal and abdominal muscular activation. Participants were asked to perform
vocal tasks consisting of extreme tones (the highest and lowest tone of the singers’
vocal range), swell tones, arpeggio, and glissando. Similar to the study by Foulds-
Elliot, singers were asked to perform these exercises with emotion and neutrally. This
study involved monitoring seven conservatory students with a combination of
electrodes placed on the intercostal abdomen, lateral abdomen, and lower lateral
abdomen, as well as strain gauge sensors placed on the abdomen, upper thorax and
lower thorax. This study found that emotional stimulus resulted in an increased
contribution from the lower lateral abdomen, lower thorax and abdomen, as well as
less contribution from the anterior abdominal muscles during phonation.
These studies present evidence for the existence of different respiration patterns as a
result of variations in expressive intention. However, audience members were not
present in the conditions involving expressivity. In addition, the methodologies might
be enriched by analyzing pieces in their entirety rather than just phrases or key
exercises.
2.2 Embodied music cognition
In order to examine the role of embodied music cognition in vocal performance, it is
necessary not only to monitor individual perception, but also the mutual perception of
the performer and audience (Baldwin, 1995). Within the context of the current
research study, the singer’s respiration is one factor hypothesized to be affected by an
interaction with audience members during the singer’s performance.
This idea can be further illustrated by Leman’s (2008) model of musical
communication between performer and listeners. According to the theory of
embodied music cognition, musicians encode sound through gesture and the body.
The listener then decodes this information, which may be processed through corporeal
imitation providing feedback for the performer. This cycle of perception contributes
to the structure, emotion and cultural significance of the performance.
The starting point is the performer, who has in mind a musical goal or idea (possibly
provided by a composer). This goal is realized as sound energy, using the human body
and mediation technology. More specifically, the musical goal is realized through
corporeal articulations, whose biomechanical energy is transferred to the music
mediation technology (the music instrument). This device in turn translates part of the
biomechanical energy of the performer into sound energy, while another part of the
biomechanical energy is bounced back as haptic energy (energy related to the sense of
touch) (Leman, 2008, p. 160).
Within the context of vocal performance, the singer’s musical goal is translated
A case-study investigation of respiration in operatic singing!
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through the corporeal articulations and imitations, and transmitted to other
participants through sonic and visual feedback, which then creates behavioral
resonances in the audience and feedback for the performer. A performer’s intentions
can also be filtered through a mediator, such as an instrument, which can also provide
feedback to the performer. In the case of vocal performance, the instrumental
mediator is the body itself. This concept has the potential to provide unique insights
into the processes that underlie action-perception coupling in music performance. In
addition, the concept also presents measurement and research design challenges,
because delineating between technical and ancillary, and expressive gestures or
articulations is difficult.
The objective of the present study was to develop a new method with which to study
the communication of emotional content in operatic vocal performance. In developing
this method, the study applied basic concepts of embodied music cognition to
examine how respiration is related to performance intentionality. Based on a case
study, the study focused on how respiration in singing can be utilized by the artist to
enhance the emotional intensity of the music and communicate dramatic intention to
an audience. The measured data were used to develop a method for studying the
relationship between expressivity, respiration, and embodiment in terms of the artistic
communication between singer and audience.
3. Method
3.1 Participant
The participants was a professional 34-year-old female singer, who had had over ten
years of performance experience and training, and who regularly performed in choirs
and as a soloist.
3.2 Procedure
Two experimental conditions were utilized for this case study: a rehearsal without
audience and a performance with audience. The participant performed three operatic
arias, Deh vieni non tardar from Le Nozze di Figaro by W.A. Mozart, O mio babbino
caro from Gianni Schicci by G. Puccini, and Quando m’en vo from La Boheme by G.
