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Plastics waste management in India: An integrated solid waste management approach

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India has witnessed substantial growth both in production and consumption of plastics. In absence of appropriate waste collection and segregation processes, the management of the waste especially for discarded plastic used for packaging, has become a challenging task. This article provides an overview of the available alternatives for resource recovery from plastic waste, with consideration of integrated waste management, to evaluate the best possible option available under Indian scenario.
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Chapter 17
PLASTICS WASTE MANAGEMENT IN
INDIA: AN INTEGRATED SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT APPROACH
Tirthankar Banerjee, Ph.D.1
Research Fellow, Department of Environmental Sciences,2
G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar-263 145,3
U.S. Nagar (Uttarakhand), India4
tirthankaronline@gmail.com, tirthankar@hotmail.com5
Rajeev Kumar Srivastava, Ph.D.6
Assistant Professor, Department of Environmental Sciences,
7
G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar-263 145,8
U.S. Nagar (Uttarakhand), India9
rajeev ks1@rediffmail.com, rajeevsrivastava08@gmail.com10
Yung-Tse Hung, Ph.D., P.E., DEE11
Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cleveland State12
University, 16945 Deerfield Dr., Strongsville, Ohio 44136-6214, The USA
13
yungtsehung@yahoo.com, yungtsehung@gmail.com14
Abstract15
India has witnessed a substantial growth in the production of plastics and an
16
increased consumption of plastic. In the absence of adequate waste collection and17
segregation process, the management of the waste created by discarded used plastics18
items, especially ones used for packaging applications has become a challenging19
task. This article provides an overview of the resource recovery from plastic waste20
with consideration of integrated waste management (IWM), to evaluate the best21
possible option for tackling waste in Indian circumstances.
22
Keywords: Plastics, polymer, waste management, recycle, energy recovery,
23
incineration, IWM, fuel.24
1
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2T. Banerjee et al.
1. Introduction1
Economic development significantly contributes to improvements in life standards.2
Therefore, both economic development and environmental conservation are the3
immense important aspects and priorities of 21st century. Both require simulta-4
neous indispensable support and adequate consideration, so that they are in fact5
not only being compatible but also remain mutually supportive. However, coupled6
with life standard improvement, economic prosperity also induces environmental
7
degradation with long-term irreversible consequences for nature. Rapid population8
growth, urbanization, and industrial growth have led to severe waste management9
problems in several cities around the world. Simultaneous development in economic10
prosperity and industrialization often conflict with sound environmental considera-11
tions. The real problem, however, is the lack or inadequate environment management12
at a grass root level. The basic requirement is, therefore, need an approach toward13
technological development for the minimization of environmental degradation.14
Plastic as a synthetic polymer substitute natural materials in almost every aspect15
of our life and become an essential part of our society. Nature has witnessed a16
considerable intensification in the production of plastics in last few decades and17
simultaneous increased consumption of plastic materials. With time, stability and18
durability of plastics have been improved continuously, and hence these groups of19
materials are now considered as a synonym for materials being resistant to many20
environmental constraints.1The basic properties viz. durability, resistance to chem-21
icals, safety and hygienic nature, relative inexpensiveness to produce, thermal and22
electrical insulations, and lighter weight than the competing materials helped plastics23
to be indispensible in every aspects of life. Plastics compromise diverse group of24
chemically complex compounds. Plastics are formed into any number of products,
25
and different plastic resins are difficult to differentiate. This leads to problems in col-
26
lection, separations, and recycling. Because of its durability, plastics accumulate and27
remain persistent in the environment at the rate of 25 MT per year.2Moreover, con-28
verting plastics down to their original chemical constituents is often technologically
29
infeasible or otherwise unprofitable. Management of plastics found in municipal
30
solid waste (MSW) is most critical sector because of continuous increase in plastic
31
proportion in MSW, its nonbiodegradability, and direct harmful effect to society.3
32
Basically, problems related to solid waste persist beyond merely its disposal.33
In addition to technical and environmental complications, there are administrative,34
economic, and societal tribulations that must be addressed. The scientific efforts to35
sort out all these complications are usually referred as waste management. In this36
aspect, the management encompasses planning, design, and operation of facilities37
for collecting, transporting, processing, recovering, and finally disposing of waste.3
38
Waste management and disposal is the most neglected sector in India, and about 90%39
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Plastics Waste Management in India 3
of waste is currently disposed of by open dumping.4There are lacks of efficient waste1
collection, segregation, and treatment facilities in most parts of India, even in the
2
most developed cities. Some commonly used methods by which the waste could be3
