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Comparison of Male and Female Foot Shape
Abstract
Morphological and geometric differences between male and female feet can be the decisive factor of whether well-fitting, functional, and comfortable footwear is available for both men and women.
Optical scans, plaster wrap casts, and a set of manual measurements from the right feet of 51 female participants, aged 20 to 59 years (32 +/- 10.2 years), and 39 male participants, aged 22 to 71 years (47.1 +/- 12.1 years), were taken to determine which parameters were the most significant in characterizing pedal geometry and which had the largest difference between male and female feet.
Analysis showed that the heel-to-ball length (ball length) of the male participants' feet (181.5 mm) was significantly longer, on average, than that of the female participants' feet (165.0 mm). The width of the male paticipants' feet at the ball, instep, and heel regions, as well as the ball circumference, normalized by the ball length, were all significantly larger on average, than the female test participants' feet. However, toe region, instep, and medial and lateral malleoli heights were larger, on average, for the female participants than for the male. The results show that female feet differ in size and shape from male feet and are not algebraically scaled, smaller versions of male feet, as is often assumed.
The study shows that the average male participants' feet are longer than that of the female participants' feet, while the female feet are relatively narrower but higher than those of the male participants.
... Foot measures between men and women were also compared using normalised data, as, for example, in %FL (Wunderlich andCavanagh 2001, Krauss et al. 2008) or BL (Luo et al. 2009). Results of studies related to normalised data showed contradictory results. ...
... For medial BL, Wunderlich and Cavanagh (2001) reported no sex-specific differences, whereas significant differences were reported in the first study (Krauss et al. 2008) and this follow-up study. No data are available from Luo et al. (2009) as, in their study, BL was chosen as the dimension to normalise the other foot measures. They reported significant differences for BW and HW. ...
... IH is another inconsistent measure when comparing different studies. Luo et al. (2009) reported larger IH for the female population (1.8% BL), but no statistically significant differences were reported by Wunderlich and Cavanagh (2001) and in the first study (Krauss et al. 2008). The follow-up study showed small -yet significantdifferences with smaller values for the female population. ...
The study's purpose was to substantiate findings on sex-related differences in foot morphology focusing on fringe sizes. Altogether, 287 Caucasian adults with long or short feet were scanned. Data were analysed together with data from 847 subjects from a previous study with comparable inclusion criteria and anthropometric data by: (1) comparing absolute measures within 237–277 mm foot length (FL); (2) comparing averaged measures across sizes in % of foot length for 203–323mm FL; (3) reclassifying the additional subjects into a previously defined foot type classification. Male feet were wider and higher for the same FL. Averaged across sizes, no relevant differences between sexes were found for widths and heights. Slender or flat-pointed foot types were more common in longer feet, shorter feet tended to be bigger. Definitions for 'long' and 'short' are sex-related with an offset of three shoe sizes (EU). Results of this follow-up study on long and short feet can substantiate previous findings mainly described for the most common sizes. Statement of Relevance: Improper footwear can cause pain and injury and proper fit is a major criterion for shoe buyers. Knowledge about sex-related differences in foot shape is important for shoe design. This study supplements the field of knowledge for very small and large feet.
... Foot measures between men and women were also compared using normalised data, as, for example, in %FL (Wunderlich andCavanagh 2001, Krauss et al. 2008) or BL (Luo et al. 2009). Results of studies related to normalised data showed contradictory results. ...
... For medial BL, Wunderlich and Cavanagh (2001) reported no sex-specific differences, whereas significant differences were reported in the first study (Krauss et al. 2008) and this follow-up study. No data are available from Luo et al. (2009) as, in their study, BL was chosen as the dimension to normalise the other foot measures. They reported significant differences for BW and HW. ...
... IH is another inconsistent measure when comparing different studies. Luo et al. (2009) reported larger IH for the female population (1.8% BL), but no statistically significant differences were reported by Wunderlich and Cavanagh (2001) and in the first study (Krauss et al. 2008). The follow-up study showed small -yet significantdifferences with smaller values for the female population. ...
The study's purpose was to substantiate findings on sex-related differences in foot morphology focusing on fringe sizes. Altogether, 287 Caucasian adults with long or short feet were scanned. Data were analysed together with data from 847 subjects from a previous study with comparable inclusion criteria and anthropometric data by: (1)comparing absolute measures within 237-277 mm foot length (FL); (2) comparing averaged measures across sizes in % of foot length for 203-323 mm FL; (3) reclassifying the additional subjects into a previously defined foot type classification. Male feet were wider and higher for the same FL. Averaged across sizes, no relevant differences between sexes were found for widths and heights. Slender or flat-pointed foot types were more common in longer feet, shorter feet tended to be bigger. Definitions for 'long' and 'short' are sex-related with an offset of three shoe sizes (EU). Results of this follow-up study on long and short feet can substantiate previous findings mainly described for the most common sizes. STATEMENT OF RELEVANCE: Improper footwear can cause pain and injury and proper fit is a major criterion for shoe buyers. Knowledge about sex-related differences in foot shape is important for shoe design. This study supplements the field of knowledge for very small and large feet.
... Foot measures between men and women were also compared using normalised data, as, for example, in %FL (Wunderlich andCavanagh 2001, Krauss et al. 2008) or BL (Luo et al. 2009). Results of studies related to normalised data showed contradictory results. ...
... For medial BL, Wunderlich and Cavanagh (2001) reported no sex-specific differences, whereas significant differences were reported in the first study (Krauss et al. 2008) and this follow-up study. No data are available from Luo et al. (2009) as, in their study, BL was chosen as the dimension to normalise the other foot measures. They reported significant differences for BW and HW. ...
... IH is another inconsistent measure when comparing different studies. Luo et al. (2009) reported larger IH for the female population (1.8% BL), but no statistically significant differences were reported by Wunderlich and Cavanagh (2001) and in the first study (Krauss et al. 2008). The follow-up study showed small -yet significantdifferences with smaller values for the female population. ...
The purpose of the study was to investigate sex-related differences in foot morphology. In total, 847 subjects were scanned using a 3-D-footscanner. Three different analysis methods were used: (1) comparisons were made for absolute foot measures within 250-270 mm foot length (FL); (2) and for averaged measures (% FL) across all sizes; (3) the feet were then classified using a cluster analysis. Within 250-270 mm FL, male feet were wider and higher (mean differences (MD) 1.3-5.9 mm). No relevant sex-related differences could be found in the comparison of averaged measures (MD 0.3-0.6% FL). Foot types were categorised into voluminous, flat-pointed and slender. Shorter feet were more often voluminous, longer feet were more likely to be narrow and flat. However, the definition of 'short' and 'long' was sex-related; thus, allometry of foot measures was different. For shoe design, measures should be derived for each size and sex separately. Different foot types should be considered to account for the variety in foot shape. Improper footwear can cause foot pain and deformity. Therefore, knowledge of sex-related differences in foot measures is important to assist proper shoe fit in both men and women. The present study supplements the field of knowledge within this context with recommendations for the manufacturing of shoes.
... The clinical application of anthropometric measures of the foot extends to various fields, including orthopedics, podiatry, sports medicine, and footwear design [9,[12][13][14][15]. Anthropometric measures of the foot and ankle have demonstrated clinical utility across various domains of healthcare [16,17]. ...
... Key features of this new technology included swift acquisition, high accuracy, user-friendly interfaces, and relatively low costs [11]. Scanner analysis has allowed the characterization of the shape and size of large series of feet, whether in adults [12] or in children [13], and played an important role in confirming gender differences in foot sizes [14]. In addition to the accurate mapping of the skin surface, when used in combination with specific weightbearing surfaces, they have allowed the characterization of the plantar support of the foot. ...
Background: Our objective was to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the reproducibility of foot and ankle anthropometric measurements with a three-dimensional (3D) optical scanner. Methods: We evaluated thirty-nine different anthropometric parameters obtained with a 3D Laser UPOD-S Full-Foot Scanner in a healthy population of twenty subjects. We determined the variance of the measurements for each foot/ankle, and the average variance among different subjects. Results: For 40 feet and ankles (15 women and 5 men; mean age 35.62 +/− 9.54 years, range 9–75 years), the average variance was 1.4 ± 2 (range 0.1 to 8). Overall, the mean absolute measurement error was <1 mm, with a maximum variance percentage of 8.3%. Forefoot and midfoot circumferences had a low variance <2.5, with variance percentages <1%. Hindfoot circumferences, malleolar heights, and the length of the first and fifth metatarsal to the ground contact points showed the highest variance (range 1 to 7). Conclusions: The UPOD-S Full-Foot optical Scanner achieved a good reproducibility in a large set of foot and ankle anthropometric measurements. It is a valuable tool for clinical and research purposes.
... The clinical application of anthropometric measures of the foot extends to various fields, including orthopedics, podiatry, sports medicine, and footwear design [9,[12][13][14][15]. Anthropometric measures of the foot and ankle have demonstrated clinical utility across various domains of healthcare [16,17]. ...