Puccini, in both the rehearsal and performance settings. It was important to control for
confounding variables at an early stage in the research project. Consequently, the
accompaniment was prerecorded to hold this variable constant. During the rehearsal
condition the researchers exited the performance space and were not visible to the
performer. During the performance condition 9 audience members were present. Both
rehearsal and performance took place at the lab of the Institute for Psychoacoustics
and Electronic Music (IPEM) in Gent, Belgium. The performance space is
sufficiently large and resonant (approximately 10x16 meters with 7x7 meters) to
successfully monitor small ensemble performances, such as a concert of operatic
arias.
K. Kochman, M. Demey, D. Moelants, and M. Leman!
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3.3 Materials and Equipment
The breathing of the singer was monitored using the commercial MPX5050 sensor
from the company Plux. The sensor consists of a band to which an air container is
attached of approximately 40 cm length and 2 cm width. The air container is under
constant pressure and connected to a membrane with a piezo resistive transducer and
monolithic silicon pressure sensor attached. There is a 2.5% maximum error over 0°
to 85°C. The band encircles the rib cage and is placed directly below the axila. The
placement of the bands was checked between conditions to ensure consistency of
procedure.
During breathing, the rib cage expands against the air container resulting in
increased/decreased pressure in the sensor corresponding to inhalation and exhalation,
respectively. This sensor is digitized by a Wi-Microdig (Infusion Systems). The data
are transmitted wirelessly via Bluetooth to a computer running a Max/MSP patch.
This patch not only records the data from the sensor to a .txt file, but also records the
audio from the singer and the accompaniment. For this purpose an AKG HL577L
microphone was used with an AKG DPT700 wireless sender and AKG DSR700
Digital Stationary Receiver connected to an RME Fireface 800 audio card attached to
the computer running the Max/MSP patch. This enabled a synchronized readout of
both audio and sensor values, which corresponded to the playback of the
accompaniment. Finally, the experiment was monitored with a Canon Legra HD
video camera. During this case study, monitoring occurred only for intercostal
inhalation and exhalation. It is expected that monitoring the abdominal activation will
provide additional data in future studies.
4. Analysis and Results
The signal from the respiration sensor was digitized with a Bluetooth Wi-Microdig
and sensor values were sent wirelessly to the computer. The digitization returns the
raw sensor signal with values between 0 and 1023 (10 bit analog-to-digital convertor
– ADC) at a sampling rate of 200Hz, which are analyzed offline. To reduce the sensor
artifacts on the raw signal, the data were filtered using a Savitzky-Golay filter with
order 3 and a frame size of 51 samples. This polynomial filter has the advantage that
it preserves sharp peaks well, without introducing any time delay. The resulting signal
is displayed as the top curve in Figure 1. Lower values correspond to lower pressure
during exhalation, while higher values correspond to a high pressure due to the
expansion of the ribcage against the sensor. Peaks represent points of inhalation,
while the exhalation phase during singing is represented by a slow gradual decrease in
the signal. In Figure 1 the audio signal of the voice is also displayed as the bottom
curve where the amplitude is shifted to a mean value of 300 and scaled to a maximum
amplitude of 100 for displaying purposes. The points of inhalation correspond clearly
to an absence of audio. The synchronization of both signals is indicated by the vertical
dotted lines.
A case-study investigation of respiration in operatic singing!
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Figure 1. Excerpt of the respiration signal after filtering (top curve), displayed together with
the audio of the voice (bottom curve). Markers indicate the maxima and minima for each
breath.
A first step in the quantification of the respiratory data from the sensor signal was the
determination of the points of maximum inhalation. These were located by applying a
peak detection function findpeaks in the Matlab software package. The peaks found
are indicated with markers in Figure 1. In only one of the three pieces did a
difference in the number of peaks occur. As this extra breath occurred during a
musical pause, it could confidently be excluded from further analysis as an outlier.
The timing of the remaining peaks was analyzed by calculating the difference in
absolute time between the corresponding peaks in the two recordings for the three
arias. The results are displayed in Figure 2. This timing was calculated with absolute
time, which was facilitated by the fixed accompaniment for both conditions. In only 3
out of 55 breaths was there a timing difference greater than 1 second. These breaths
occurred at an interlude, where there was no accompaniment (aria 1, peak 13), or at
the beginning of the piece where the timing was not fixed by the accompaniment (aria
3, peak 1). The average absolute difference in timing was 0.226 seconds with a
standard deviation of 0.336 for all inhalations, while it was only 0.175 seconds with a
standard deviation of 0.207 when the two largest values were excluded.
K. Kochman, M. Demey, D. Moelants, and M. Leman!
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Figure 2. Timing differences of the points of inhalation between the rehearsal and concert
recordings for the 3 arias.
Figure 3. Distribution of ADC values for the peak values, and values of exhalation for all
breaths of all 6 songs under study (n=108)
In order to quantify the size of the ribcage expansion, the baseline value was
A case-study investigation of respiration in operatic singing!
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determined representing exhalation values. This baseline value is depended on sensor
tension and placement around the ribcage of the subject. In the following analysis the
baseline value, as indicated with a red marker in Figure 1, was determined by locating
the minimum between two peaks for those data points where the mean envelope of
the audio signal was below a threshold of 0.025. This threshold was chosen, so that it
represents those parts where singing was absent. When comparing the minima and the
maxima in a histogram the results shown in Figure 3 were obtained. From the
distribution of the minima (shown in red), we can conclude that there is little variance
in the baseline. Note that the bins of the minima corresponding to the highest ADC
values correspond to those breaths where there was very little time to breath, and as a
result maximal exhalation cannot be reached. The histogram in blue represents the
peak values, which indicate a large variance.
Figure 4. Differences between (top) and overlay of (bottom) measured expansion for each
breath in the rehearsal and concert performances of the three arias
K. Kochman, M. Demey, D. Moelants, and M. Leman!
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Calculating the difference in height between these minima and maxima allowed us to
assign values to the expansion of the ribcage for each breath (see Figure 4, bottom).
The differences between these expansion values for each breath in both conditions are
displayed in Figure 4 (top). Lung values varied more greatly for arias 1 (Deh vieni
non tardar) and 3 (Quando m’en vo), than for aria 2 (O mio babbino). However, for
aria 2 variation in lung values were greater for the last three breaths (during the
musical climax of the aria). A positive correlation was reported between expansion
variation in the concert and rehearsal performances (r = .57, n=54, p < .01).
Figure 5. Mean expansion values and standard deviations for the three arias in both conditions
When the mean expansion values of the three arias in the rehearsal are compared to
those in the concert condition the results in Figure 5 are obtained. Systematically
larger expansion values were observed in the rehearsal compared to the concert
condition in all three arias.
To quantify the dynamics of the audio, the Root Mean Square (RMS) value of the
amplitude was calculated using the mirrms fuction from the MIRtoolbox (Lartillot
and Toiviainen, 2007). This function calculates the RMS value for each frame of
50ms with half overlappingi of the audio signal. Using these values it was possible to
obtain a mean and standard deviation for each song as presented in Figure 6. A
Kolmogrov-Smirnov test was conducted and reported that the normality of the
distribution could be accepted for rehearsal (KS, a =.05, p= 0.534) and concert (KS, a
=.05, p= 0.823). Here a systematic difference was observed between the rehearsal and
concert conditions. However, this difference is opposite of the tendency of the mean
expansions shown in Figure 5 for the two conditions.
A case-study investigation of respiration in operatic singing!
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Figure 6. The mean and standard deviation values of the calculated RMS on the envelope of
the audio of each song for the rehearsal and concert conditions.
Figure 7. Comparison between audio RMS and breath size in the rehearsal and concert
conditions for each breath.