... Key features of this new technology included swift acquisition, high accuracy, user-friendly interfaces and relatively low costs [11]. Scanner analysis allowed the characterization of shape and size of large series of feet, whether in adults [12] or in children [13], and played an important role in confirming gender differences in foot sizes [14]. In addition to the accurate mapping of the skin surface, when used in combination with specific weight-bearing surfaces, they allowed to characterize the plantar support of the foot. ...
Background: Our objective was to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the reproducibility of foot and ankle anthropometric measurements with a three-dimensional (3D) optical scanner. Methods: We evaluated thirty-nine different anthropometric parameters obtained with 3D Laser UPOD-S Full-Foot Scanner in a healthy population of twenty subjects. We determined the variance of the measurements for each foot/ankle, and the average variance among different subjects. Results: For 40 feet and ankles (15 women and 5 men; mean age 35.62 +/- 9.54 years, range 9-75 years), the average variance was 1.4 ± 2 (range 0,1 to 8). Overall, the mean absolute measurement error was < 1 mm, with a maximum variance percentage of 8.3%. Forefoot and midfoot circumferences had a low variance < 2.5, with variance percentages < 1%. Hindfoot circumferences, malleolar heights, and the length of the first and fifth metatarsal to the ground contact points showed the highest variance (range 1 to 7). Conclusion: This optical scanner achieved a good reproducibility of a large set of foot and ankle anthropometric measurements. It is a valuable tool for clinical and research purposes.
... The included studies originated from 17 different countries: China (n = 41) [4,11,, Japan (n = 6) [16,44,[69][70][71][72], Germany (n = 4) [13,[73][74][75], Romania (n = 3) [8,76,77], South Korea (n = 3) [78][79][80], Spain (n = 3) [22,81,82], United States (n = 3) [83][84][85], Italy (n = 3) [20,21,86], India (n = 2) [5,87], Malaysia (n = 2) [3,88], New Zealand (n = 2) [35,62], Australia (n = 2) [89,90], Belgium (n = 2) [18,91], United Kingdom (n = 2) [92,93], Canada (n = 1) [94], Iran (n = 1) [9], Russia (n = 1) [47], Slovenia (n = 1) [95], and Sweden (n = 1) [75]. Several study designs were utilised in the literature, these included: 51 comparisons of mean differences between groups [3, 5, 8, 9, 22, 30-35, 38-41, 43-45, 47-50, 52-62, 66, 68, 70, 72, 75-78, 80, 83, 85-89, 93-95], 20 cluster/ principal component analyses [5,11,13,16,18,31,32,38,42,51,58,63,64,68,73,79,82,85,87,90], 14 reliability studies [20-22, 34, 37, 39, 48, 49, 53, 75, 78, 88, 90, 91], 10 validation studies [20,21,39,40,46,48,53,65,78,81], one correlation study [33], one comparison of distributions between groups [92], one regression analysis [87], and 11 repeated measures studies were reported, which were grouped into three subcategories; seven studies reported the effect of different loading conditions [4,22,36,39,74,84,90], three reported changes before/after exercise [62,69,71], and one reported different alignment methods [67]. ...
... Two studies reported scanner inter-rater reliability [90,93]. Fourteen studies reported scanner calibration methods [22,30,33,37,39,49,57,59,78,83,84,86,89,93]. ...
Objective
The objectives of this study were to: (i) review and provide a narrative synthesis of three-dimensional (3D) foot surface scanning methodological and statistical analysis protocols, and (ii) develop a set of recommendations for standardising the reporting of 3D foot scanning approaches.
Methods
A systematic search of the SCOPUS, ProQuest, and Web of Science databases were conducted to identify papers reporting 3D foot scanning protocols and analysis techniques. To be included, studies were required to be published in English, have more than ten participants, and involve the use of static 3D surface scans of the foot. Papers were excluded if they reported two-dimensional footprints only, 3D scans that did not include the medial arch, dynamic scans, or derived foot data from a full body scan.
Results
The search yielded 78 relevant studies from 17 different countries. The available evidence showed a large variation in scanning protocols. The subcategories displaying the most variation included scanner specifications (model, type, accuracy, resolution, capture duration), scanning conditions (markers, weightbearing, number of scans), foot measurements and definitions used, and statistical analysis approaches. A 16-item checklist was developed to improve the consistency of reporting of future 3D scanning studies.
Conclusion
3D foot scanning methodological and statistical analysis protocol consistency and reporting has been lacking in the literature to date. Improved reporting of the included subcategories could assist in data pooling and facilitate collaboration between researchers. As a result, larger sample sizes and diversification of population groups could be obtained to vastly improve the quantification of foot shape and inform the development of orthotic and footwear interventions and products.
... Some studies reported differences in feet and gait-related anatomy and habits between males and females [13,14]. Other studies showed that males had a foot longer, higher plantar fascia and heel fat pad thickness compared with females [15,16]. In general, male and female feet are different to varying degrees with respect to arch lateral side of the foot, the first toe, heel-to-toe length, ball length, ball width, ball circumference, malleoli height, and arch dimensions [15,16]. ...
... Other studies showed that males had a foot longer, higher plantar fascia and heel fat pad thickness compared with females [15,16]. In general, male and female feet are different to varying degrees with respect to arch lateral side of the foot, the first toe, heel-to-toe length, ball length, ball width, ball circumference, malleoli height, and arch dimensions [15,16]. These differences should be taken into account in relation greater plantar surface area in static and dynamic conditions in males when compared to females. ...
Citation: de Oliveira BG, Maior AS. Ischemic Preconditioning Contribute to Improving the Static and Dynamic Stability of Male Trained.
... View Crossmark data higher in relation to the male foot (Luo et al., 2009), whereas the younger athletes' feet are still in the process of development. Also, all subjects showed the same order of manifestation of peak load by zones during the time of consecutive contact of the foot surface with the support. ...
... higher in relation to the male foot (Luo et al., 2009), whereas the younger athletes' feet are still in the process of development. Also, all subjects showed the same order of manifestation of peak load by zones during the time of consecutive contact of the foot surface with the support. ...
... In the USA, the feet of the male and female subjects differ significantly in 11 distinct foot measurements 3 . The feet of female subjects are relatively higher, but narrower than those of male subjects in the USA 4 . In Europe, Australia, China, and Taiwan, the feet of female subjects are lower and narrower compared to the male feet of similar foot length [5][6][7][8] . ...
... Previous studies [3][4][5][6][7][8] have reported substantial differences between male and female feet. This study confirms significant differences of mean widths, instep heights, and heel widths between male and female feet in all three geographical regions. ...
For decades, footwear brands have developed products using outdated methods and measurements, working with limited insight into the foot shapes and dimensions of their target customers. The integration of 3D scanning technology into footwear retail stores has made it possible for this research to analyze a database containing a large number of male and female 3D foot scans collected across North America, Europe, and Asia. Foot scans were classified into length classes with 5mm length increments; mean width, instep height, and heel width were calculated for each length class. This study confirms the existence of many statistically significant differences in mean foot measurements amongst the regions and between the sexes, and a large dispersion of foot measurements within each group of customers. Therefore, shoes should be developed separately for each group, region, and sex, and at least 3 shoe widths per length class are required to provide a proper fit for 90% of customers. Beyond this, our analysis asserts that a shoe designed for a single group will fit a different segment of the population in another group, and that existing last grading tables should be updated to reflect the foot dimensions of current consumers.
... Fairy tales guide us to believe that the female foot shape is uniformly petite and a scaled-down version of the male foot. Numerous studies have however illustrated that this is not the case [6,7,12,13,5]. ...
... The first technique involved the use of the multivariate statistical analysis technique, principal component analysis (PCA), on 13 foot measurements extracted from 3D foot scans. This technique is widely used in the analysis of anthropometric data for application in design [4,10,16,3,9,8,2,13]. Due to this technique being based on measurements extracted from the 3D foot data, some shape variances were not represented in the analyzed results. ...