In order to check if there was a correlation between the mean expansion and the RMS
K. Kochman, M. Demey, D. Moelants, and M. Leman!
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value of the audio both values were calculated per breath and are displayed in Figure
7. A significant correlation was not observed between these sets of data in the
performances (r = .117, N = 52, p = .408).
5. Discussion
This case study implemented a methodology for the investigation of the role of
embodied communication in singing performance, using theories of corporeal
intention and performer interaction. These preliminary results will be used for further
research development in this area. However, the findings already indicate that there
are differences in the respiration patterns for the two experimental settings, which
may support the conclusion that the expressive intention of the performer changes as a
result of audience interaction. Further tests and increased subject numbers are needed
in order to broaden the generalizability of results.
The theory of embodied music cognition maintains that embodied mediation and
musical communication is a translation of internal cognitive processes that cannot be
fully understood through linguistic description. These processes are commonly
studied through performance analysis between a musician and their instrument.
However, in vocal performance an additional external mediator does not impede the
action reaction cycle that results from the matching of perceptual and behavioral
resonances. As demonstrated, audience interaction has a concrete and measurable
impact on the vocal instrument of the singer. In this particular case, lung volumes
decrease while intensity increased with the presence of audience members. Greater
lung volume differences were observed during the musical climaxes of the pieces.
These variations are likely to increase if timing is allowed to vary more greatly by
using live accompanying musicians
The results of this study demonstrated consistent differences in breathing between the
rehearsal and public performance. Notably, the findings of Foulds-Elliot (2000)
contrasted with our findings. The research by Foulds-Elliot (2000) would lead one to
expect higher lung volumes in the performance condition compared to the rehearsal.
In contrast, we found lower lung volumes during the public performance. This may
signify that the kinematic strategies utilized by singers may be more varied than
previously thought, meriting further investigation. For example, the singer in this
particular case used more dramatic pauses and paralinguistic features, such as pausing
briefly at the words la gente sosta e mira (people stop and stare), when performing
with an audience.
Some previous research has found similar patterns. In a study by Mendes et al.
(2006), singing students in their 1st and 2
nd semesters increased their rib cage
expansion and abdominal expansion, but these values decreased in the 2nd and 3
rd
semester of vocal training. In Mendes’s study, these lower lung volumes could not be
sufficiently explained. Researchers surmised that increased efficiency during training
might be the underlying cause for the unexpected behavior. However, lower lung
volumes cannot be explained by more efficient production in this current study, as
repeated measures would probably result in additional variations. It would not be
logical to conclude that a professional classically-trained singer is consistently
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inefficient in rehearsal, when the same piece is rehearsed multiple times. However,
different singers may utilize different kinematic strategies during performance. For
example, the singer in this particular case used more dramatic pauses and
paralinguistic features when performing with an audience. Comparisons between
singers will allow researchers to confirm the effect of these strategies on respirations.
In addition, factors relating to inner cognitive processes, paired with the ability to
carefully control embodied processes through years of training and performance, may
impact respiration during performance. For example, the singer in our study
demonstrated more consistent respiratory patterns before emotionally-charged phrases
and musical climaxes in performances with audience, and used more ‘support’ during
expressive musical passages. Finally, additional devices used to measure respiration
are not commonly used by singers. It may be informative to undertake studies
longitudinally to assess whether comfort and familiarity with measurement devices
has an impact. This singer is also of particular interest as a case study due to her
particular kinematic strategies. Inspiration altered with the intention to communicate –
overall, volumes lowered, while SPL actually increased in this particular case.
Professional singers have a highly trained and developed respiratory mechanism and
can describe in detail the technique used for effective performance. However, they
maybe unaware of the specific changes that occur during performance. In this
particular case, variations occurred during emotive passages; for example, the idea of
happiness expressed by the work felice (happy). In future work, particular emotions
could be combined with audience reactions to further investigate their effect on
respiration.