The main challenge inherent in designing for uniformed members remains the accommodation of large variances in anthropometry. Due to the rigid sizing rules characteristic to the footwear industry, designing to accommodate large foot shape variances requires out-of-the-box thinking. The aim of this study was to design female court shoes for uniformed members of the immensely diverse South African (SA) female population. Three dimensional (3D) foot anthropometry was collected for SA females by use of an InFoot™ laser foot scanner. The foot shapes characteristic to the SA female population were analysed by means of two techniques : 1) principal component analysis (PCA) of 13 foot measurements extracted from the 3D foot data, and 2) PCA of all 3D points on foot scans converted to homologeous 3D foot models (Di+). The most prominent foot shape variances observed (irrespective of foot length) included foot width and height, heel to ball of foot width ratio and arch height. In addition, the 3D shape analysis (homologeous foot models) highlighted toe box shape, heel shape and heel bone angle variances. The process of designing and developing female court shoes that will incorporate these foot shape variances included several iterations of last design changes and objective fit evaluations. The original last design was conducted by use of Computer Aided Design (CAD) last design software (Shoemaster QS Custom software) incorporating Cases of 3D foot forms identified to represent the ranges of variances in SA female foot forms. Objective and subjective fit evaluations were conducted on the base size (most popular size). Modifications were made to the last dimensions and shoe construction based on findings of the fit evaluations. A larger scale fit evaluation was conducted incorporating a full size range of the modified court shoe, together with the addition of another court shoe integrating style characteristics more appealing to the user population. The outcome of this fit evaluation highlighted that, although the court shoe provided acceptable accommodation for a large percentage of the SA females, certain foot form variances were not accommodated sufficiently. Currently, the largest design challenge remains with the accommodation of females with flat feet (very low arch heights), broad heels and inverted heel bones. The prevalence of females with very low arch heights was roughly 50 % of the females included in the large scale objective and subjective fit evaluation.
... Como situación control se compararon las medidas tomadas en basal antes de las sesiones de ejercicio. 12 , Longitud pie con dedos (LCD) cm 2 , Longitud pie sin dedos (LP) cm 2 , Área total (AT) 25 mm 2 , Anchura antepié (AnA) 22 cm 2 , Anchura mediopié (AnM) cm 2 , Anchura retropié (AnR) 25 cm 2 A M D velocidades. Se trabajó sólo con los datos de la primera parte (Tabla 2). ...
... Al comparar entre sexos se encontraron diferencias significativas entre hombres y mujeres para todas las variables excepto en el IA, encontrándose estos resultados de acuerdo con los mostrados en otros artículos 15,[20][21][22][23] . Sin embargo, el ejercicio afectó por igual a hombres y mujeres en casi todas las variables, ya que sólo se encontraron interacciones en el ANOVA de 3 factores en la anchura del antepié, que cambiaba de forma distinta entre antes y después del ejercicio (Tabla 5). ...
Introduction: This study aimed to analyze the changes in the footprintrecord produced by a simulated futsal course and continuous running. A secondary purpose was to analyze the response differences between men and women.Methods: Ten active and healthy men (age: 20.4±1.4 years) and 10 women (age: 19.9 ± 1.4 years) volunteered for the study. They performed 3 exercisesessions: an interval running course into a futsal pitch, a continuous running task with the same distance of the course (2500 m) and 30 minutes of continuous running. Before and after the exercise sessions the foot lengths, widths and areas (forefoot, midfoot, rearfoot) were analyzed from the footprint record. Results and conclusions: All the exercise sessions led to significant changes the footprint parameters (0.1-9.1%). Nonetheless, only themidfoot width changed differently by the greater number of steps performed(+8.0%, P < 0.01). The rest of the parameters showed no differences among sessions, thus it seems that, from a given number of steps, the footprint dimensions did not show greater changes, despite the differences in exercise volume or step intensity. Most of these changes were similar between men andwomen.
... Males in general tend to have greater foot dimensions than females (Wunderlich and Cavanagh 2001;Voracek et al. 2007;Krauss et al. 2008, Hong et al. 2011, whereas females tend to have greater instep, medial and lateral malleoli height dimensions than males (Luo et al. 2009). For gender differences in foot shape characteristics, Wunderlich and Cavanagh (2001) compared the between-gender foot shape differences relative to foot length with absolute measures in the common foot length category of 257 mm and reported that males had longer and broader feet than females for the same stature. ...
... Significant foot shape differences between males and females were found in several foot dimensions including the arch dimension, the length in % foot length (% FL) of lateral side of the foot, the first toe and the ball of the foot. Luo et al. (2009) further indicated that females had relatively narrower feet but higher arches than males in the same stature category. Krauss q 2014 Taylor & Francis *Corresponding author. ...
Unlabelled:
This study classifies the foot shapes of Taiwanese using 3D foot scanning data from 2000 males and 1000 females. Nine foot dimensions relative to foot length and absolute measures in the common foot length categories were applied to compare the gender differences. Using foot breadth in % foot length (% FL), ball of foot length in % FL and arch height in % FL as feature parameters, three foot shape types for males and females can be classified. Significant gender differences were found in seven of the nine foot dimensions. Females had greater ball of foot length than males (0.2% FL). When comparing feet of the same foot length, males had greater breadth, girth and height dimensions than females, except for toe height. In addition, ethnic differences in foot shape were also observed. The findings can provide very useful information for building gender-specific shoe lasts and designing footwear insoles.
Practitioner summary:
3D foot scanning data of 2000 males and 1000 females were classified into three different footshapes for males and females, respectively. Gender and ethnic differences on foot shape were also compared. The finding scan provide very useful information for gender-specific shoe last design and footwear production.
... Scan data has been used to assess associations between demographic factors and differences in foot shape variables. The effects of sex have been tested in a number of studies [23][24][25]. In a sample of 291 older Japanese adults it was found that, after normalization to foot length, instep and navicular height was greater in males, and the transverse plane angle of the hallux was greater in females [23]. ...
The external shape of the foot and ankle can provide indications about its underlying health and function, and is important when designing orthotic interventions for pathologies affecting the lower limb. Until recently, assessing the overall shape of the foot has been a largely subjective task, with only a few linear or circumferential measurements used, or time-consuming and unreliable plaster casts required to capture the full shape of the foot. 3D surface scanning allows a detailed digital model of the whole foot and ankle to be easily captured, and this model can subsequently be utilized and analyzed in numerous ways. Many technologies fall under the umbrella of 3D surface scanning, and several have been shown to be fast, accurate, and reproducible in the context of foot and ankle research. Given this, 3D surface scanning is being increasingly utilized in studies involving custom footwear and orthotics. The technology lends itself to capturing large sets of data and has been employed in several epidemiological studies. This chapter covers the development of 3D surface scanning, its foot and ankle biomechanics-related applications, and potential future uses.
... These differences in morphology have been seen to influence frontal and sagittal plane joint angles of biological females when compared to biological males while running which can have an impact on runningrelated injuries [16][17][18][19]. One sex-related anatomical difference in the lower limb, which has been studied extensively, is found in the feet showing a difference between overall length, anatomical ball width, heel width, toe height, and instep height [20][21][22][23]. ...
Alterations in running shoe design have been studied and used in the prevention of injury and enhancement of performance allowing running shoe companies to market to a variety of runners based on skill level, foot-strike pattern, and even sex. These alterations have been shown to affect biomechanical and physiological variables associated with running. Some shoe companies have designed shoes specifically for biological female runners due to the morphological differences found between male and female feet. The purpose of this study is to determine if sex-specific running shoes can alter female runner biomechanics or physiology. Female runners were asked to run in the male and female models of the Altra Torin 4 Plush shoe to determine if there were differences in ground reaction forces (GRFs), sagittal plane joint angles and moments, oxygen consumption (VO2), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and perceived level of comfort while running; There were no significant differences in GRFs, sagittal joint angles and moments, VO2, RER, or perceived comfort; There were no differences in measured biomechanical or physiological variables between the female and male version of the shoes suggesting that the alterations made to the female-specific shoe do not provide any additional benefit to female recreational runners.
... Ola [15] Özellikle ortopedik yaralanmaları olan, sinir-kas-iskelet sisteminde bir kısım bozukluk sahibi olanlar ile artrit ve diyabetes mellitus gibi ayakları ve bilekleri doğrudan etkileyen hastalıklar için bu durum daha fazla hayati bir bileşen haline gelmektedir [17]. Bununla birlikte yine yüksek performans gerektiren, atletik, ortopedik, terapötik ayakkabıların cinsiyetler için de farklılık göstermesi beklenir. ...
... Foot shape is known to be different by sex in general. While absolute foot measurements are significantly different between female and male, foot dimension normalized to foot length also has shown noticeable sex differences (Luo et al., 2009;Wunderlich and Cavanagh, 2001). European females have a significantly smaller ball width, heel width, instep height, and toe height than those of males within the same foot length categories . ...
Firefighters have reported their protective boots to be bulky and ill-fitting, which they believe restrict the lower body movement on the unpredictable fireground. This study used 3D foot scanning to compare the shape of firefighters' feet to the general population, the shape of female firefighters’ feet to males, and the impact of the heavy fire gear on foot shape. The results found the foot breadth of firefighters was larger than the general population and the feet of female firefighters were slimmer than males. Furthermore, it revealed that the feet of firefighters became longer, wider, and flatter when bearing the weight of fire gear. Protective boots should be designed based on the foot shape and dimensions of the actual population, with consideration of sex differences and the impact of weight-bearing for their safety.
... The result is consistent with that in Wunderlich and Cavanagh [41], in which males have a larger bimalleolar breadth and instep circumference with the same FL. These results indicate that the foot shape of males and females are not simply scaled for each dimension [41,73]. Males tend to weigh more so their contact area is significantly larger than their female counterparts under each weight bearing condition. ...
In-depth analyses of foot surface measurements upon weight bearing are crucial to understand how the dorsal and plantar surfaces of the foot deform during motion to enhance the fit of footwear, which is particularly important for diabetic patients with stringent fit requirements to redistribute the plantar weight forces. This study analyzes diabetic foot deformations under 3 different weight bearing conditions (no weight bearing, half weight bearing, and 80% weight bearing) by using a novel foot scanning method that enables efficient scanning of the dorsal and plantar surfaces of the foot simultaneously. The feet of 48 patients with diabetes mellitus (DM) are scanned. With increased load on the feet, the width of the forefoot increases by 9.7%-10.4%, height of the midfoot decreases by 15.1%-18.2%, forefoot and midfoot rotate to the medial side by 16.9%-23.9% while the rearfoot rotates to the lateral side by 15.2% simultaneously, and the plantar of the foot increases contact with the floor by 11.4%-23.0%. Gender differences in foot shape are also found between males and females, males have a broader foot than females for the same foot length. Precise anthropometric information of foot changes and deformation therefore enables adequate foot protection, fit and comfort when designing footwear. This research contributes to shoe design considerations that focus on the deformation of the foot under different loads.
... All studies included in this review focused on modelling the healthy foot of a male subject(s), with none modelling female foot geometry. It is well documented that PUs affect both men and women and that men have longer and broader feet than women and it is not correct to assume that this is algebraically scalable (i.e. a female foot is a smaller version of a male) [51,52]. Secondly, with the exception of the diabetic foot modelling by Levy et al. none of the studies assessed the implication of other foot deformities (e.g. ...
Pressure ulcers (PUs) are a major public health challenge, having a significant impact on healthcare service and patient quality of life. Computational biomechanical modelling has enhanced PU research by facilitating the investigation of pressure responses in subcutaneous tissue and skeletal muscle. Extensive work has been undertaken on PUs on patients in the seated posture, but research into heel ulcers has been relatively neglected. The aim of this review was to address the key challenges that exist with developing an effective FE foot model for PU prevention and the confusion surrounding the wide range of outputs reported.Nine FE foot studies investigating heel ulcers in bedrest were identified and reviewed. Six studies modelled the posterior part of the heel, two included the calf and foot, and one modelled the whole-body. Due to the complexity of the foot anatomy, all studies involved simplification or assumptions regarding parts of the foot structure, boundary conditions and material parameters. Simulations aimed to better understand the stresses and strains exhibited in the heel soft tissues of the healthy foot. The biomechanical properties of soft tissue derived from experimental measurements are critical for developing a realistic model and consequently guiding clinical decisions.Yet, little to no validation was reported in each of the studies. If FE models are to address future research questions and clinical applications, then sound verification and validation of these models is required to ensure accurate conclusions and prediction of patient outcomes. Recommendations and considerations for future FE studies are therefore proposed.
... While specific setups have been proposed [21,22], very few automatic measurement systems capable to accurately measure foot morphology from 3D scans have been reported. Most of these systems require the positioning of anatomical landmarks on the foot [17,23,24], or their manual identification on 3D scans [25,26]. Therefore, while 3D scanning technology is replacing physical casts with digital replica, foot measurements are still operatordependent. ...
Background
Foot healthcare research is focusing increasingly on personalized orthotic and prosthetic devices to address patient-specific morphology and ailments. Customization requires advanced 3D image processing tools to assess foot and leg geometrical parameters and alterations. The aim of this study is to present a new software for the measurement of the foot shape from 3D scans of the foot plantar surface.
Methods
A Kinect-based scanning device was used to acquire the 3D foot shape of 44 healthy subjects. A software was developed in Matlab to measure the foot main morphological parameters from foot scans. Principal Component Analysis was used to orientate the foot scans with respect to the same reference system. Accuracy, via percentage errors and Bland-Altman plots, and correlation of the software-based foot parameters were assessed against manual measurements. A normalized Arch Volume Index (nAVI) was proposed and correlated to the traditional Arch Index. Test-retest Intraclass Correlation Coefficient was used to assess the inter-session repeatability of foot measurements.
Results
The average percentage error between software and manual measurements was 1.2 ± 0.8% for foot length, 9.1 ± 3.7% for foot width, 22.3 ± 13.5% for arch height and 23.1 ± 12.7% for arch depth. Very strong correlations were observed for foot length ( R = 0.97) and foot width ( R = 0.83), and strong correlations for arch height ( R = 0.62) and arch depth ( R = 0.74). nAVI was negatively correlated to the Arch Index ( R = -0.54). A small difference was found between software and manual measurements of foot length (Δ = 0.92 mm), a software overestimation of foot width (Δ = 8.6 mm) and underestimation of arch height (Δ = -1.4%) and arch depth (Δ = -11%). Moderate to excellent repeatability was observed for all measurements (0.67–0.99).
Conclusions
The present software appears capable to estimate the foot main morphological parameters without the need for skin markers or for identification of anatomical landmarks. Moreover, measurements are not affected by the foot orientation on the scanning device. The good accuracy and repeatability of measurements make the software a potentially useful operator-independent tool for the assessment of foot morphological alterations and for orthotics customization. nAVI may be used for a more realistic classification of foot types when 3D foot images are available.
... The fact that a high percentage of men wore their footwear continuously may also contribute to the increased TP incidence. [25][26][27] The reason why TP occurs more frequently in men is still unclear, but human factors (e.g. men tend to sweat more than women), 28 occupational factors and factors related to lifestyle habits may contribute to the difference between men and women in terms of frequency of footwear use and TP incidence. ...
The relation between tinea pedis and the internal environment of footwear has not been scientifically proven. This study aimed to determine whether the internal environment of footwear affects the incidence of tinea pedis and tinea unguium. This cross‐sectional, observatory study involved 420 outpatients who were categorized into non‐tinea, tinea pedis or tinea unguium groups based on mycological analysis. External climatic conditions, and temperature, humidity and dew points inside the patients’ footwear were recorded. Univariate and multivariate analyses were used to determine independent risk factors for tinea pedis and tinea unguium. A significant correlation was found between high temperature/high humidity and dew point of the internal environment of the footwear and the season. Furthermore, those who wore footwear with internal environments characterized by high temperature, high humidity, high‐temperature/high‐humidity and high dew point values had a significantly higher incidence of tinea pedis. The internal dew point correlated with the incidence of tinea pedis, whereas the external temperature correlated with the incidence of tinea unguium. The internal humidity and dew point of footwear as well as the frequency with which footwear with a high‐temperature/high‐humidity internal environment were worn was significantly higher in men than in women. In conclusion, the internal environment of footwear is a risk factor for tinea pedis, and this environment is affected by the season. Moreover, the frequency of tinea pedis among men is related to the internal environment of footwear. The dew point is an appropriate index for evaluating temperature and humidity in relation to tinea pedis.
... Various studies have reported that the feet of females and males differ with respect to foot length, ball length and arch dimensions [31]. Agnihotri et al. determined sex by foot dimensions, recruiting 125 males and 125 females to their study. ...
... Where Barroco et al. studied metatarsal length in 83 male and 83 female normal feet (n = 332 ft), our study examined metatarsal length on a total of 15 normal feet from a pooled sample of male and female radiographs. It is well established that on average male foot is inherently longer than that of a female [40,41]. ...
Background
The relationship between metatarsal length and various forefoot pathologies is a topic of contention in Orthopaedics. The results of such investigations have been shown to depend on the method of metatarsal length measurement used. The aim of this study was to assess the inter- and intra-rater reliability of the Maestro and Barroco metatarsal length measurement techniques.
Methods
A retrospective and quantitative study was performed on 15 randomly selected radiographs to determine the reliability of the two measurement techniques across all five metatarsals (M1 to M5). This was done at one week apart for three weeks by three raters. The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), and the 95% lower confidence limit (95% LCL) were calculated.
Results
The Maestro and Barroco techniques produced high to very high ICC vlaues for length measurements across all metatarsals. The 95% lower confidence limit for inter-rater measurements ranged between 0.92–0.98 for Maestro’s and 0.86–0.99 for Barroco’s technique. For intra-rater measurements the 95% LCL ranged between 0.83–0.99 for Maestro’s and 0.75–0.99 for Barroco’s technique.
Conclusions
Our study found that both the Maestro and Barroco methods of measurements produced high to very high inter- and intra-rater reliability. Both methods may be suitable for the use of peri-operative planning and clinical research relating metatarsal length and forefoot pathology. Besides having a more simplistic method of application, the novel Barroco technique is comparable to the more established Maestro method in both repeatability and reproducibility.
... The association with age may reflect caution regarding the possible detrimental effects of highly controlling foot orthoses on skin integrity or balance in an older person [18,19]. However, the association with sex is unclear, as although there are some morphological differences between the feet of men and women [20,21], no sex-specific differences in foot posture have been reported [22,23] and there is no evidence that responses to foot orthoses differ according to sex. ...