The impact of audience interaction on performance is observed through the use of
methodologies integrating the monitoring the embodied attunement of the performer
(Leman, 2008). Effective quantitative methodologies to monitor the mirroring of
these processes in audience members are still in development. The observations
derived from this vocal performance may imply that respiration was not only used to
support appropriate vocal production, but also served to align the performer and
audience, in a process of embodied attunement. This process could involve additional
cognitive operations between the consciously controlled aspects of vocal technique
and innate respiratory actions used for the communication of intent in vocal
performance. Variations in respiratory activity seemed to reflect the expressiveness of
previous passages. In addition, respiration could reflect communicative planning
based on the expressive intentions of the piece.
Future work will focus on implementing the same experimental methodology with
larger subject populations. Additional data should result in more information
regarding the kinematic strategies used in performance and show how specifically
respiration changes are related to the presence of audience members. With respect to
additional performers and how effectively expressive content is communicated,
listener ratings and professional evaluations could be used to obtain information
regarding audience perceptions.
K. Kochman, M. Demey, D. Moelants, and M. Leman!
54
6. Conclusion
The experimental method and results presented in this research allow researchers to
investigate the role of embodied communication in singing performance, as translated
through corporeal intentions and performer interaction. The study highlighted the role
of performer-audience communication and its impact on the instrumental mediator of
the singer. Awareness of the multiple kinematic strategies available and the impact of
interpersonal communication may have implications for effective vocal pedagogy and
performance. The experimental setup involved monitoring respiration values during
vocal performance in rehearsal and performance conditions. The features that were
extracted from signal analysis demonstrated significant differences in lung volumes in
all three pieces for the 2 conditions, indicating smaller expansion values used in
performance. Audio analysis of the pieces found higher RMS values with lower
expansion. The findings of this study have implications in vocal pedagogy and
performance training. Technically, classical singers are trained in respiratory
production in order to efficiently develop their ‘natural’ instrument and to maintain
good tone, phrasing and expression. However, a comprehensive understanding of
embodied communicative functions resulting from audience and performer interaction
is so far lacking.
An objective of the current research project is to further delineate the role of
embodiment and respiration as an expressive tool in classical singing performance.
This involves further investigating respiration as a communicative tool in vocal
performance both between audience members and other musicians. In addition,
strategies to assist in monitoring audiences’ reactions with respect to respiration and
embodied communication in singing performance are still in development. Further
research has the potential to provide a better understanding of effective embodied
strategies for meaning construction in musical performance, as well as their physical
implications for vocal production.
Acknowledgements. The authors would like to thank the Institute of Psychoacoustics
and Electronic Music (IPEM), Ghent University and its staff for their support of this
research project. Special thanks also to Ivan Schepers for his technical assistance and
to Chia Fen Wu for her participation in the study.
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Biographies
Katty Kochman is a PhD student at the Institute of Psychoacoustic and Electronic Music
(IPEM). Her research incorporates the development ecological models for the study of vocal
performance and embodied cognition in music. She holds an M.A. in Music and is experienced
in performing operatic repertoire. She has also earned an M.S. in Education, with a background
in behavioral analysis and therapy.
Michiel Demey holds a PhD in physics at the University of Amsterdam. His focus is on
movement sensing and capturing systems, real-time platforms related to multimodal data
acquisition and the analysis of motion and biosensor signals.
Dirk Moelants holds a PhD in musicology from Ghent University, with a thesis on rhythm
perception. He specializes in ethnomusicological aspects of music perception and performance,
based on psychological experiments related to beat and rhythm.
Marc Leman holds a PhD in musicology from Ghent University, with a thesis on computer
modeling of tonal semantics. His focus is on the methodological and epistemological
foundations of (social) embodied music cognition. He is currently Director of the Institute of
Psychoaccoustics and Electronic Music, Ghent University. He also serves as Head of the
Department of Art, Music, and Theater Studies (Faculty of Letters and Philosophy) and is
currently a Research-Professor in Systematic Musicology.