Background
Foot orthoses are widely used in the prevention and treatment of foot disorders. The aim of this study was to describe characteristics of custom-made foot orthosis prescriptions from a Australian podiatric orthotic laboratory.
Methods
One thousand consecutive foot orthosis prescription forms were obtained from a commercial prescription foot orthosis laboratory located in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (Footwork Podiatric Laboratory). Each item from the prescription form was documented in relation to orthosis type, cast correction, arch fill technique, cast modifications, shell material, shell modifications and cover material. Cluster analysis and discriminant function analysis were applied to identify patterns in the prescription data.
Results
Prescriptions were obtained from 178 clinical practices across Australia and Hong Kong, with patients ranging in age from 5 to 92 years. Three broad categories (‘clusters’) were observed that were indicative of increasing ‘control’ of rearfoot pronation. A combination of five variables (rearfoot cast correction, cover shape, orthosis type, forefoot cast correction and plantar fascial accommodation) was able to identify these clusters with an accuracy of 70%. Significant differences between clusters were observed in relation to age and sex of the patient and the geographic location of the prescribing clinician.
Conclusion
Foot orthosis prescriptions are complex, but can be broadly classified into three categories. Selection of these prescription subtypes appears to be influenced by both patient factors (age and sex) and clinician factors (clinic location).
Electronic supplementary material
The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13047-017-0204-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
... Для оценки объемных размеров стопы (см) у больных с АШ проводилось измерение максимальной окружности в области плюснефаланговых суставов и в среднем отделе. Длина стопы, ее ширина (в переднем и среднем отделах), а также ширина подъема автоматически рассчитывались при компьютерной педографии на платформе emed a50 (Novel, Германия) аналогично методике, примененной [7,8]. Пример результатов педографического измерения геометрических параметров стопы высокого риска (слева) и стопы Шарко (справа) приведен на рисунке 1: педограммы с нанесенной разметкой, по которой рассчитываются представленные в таблице по центру рисунка параметры. ...
Aim.
To evaluate the use of orthopaedic shoes in patients with diabetes with foot ulcers and/or previous minor amputations or Charcot arthropathy (CA) and factors influencing this use.
Patients and methods.
One hundred twenty-one patients with diabetes (55 men and 66 women; 36 in the inactive stage of CA) were included. A questionnaire based on footwear was used to evaluate patients’ compliance. Daily activity and the severity of the foot deformities were recorded. Further, foot geometry and forefoot and midfoot circumferences were measured.
Results.
Fifty-eight patients did not use orthopaedic shoes. Users and non-users did not differ in terms of gender and type of diabetes. The causes of refusal included ill-fitting shoes (56%), ugly appearance (11%), traumatisation with shoes (11%), inability to walk (5%) and other causes (17%). The percentages of patients in each category of deformity severity were mild (41.2%), moderate (37%) and severe (54%. Frequency of refusal of CA vs non-CA patients: 72.2% and 43.5%; with severe deformities,70.8% vs 34%; with moderate deformities, 83.3% vs 57.2% (p < 0.05 for all). In patients with CA, the only significant parameter was the difference in the circumference of the midfoot between the affected and non-affected foot; in CA users and non-users, this parameter was 1.93 ± 1.25 vs 0.70 ± 0.83 cm, respectively (р = 0.01).
Conclusions.
The high frequency of refusing to wear orthopaedic shoes is related to severe foot deformities and the inability to accommodate them in off-the-shelf footwear. Most of the patients used orthopaedic shoes for outdoor use, but the frequency of use was low. Shoe compliance did not depend on gender but increased with ageing, low levels of daily activity and in patients with severe deformities. Patients with CA are characterised with extremely low compliance. In this group, foot parameters and other objective parameters did not rely on footwear compliance.
... Krauss et al. (2008) classified European feet into three types including voluminous, flat and slender. Luo et al. (2009) reported that American females had narrow and high arches and American males had broad and low arch foot shapes. Hong et al. (2011) found that among the Chinese people, short feet tended to be associated with voluminous feet, and narrow and flat feet tended to be associated with long feet. ...
This study compares foot shape and foot dimensions between Taiwanese and Japanese females. One hundred Taiwanese and 100 Japanese female 3D foot scanning data were used for comparison. To avoid the allometry effect, data from 23 Taiwanese and 19 Japanese with foot length between 233 to 237 mm were used for shape comparison. Homologous models created for the right feet of the 42 subjects were analyzed by Multidimensional Scaling. The results showed that there were significant differences in the forefoot shape between the two groups, and Taiwanese females had slightly wider feet with straighter big toe than Japanese females. The results of body and foot dimension comparison indicated that Taiwanese females were taller, heavier and had larger feet than Japanese females, while Japanese females had significantly larger toe 1 angle. Since some Taiwanese shoemakers adopt the Japanese shoe sizing system for making shoes, appropriateness of the shoe sizing system was also discussed. The present results provide very useful information for improving shoe last design and footwear fit for Taiwanese females.
... To investigate individual factors, such as gender, demographic data and habits, affecting the foot shape are helpful for shoes and last designing. For gender effect, most of references were reported that males have greater foot dimensions than females [3][4][5], but few studies have reverse results in foot breath [6][7]. These studies were conducted in different area, and the ethnic differences might be a reason to interrupt the inconsistent results [8]. ...
This study aims to use 936 females' 3D foot anthropometric data to cluster foot shapes and to develop a new sizing system. Twelve-foot dimensions including foot length, ball of foot length, outside ball of foot length, foot breadth, heel breadth, ball circumference, instep circumference, toe height, arch height, instep height, toe 1 angle and toe 5 angle were collected. The PCA results indicated that foot breadth, foot length and arch height were selected as the three principal components. The percentage of total variance explained by the 3 principal components was 76.65 %. Using K-means clustering can classify female subjects' foot into 3 foot types. The new sizing system had less number of sizes, high coverage rate and provided updated foot dimensions as comparing with the current sizing system (CNS 4800-S1093). The manufacturer can apply these results for shoe last design and footwear production with better fitness and less production cost.
... In developing safety shoes researchers must consider a wide variability in foot anatomy including adjusting for foot length to width ratio (Hawes and Sovak, 1994), sex (Luo et al., 2009), body weight and age (Scott et al., 2007) of wearer. Many manufacturers already account for this variability by providing multiple-width systems along with models for men or women. ...
For subjects wearing safety shoes, an optimizing effect on the muscular effort can be achieved by applying weight-adjusted cushioning elements if they are worn for longer periods of time. Without optimal damping this effect is reversed: the muscular effort increases throughout continuing activity. Thus weight-adjusted cushioning elements can help to prevent employees from unnecessary increased muscle activity and therefore from health consequences.
... In developing safety shoes researchers must consider a wide variability in foot anatomy including adjusting for foot length to width ratio (Hawes and Sovak, 1994), sex (Luo et al., 2009), body weight and age (Scott et al., 2007) of wearer. Many manufacturers already account for this variability by providing multiple-width systems along with models for men or women. ...
... To investigate individual factors, such as gender, demographic data and habits, affecting the foot shape are helpful for shoes and last designing. For gender effect, most of references were reported that males have greater foot dimensions than females [3][4][5], but few studies have reverse results in foot breath [6][7]. These studies were conducted in different area, and the ethnic differences might be a reason to interrupt the inconsistent results [8]. ...
3D foot anthropometric data was collected and classified into several foot shapes. A 3D foot anthropometric database which contains 1835 male right foot scanning images was used. The subjects aged from 18 to 60 years old. A 3D foot scanner was used to collect 12 foot dimensions including foot length, ball of foot length, outside ball of foot length, foot breadth, heel breadth, ball circumference, instep circumference, toe height, navicular height, instep height, toe 1 angle and toe 5 angle. The principle component analysis (PCA) and K-means cluster analysis was applied to classify male subjects' foot shapes. The PCA results indicated that foot breadth, foot length and navicular height were selected as three principle components. The percentage of total variance explained by the 3 principle components was 72.96%. The use of K-means clustering can classify male subjects' foot into 6 foot types. In addition, a new foot sizing system was developed for Taiwanese males. Comparing the new sizing system with the current CNS 4800-S1093 sizing system, the new sizing system can reduce the size numbers, and provide updated foot dimensions. Thus, the manufacturer can apply these results for shoe last design and footwear production with better fitness and lower cost.
... Previous studies have measured the differences of absolute foot dimensions between men and women (Manna et al., 2001) or attempted to distinguish gender differences in foot dimensions relative to stature (Wunderlich & Cavanagh, 2001;Fessler et al., 2005;Luo et al., 2009). Krauss et al. (2008) suggested that it is important to compare absolute foot dimensions within common foot length (FL) categories and relative foot dimension in %FL across all sizes for sex-related shoe recommendations. ...
One important extrinsic factor that causes foot deformity and pain in women is footwear. Women's sports shoes are designed as smaller versions of men's shoes. Based on this, the current study aims to identify foot shape in 1,236 Chinese young adult men and 1,085 Chinese young adult women. Three-dimensional foot shape data were collected through video filming. Nineteen foot shape variables were measured, including girth (4 variables), length (4 variables), width (3 variables), height (7 variables), and angle (1 variable). A comparison of foot measures within the range of the common foot length (FL) categories indicates that women showed significantly smaller values of foot measures in width, height, and girth than men. Three foot types were classified, and distributions of different foot shapes within the same FL were found between women and men. Foot width, medial ball length, ball angle, and instep height showed significant differences among foot types in the same FL for both genders. There were differences in the foot shape between Chinese young women and men, which should be considered in the design of Chinese young adults' sports shoes.
... A similar study by the same group involved the scanning of the feet of 2867 children and again the authors were able to categorise the results into three foot types [20]. Luo et al [21] used 3D scanning to assess the differences in male and female feet and found that men tend to have longer and wider feet than women, in line with results from previous studies that took manual measurements [22]. ...
A number of surface scanning systems with the ability to quickly and easily obtain 3D digital representations of the foot are now commercially available. This review aims to present a summary of the reported use of these technologies in footwear development, the design of customised orthotics, and investigations for other ergonomic purposes related to the foot.
The PubMed and ScienceDirect databases were searched. Reference lists and experts in the field were also consulted to identify additional articles. Studies in English which had 3D surface scanning of the foot as an integral element of their protocol were included in the review.
Thirty-eight articles meeting the search criteria were included. Advantages and disadvantages of using 3D surface scanning systems are highlighted. A meta-analysis of studies using scanners to investigate the changes in foot dimensions during varying levels of weight bearing was carried out.
Modern 3D surface scanning systems can obtain accurate and repeatable digital representations of the foot shape and have been successfully used in medical, ergonomic and footwear development applications. The increasing affordability of these systems presents opportunities for researchers investigating the foot and for manufacturers of foot related apparel and devices, particularly those interested in producing items that are customised to the individual. Suggestions are made for future areas of research and for the standardization of the protocols used to produce foot scans.
... They reported this method with R 2 equal to 0.81 with some measurement issues. With the advent of the 3-D scanning technology, 3-D foot form could now be measured with great accuracy, and had been used widely in many foot researches (Witana et al., 2006;Hu et al., 2007;Xiong et al., 2008;Luo et al., 2009;Park et al., 2009;Xiong et al., 2009;Yu and Tu, 2009;Han et al., 2010;Telfer and Woodburn, 2010;Xiong et al., 2010;Yu et al., 2010;Ma et al., 2011;Lee et al., 2012;Rodrigo et al., 2012;Sims et al., 2012;Telfer et al., 2012). Nevertheless, the procedure is still time consuming, and sometimes cumbersome for patients. ...
The purpose of this study is to establish a foot surface area (FSA) database and estimation formula based on 3-D foot scan data. For each gender, 135 subjects stratified in five statures and three body weights were drawn. The foot was measured using a high-resolution 3-D foot scanner, of which the precision and accuracy is within 1%. The FSA was computed by the triangular mesh summation method and five 1-D foot measurements were extracted automatically to be used as candidate estimators for FSA estimation formula. The results of the FSA measurements are tabulated on fifteen strata for the Male, the Female and the Total (the two genders combined). The comparison of these FSA measurements with previous studies shows that previous studies underestimated the FSA approximately 4.06% for the Total (for the Male, 6.93%; for the Female, 0.82%). Regression analyses using these five 1-D foot measurements were performed. The results show that foot-length and ball-girth are effective estimators of FSA for the total (FSA=1.043 x foot-length x ball-girth, R(2)=95.4%). A test on the necessity of gender-specific formula indicated that no gender-specific formula is needed, and the formula for the total is good for both genders.
Bu çalışma, Türkiye insanı ayak antropometrik özelliklerini tespit etmek ve Türk Ayak Numaralandırma Sistemini oluşturmak için 3B görüntüleme teknikleri ile yürütülen öncü bir araştırmanın, 42 numara erkek ayak veri analizinin sonuçlarını sunmaktadır. 15-77 yaş aralığında erkek ayağının sağ ve sol 11 boyutta (toplam 22 adet) antropometrik verileri, %95 güven aralığında %5 doğruluk için gerekli 240 örneklem büyüklüğünde incelenmiştir. Ayak topuk genişliği ve çevresi, ayak konturpiye çevresi ve ayak kısa topuk çevresi değişkenleri etkisiyle sağ ve sol ayakta bu boyutlarda farklılık olduğu görülmüştür. 11 boyuttaki orta değer verileri, uluslararası veri tabanları ve Mondopoint numaralandırma sistemi ile karşılaştırıldığında, özellikle genişlik boyutlarında standartların üzerindedir. Bulgular, Türkiye’de yaşayan insanlara özel numaralandırma siteminin gerekliğini hem toplum sağlığı hem de ekonomik açıdan önemini bir kez daha vurgular niteliktedir.
Objective : to investigate the characteristics of the distribution of pressure under the foot during walking in swimmers of various ages and experience.
Materials and methods . The study involved swimmers aged 11.4 ± 1.9 years, of both sexes, with at least 4 years of training experience (n = 23) and masters of sports in swimming, 19.3 ± 1.5 years old with 12.2 ± 1.3 years of experience (n = 23). The study used a podometric footscan® platform from RSscan company. Kinematic and dynamic parameters of pressure under the foot during natural walking were recorded. The focus was on the indicators of contact with the support in the zones of the metatarsal part of the foot. The peak pressure value in each metatarsal zone and the time to reach it were taken into account.
Results . In the course of the study, the order in which the maximum pressure under the metatarsal zones manifests was understood, which appeared in a sequence: fifth, fourth, first, third and second metatarsal zones. It was found that in young athletes the transverse arch of the foot during walking undergoes a relatively greater load than in older athletes. Moreover, relatively high values were noted in the zones of the second and third metatarsals in both age groups.
Conclusions : the swimmer’s foot experiences a significant professional transformation associated with specific sports activities, which dictates the need to introduce certain preventive and corrective measures into sports training.
When found at crime scenes, footprints may be evidentially valuable and can assist with the identity of a perpetrator based on their features and/or measurements. Footprints can be either static (made standing) or dynamic (made while walking). While extensive research has been performed on the linear measurements obtained from static and dynamic footprints, research on the comparisons between the contact area of static and dynamic footprints in the forensic context are limited. The present study compares the contact area of static and dynamic bare footprints to determine if statistically significant differences exist between the two. Static and dynamic footprints were obtained from a sample of randomly-selected 461 Jatt Sikh adults (230 males and 231 females) of Indian origin between the ages of 19 and 32 years. The footprint contact area was calculated from each footprint (excluding the toes) using a PedoGRID® sheet. No statistically significant differences were observed between the contact area of static and dynamic footprints for each foot among males and females. However, statistically significant differences between both the sexes were found in the footprint contact areas of both footprint types. The right dynamic footprint contact area was found to be the most predictive measurement for classifying and estimating sex from a footprint’s contact area. The study has implications in the analysis of footprints recovered from the crime scenes.
The purpose of this study was to explore effective metrics for differentiating levels ofleg length discrepancy (LLD) using a wearable device.
Design:
A wearable device for measuring ground reaction forces and kinetic features was developed in this study.
Participants:
Eight volunteers without previously diagnosed LLD walked along a 120.0 m walkway with a 2.5 cm and 3 cm foot spacer to simulate LLD.
Main outcome measures:
The p-values of thirteen kinetic and kinematic metrics between normal and LLD walking.
Results:
Difference in stance time duration, difference in heel reposition time, and ratio difference of loading effect showed statistical difference between normal walking and simulated LLD walking.
Conclusion:
The metrics with statistical difference may serve as effective indicators oflow levels ofLLD and be implemented into a point-of-care system for gait analysis.
Während des Tragens von Sicherheitsschuhen lässt sich mit zunehmender Tragedauer ein deutlicher Optimierungseffekt im muskulären Aufwand bei Verwendung einer gewichtsangepassten Fersendämpfung nachweisen, der ohne Verwendung dieser Dämpfung nicht nur nicht, sondern sogar in umgekehrter Richtung sichtbar wird: ohne Dämpfung erhöht sich der muskuläre Aufwand mit längerer Tragedauer. Eine gewichtsangepasste Fersendämpfung kann den Arbeitnehmer somit vor unnötiger Mehrbelastung der Muskulatur und daraus resultierenden gesundheitlichen Folgen bewahren.
Abstract
For subjects wearing safety shoes, an optimizing effect on the muscular effort can be achieved by applying weight-adjusted cushioning elements if they are worn for longer periods of time. Without optimal damping this effect is reversed: the muscular effort increases throughout continuing activity. Thus weight-adjusted cushioning elements can help to prevent employees from unnecessary increased muscle activity and therefore from health consequences.
Foot volume (FV) is an important measurement in clinics or industrial applications. Direct measurement and anthropometric formula were methods usually used to evaluate FV. However, direct measurement is usually cumbersome for patients. Three anthropometric formulas were proposed to estimate FV, including wedge method, prism method, and figure-of-eight linear regression model, but none of them could estimate FV with good accuracy and ease of use. The purpose of this study is to derive a formula to estimate FV easily and accurately. 3-D foot forms of the right feet of 122 males and 96 females were scanned with good accuracy. FV and nine 1-D foot measurements were extracted from these 3-D foot scans. From these foot scans, a new FV estimation formula based on foot length, ball girth, and instep girth was derived with R2 as 0.973. It is of simple and geometrically meaningful form, and is easier to be applied in clinics or industrial applications with accuracy.
Relevance to industry
Foot Volume (FV) is an important measurement in clinics or industrial applications. This study had provided a simple FV estimation formula with R2 as 0.973 by three 1-D foot measurements.
Using footwear often becomes troublesome and creates many problems. Most of these problems are associated with the wearing of ill-fitting footwear, as it leads to biomechanical imbalance and ultimately give rise to different foot problems. In the present investigation different foot problems, viz., discomfort, pain and other hazards related to the use of footwear have been evaluated and attempts have been made to study different foot dimensions of men and women that are related to the design of footwear. For the present study different foot dimensions of both right and left feet of the subjects were measured on 300 Bengalee (Indian) subjects having the age range of 20-35 years. The subjects reported that they had got discomfort, pain, blister and corn due to using different footwear. It was noted that the occurrence of these problems in right foot was greater than that in left foot. There was no significant correlation between foot troubles and type of footwear. Results also showed that there was no significant difference in most of the foot dimensions between left foot and right foot. However, significant difference (P < 0.001) in all foot dimensions was observed between male and female subjects. Correlation coefficient among different foot dimensions has also been evaluated and it was noted that foot length was highly correlated with stature and foot volume, particularly in left foot. Footwear should be made according to the foot dimensions of the user population. The database collected from the Bengalee (Indian) population may be a helpful guide for manufacturing different footwear.
A retrospective case-control study into the risk factors for injury during basic military training was conducted at the Recruit Training Unit, Royal Australian Air Force Base Edinburgh, South Australia. Case subjects were recruits suffering a musculoskeletal injury during the course, severe enough to result in backcoursing (being delayed and joining a later course) and usually requiring the loss of 5 days of training. Control subjects were 629 recruits selected randomly from recruits who were not case subjects from the same period of Jan 1, 1985 to Dec 31, 1990. Two hundred thirty-eight cases were identified (2.7% of the recruit population), of which 123 were overuse-type injuries and 115 acute-type injuries. Most injuries occurred in the first 2 weeks of training. Bivariate and logistic regression analysis of possible risk factors for injury was conducted, both for all case subjects and for the subgroup of case subjects with overuse injuries. Statistically significant associations were identified for female gender, body mass index >26.9, winter training, a history of lower limb injury, and the presence of a lower limb deformity. All these associations were stronger for overuse injury, and preenlistment physical activity was also significantly associated with overuse injury. No significant association was found for height, weight, age, smoking, or gender makeup of courses. Most striking was a large rise in overuse injury incidence in women over the period of study, from 0.2% in 1985 to 8.8% in 1990. Reasons for this increase may include "social pathogenesis." (C)1994 The American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine
Females are different from males in structure and biomechanics. The foot in the female tends to have a narrower heel in relationship to the forefoot and overall is narrower than a man's foot, relative to length. Females fend to pronate their feet more and have smaller Achilles tendons than males, both factors having implications for shoe fit. Although shoes have been worn for thousands of years for the main purpose of protecting feet from. the environment, recent studies have implicated shoes as the principal cause of forefoot disorders seen in females. Several authors have reported the harmful effects of shoewear and the greatest factor is a shoe that is improperly fit. With respect to foot disorders in the female, the current study will explore anatomy, biomechanics, common forefoot disorders, and shoewear through the ages, athletic shoewear, and a toe strengthening program.
The principles which are fundamental to the design of Army field boots are presented and discussed. An experimental boot design believed to possess the most suitable features for Army field use under a wide variety of terrain and climatic conditions is proposed. (Author)
The main intent of this paper is to introduce a new statistical procedure for testing a complete sample for normality. The test statistic is obtained by dividing the square of an appropriate linear combination of the sample order statistics by the usual symmetric estimate of variance. This ratio is both scale and origin invariant and hence the statistic is appropriate for a test of the composite hypothesis of normality. Testing for distributional assumptions in general and for normality in particular has been a major area of continuing statistical research-both theoretically and practically. A possible cause of such sustained interest is that many statistical procedures have been derived based on particular distributional assumptions-especially that of normality. Although in many cases the techniques are more robust than the assumptions underlying them, still a knowledge that the underlying assumption is incorrect may temper the use and application of the methods. Moreover, the study of a body of data with the stimulus of a distributional test may encourage consideration of, for example, normalizing transformations and the use of alternate methods such as distribution-free techniques, as well as detection of gross peculiarities such as outliers or errors. The test procedure developed in this paper is defined and some of its analytical properties described in ? 2. Operational information and tables useful in employing the test are detailed in ? 3 (which may be read independently of the rest of the paper). Some examples are given in ? 4. Section 5 consists of an extract from an empirical sampling study of the comparison of the effectiveness of various alternative tests. Discussion and concluding remarks are given in ?6. 2. THE W TEST FOR NORMALITY (COMPLETE SAMPLES) 2 1. Motivation and early work This study was initiated, in part, in an attempt to summarize formally certain indications of probability plots. In particular, could one condense departures from statistical linearity of probability plots into one or a few 'degrees of freedom' in the manner of the application of analysis of variance in regression analysis? In a probability plot, one can consider the regression of the ordered observations on the expected values of the order statistics from a standardized version of the hypothesized distribution-the plot tending to be linear if the hypothesis is true. Hence a possible method of testing the distributional assumptionis by means of an analysis of variance type procedure. Using generalized least squares (the ordered variates are correlated) linear and higher-order
From a study of male and female basic trainees regarding stress-related orthopaedic pathology, it has been demonstrated that: Female trainees show an increased incidence of stress-related injury in basic training even under ideal conditions. The incidence of stress-related disease was not significantly affected by height, weight, or age in this study. Poorly designed female footwear is particularly implicated in producing tibial and calcaneal stress reactions. Early statistics document a clear increase in female incidence of stress-related disease since the onset of coeducational basic training.
The authors determined the incidence of podiatric injuries that occurred during 233,946 recruit days at risk among US Marine Corps recruits undergoing basic training at the Marine Corps Recruit Depot, San Diego, CA, between February 5 and April 25, 1990. Training-related initial injuries to the foot occurred at a rate of 3.0 new injuries per 1,000 recruit days. The highest specific rates of injury occurred with stress fractures to the foot (0.56 per 1,000 recruit days), ankle sprains (0.53 per 1,000 recruit days), and Achilles tendinitis (0.39 per 1,000 recruit days).
In a 4-year study on stress fractures of the lower extremities in basic-training soldiers at Fort Dix, New Jersey, 1,338 stress fractures were confirmed in 1,050 soldiers from a total training population of 109,296, for an incidence of 0.96%. There were 691 men with stress fractures from a male training population of 76,237 (0.91%), and 359 women with stress fractures from a female training population of 33,059 (1.09%), with significant sexual differences in the anatomic distribution of fractures as well. Common male stress-fracture sites were the metatarsals (66%), calcaneus (20%), and lower leg (13%). Common female stress-fracture sites were the calcaneus (39%), metatarsals (31%), and lower leg (27%). Female soldiers suffered more than twice the number of bilateral stress fractures than men. The week of onset of stress fractures during basic training varied directly with the sex of the soldier. Modifications in the physical training program aimed at eliminating continuous, high-impact activities during high-risk weeks resulted in a 12.73% drop in stress-fracture incidence (decreases of 7.32% in women and 16.19% in men).
The Louisiana State University (LSU) Affiliated Hospitals foot clinic has had good success in the treatment of metatarsal and heel pain using the following five modalities. 1) Muscle strengthening and muscle stretching of the intrinsic muscles and the muscles about the ankfe joint, especially the gastrocnemius-soleus complex. 2) Contrast baths in the acute condition to decrease the edema and inflammatory process. 3) Nonsteroidal agents with the acute condition to decrease the inflammatory response. 4) Shoe modifications. 5) Orthotic devices.
Orthotic devices seem to be the most useful in the treatment of both conditions. It has been found necessary to prescribe orthotics in almost all cases of chronic problems to institute permanent relief.1,2
Opposition remains to multiple steroid injections into either area, although there is no great objection to one or possibly two injections into a particular area to decrease the inflammatory process. It has been observed that a general worsening of the condition occurs from multiple injections. After repeated steroid injections one sets the stage for increased atrophy of the fat pad, which results in a more prominent bony surface and increased pain. Cases have been documented on many occasions showing indented areas over the heel or metatarsals or complete loss of the metatarsal fat pad of patients who have received multiple injections of steroids.
Shoes have been implicated as being responsible for the majority of foot deformities and problems that physicians encounter in women. In our original study of 356 women, the majority of women studied wore shoes that were too small for their feet, had foot pain and deformity, and had increased in shoe size since the age of 20. The women without foot pain or deformities also wore shoes that were smaller than their feet but to a lesser degree. In the present study, data on 255 of the original 356 women are evaluated. Tracings were made of the standing foot and the shoe. Measurements were made of forefoot and the heel width. An index of forefoot width to heel width was developed. The indices do not vary much among women. Based on linear measurements, as forefoot width increases, so does heel width. As foot length increases, forefoot width increases to a greater extent than heel width.
A retrospective case-control study into the risk factors for injury during basic military training was conducted at the Recruit Training Unit, Royal Australian Air Force Base Edinburgh, South Australia. Case subjects were recruits suffering a musculoskeletal injury during the course, severe enough to result in backcoursing (being delayed and joining a later course) and usually requiring the loss of 5 days of training. Control subjects were 629 recruits selected randomly from recruits who were not case subjects from the same period of Jan 1, 1985 to Dec 31, 1990. Two hundred thirty-eight cases were identified (2.7% of the recruit population), of which 123 were overuse-type injuries and 115 acute-type injuries. Most injuries occurred in the first 2 weeks of training. Bivariate and logistic regression analysis of possible risk factors for injury was conducted, both for all case subjects and for the subgroup of case subjects with overuse injuries. Statistically significant associations were identified for female gender, body mass index > 26.9, winter training, a history of lower limb injury, and the presence of a lower limb deformity. All these associations were stronger for overuse injury, and preenlistment physical activity was also significantly associated with overuse injury. No significant association was found for height, weight, age, smoking, or gender makeup of courses. Most striking was a large rise in overuse injury incidence in women over the period of study, from 0.2% in 1985 to 8.8% in 1990. Reasons for this increase may include "social pathogenesis."
Lower limb injuries present the greatest source of medical problems during basic military training. These main overuse lower limb injuries, anterior compartment syndrome, stress fractures, Achilles tendinitis, plantar fasciitis, shin splints, and chondromalacia patellae, are reviewed with respect to current knowledge of rates, diagnosis, and treatment. Part 2 shall review possible etiological factors involved in the causation of these injuries.
Throughout history, members of human societies have gone barefoot, and those societies seemingly had a low incidence of foot deformities and pain. Only one study has addressed the problem of infection through injury to the bare foot; otherwise, the unshod foot seems to have had minimal problems. Initially shoes were made in the shape of the foot and were sandals. Over time, shoes became decorative items and symbols of status and vanity. As the shape of shoes changed, they became deforming forces on the foot and the source of pain. Recent studies by the Council on Women's Footwear of the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society have tried to document the problems caused by shoes on the feet of American women. Attempts should continue to educate women on appropriate shoes and proper fit.
To analyze gender differences in foot shape in a large sample of young individuals.
Univariate t-tests and multivariate discriminant analyses were used to assess 1) significant differences between men and women for each foot and leg dimension, standardized to foot length, 2) the reliability of classification into gender classes using the absolute and standardized variable sets, and 3) the relative importance of each variable to the discrimination between men and women.
Men have longer and broader feet than women for a given stature. After normalization of the measurements by foot length, men and women were found to differ significantly in two calf, five ankle, and four foot shape variables. Classification by gender using absolute values was correct at least 93% of the time. Using the variables standardized to foot length, gender was correctly classified 85% of the time.
This study demonstrates that female feet and legs are not simply scaled-down versions of male feet but rather differ in a number of shape characteristics, particularly at the arch, the lateral side of the foot, the first toe, and the ball of the foot. These differences should be taken into account in the design and manufacture of women's sport shoes.
To maintain operational readiness, military personnel engage in vigorous physical and training activities that carry risk for injury. A 1-year prospective cohort study, starting April 1996, was conducted at Fort Bragg, North Carolina among 1,965 members of the 82nd Airborne Division to quantify musculoskeletal injuries. Information collected included type of injury, site, circumstances, and resultant limited duty days. These soldiers suffered 508 overuse injuries (including 38 stress fractures), 1,415 traumatic injuries (including 100 fractures), and 101 unclassified injuries. Injury rates were 6.8% per soldier per month for traumatic injury and 2.4% for overuse injury (totaling 1.2 injuries per soldier per year). Injuries resulted in 22,041 limited duty days, averaging 11 days per injury and 13 days per soldier (4.5% of total workdays). Fractures and stress fractures/reactions produced the most days lost per case. Most of these injuries resulted from military-specific activities.
Strenuous physical activity, such as military training, is known to demand a high degree of physical performance and to cause overuse injuries. However, the exact relation between injury incidence and physical fitness level and the influence of military training on measures of functional performance, such as intermittent endurance capacity and maximal jump performance, are not fully described.
A total of 330 military conscripts were prospectively followed during military basic training. They were divided into 4 self-assessed physical fitness level groups (well trained, trained, less trained, and untrained) and underwent physical performance tests together with registration of injury incidence.
Twelve weeks of military basic training was found to result in an overall injury rate of 28%, with an inverse relation between physical fitness level and incidence of overuse injury (P < 0.0001). Furthermore a fourfold higher injury rate was observed in the previously untrained soldiers compared with the well-trained soldiers. An increase in intermittent endurance capacity (20-m intermittent shuttle run test) was seen in all groups, (13 to 62%, P < 0.05), whereas only the previously untrained group of soldiers improved in aerobic capacity (8 and 16%, P < 0.05; maximal oxygen uptake and Coopers 12-minute running test). Maximal jump performance, both with and without backpack loading (15 kg), decreased (5 to 13%, P < 0.05) in 93% of the soldiers despite weight loss.
Military basic training has a positive effect on intermittent endurance capacity but a detrimental effect on jump performance. Furthermore, low levels of physical fitness are strongly associated with proneness toward overuse injury development in soldiers going through intense training.
Accurate, consistent measurement of foot-ankle geometry is essential for the design and manufacture of well-fitting, functional, comfortable footwear; for the diagnosis of certain biomechanical disorders; and for consistent longitudinal monitoring and assessment of pedorthic treatment outcomes. We sought to formulate a basic set of measures characterizing the principal geometric dimensions of the foot, to investigate how these measures vary with increasing weightbearing, and to explore the implications of weightbearing changes in pedal geometry for orthopedic footwear design and manufacture. The right feet of 40 healthy men aged 22 to 71 years were scanned using the Department of Veterans Affairs Pedorthics Optical Digitizer in neutral alignment, sequentially bearing 0%, 10%, 25%, 50%, and 100% of the subjects' body weight. With support of the full body weight, the following mean changes in the pedal parameters were observed: heel-to-toe length, 1.5%; ball width, 4.3%; maximum heel width, 4.8%; and instep height, -9.3%. On average, 71% of the changes sustained in the pedal parameters at full weightbearing occurred when, or before, 25% of the body weight was applied.
Female person-nel foot shape vs. US military last shape
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Anthropometric Survey of US Army Person-nel: Methods and Summary Statistics
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Biomechanical Studies and Optical Digitizer Development for Enhanced Orthopedic Footwear CAD/CAM. US Army Medical Re-search & Materiel Command
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Initial results with the VA Pedorthics CAD/CAM System
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HOUSTON VL, LUO GM, MASON CP, ET AL: Initial results with the VA Pedorthics CAD/CAM System. In: Proceed-ings from the 9th World Congress International Society for Prosthetics and Orthotics; June 28–July 3, 1998; Am-sterdam, the Netherlands.
UCBL shoe insert: cast-ing and fabrication
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An Overview of the VA Pedorthic CAD/CAM System
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HOUSTON VL, LUO GM, MASON CP, ET AL: " An Overview of the VA Pedorthic CAD/CAM System, " in CAD/CAM Systems in Pedorthics, Prosthetics & Orthotics, ed by U Boenick, EM Nader, p 337, Verlag Orthopadie-Tech-nik, Berlin, Germany, 1998.
Incidence of injury and physical performance adaptations during @BULLET Journal of the American Podiatric Medical Association military training
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Anthropometric Survey of US Army Summary Technical Report US Army Natick
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The Pedorthics Optical in CAD CAM Systems in ed by EM Verlag
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Initial results with the CAD CAM System In Proceedings from the th World Congress International for Amsterdam the
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Anthropometry of the Foot Lower Leg of US Army Soldiers Technical Report US Army
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An Overview of the CAD CAM System in CAD CAM Systems in Pedorthics ed by EM Verlag Orthopadie Technik
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Studies and Optical Digitizer Development for Enhanced Orthopedic Footwear CAD CAM US Army Medical Research Command Technical Report September
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