managed are incineration, landfilling, and composting. However, all these methods4
are practiced in unscientific manner and precautions regarding safe disposal of waste5
residues are not taken care off. The basic properties that have helped plastics to be6
most useful in common life are also cause of concern in environmental safeguard7
perspectives. Waste plastic thrown on land mostly enter into municipal drainage8
lines and chokes it resulting into floods as experienced in Mumbai, India in 1998.9
Again, millions of mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish are reported to be killed every10
year by the ingestion of plastic bags. Mostly plastics affect marine wildlife either11
by entangling creatures or by being eaten. Turtles are particularly badly affected12
by plastic pollution, and all seven of the world’s turtle species are already either13
endangered or threatened for a number of reasons.14
Productive use of waste represents a means of mitigating some of the asso-15
ciated problems of solid waste management. The concept of integrated solid waste16
management (ISWM) is meant to provide a sustainable framework both for manu-17
facturers and consumers.3The ISWM is intended to guide decisions about the gener-18
ation of wastes, recycling of materials and ultimate disposable of residues.5It helps19
to save and sustain natural resources that are not replenished, decreases environment20
contamination, and serves to save and recycle energy production processes. Wastes21
should be considered as potentially valuable resources merely awaiting appropriate22
treatment and application.6Unscientific disposal of plastic wastes triggers envi-23
ronmental degradation due to their long biodegradation period, therefore, logical24
methods for reduction of their negative effects should be application of ISWM25
concept for its effective management with optimum recourse recovery.26
2. Global Scenario of Waste Plastics27
2.1. Plastic Production, Consumption, and Waste28
Generation: Global Scenario
29
Globally, each year nearly 140 MT of plastics is produced.7A recent study inWestern30
Europe estimated the annual total consumption of plastics at 49 MT (in 2003) cor-31
responding to 98 kg per capita.8Decadal growth (1993–2003) of per capita annual32
plastic consumption in Western Europe was 34 kg. The global plastics additives33
market was about 9.9 MT in year 2000 with a value of US$19 billion. Nearly, 80%34
of the global plastics additives were being consumed by the USA, China, India, and35
Eastern Europe outside of the European Union. However, South East Asia, especially36
India and China, has emerged as the global leader in plastics consumption, with37
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4T. Banerjee et al.
Figure 1. Comparative Study of Global Plastic Production (MT) with Consumption (KT) in India
and UK.
over 52 MT consumption of plastics in 2004. Plastic additive markets are growing1
at about 3% annual rate in Europe and Asia, whereas China is predicted to grow2
at 8–10% (www.plastemart.com).9The annual consumption of plastics in the USA3
is estimated as 38.9 MT, closely followed by China 38.8MT per annum. India is4
also projected to be the third largest consumer market for plastics in 2009 with a5
total annual consumption of 12.5 MT. In the 1990s, plastic consumptions in India6
grew exponentially with an average growth rate of 12%.10 Current growth rate in7
India’s plastic consumption is also predicted higher than that of China and any other8
developing countries and well comparable to that of UK (Fig. 1).9
2.2. Plastic Production, Consumption, and Waste10
Generation: Indian Scenario11
In 1990–1991, India produced 0.363 MT of plastics polymer, but within a decade, an
12
incredible 890% increase leads to total plastics production to 3.2 MT (2000–2001).13
Plastics production in India further rises to 4.77 MT in 2005–2006, maximum of14
which are polypropylene (PP) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE). Among dif-15
ferent types of plastic polymer, low-density polyethylene (LDPE) demonstrates16
maximum growth in consumption in India closely followed by HDPE and PP (Fig. 2).17
Polyethylene (PE), PP, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) also contribute a large share
18
in India’s polymer market mainly due their low cost and durability. On an average,19
the commodity plastics viz. PE, PP, PVC, and polystyrene (PS) accounts 80% of the
20
total plastic consumption in India (Fig. 3). In 1990–1991, per capita consumption of21
plastics in India was 0.8 kg but within a decade, per capita consumption significantly22
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Plastics Waste Management in India 5
Figure 2. Average Growth Rate of Virgin Plastics Consumption in India.3,10,12,40
Figure 3. Consumption of Different Virgin Plastic Resins in India.40
increases to 3.5 kg (2000).3However, it is still far below than the global average1
(18 kg).10 However, the projected estimates of per capita plastics consumption in2
2021 may reach to a substantial figure of 10.9 kg,11 which seems a realistic consid-3
ering the rapidity with which plastics are replacing its competitive materials.
4
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6T. Banerjee et al.
Figure 4. Percentage of Plastic Consumption in India by Different Market Sector.12
Packaging represents the largest single sector of plastics use in the India. The1
sector accounts for 42% of plastics consumption and plastic is the material of choice2
in nearly half of all packaged goods.12 Apart from use in packaging, plastics are also3
extensively used in the consumer products such as furniture and housewares, building4
and construction, and in industrial sectors (Fig. 4). However, according to research5
findings of National Plastic Waste Management Task Force,13 packaging constitutes6
52% of the total India’s plastic consumption.This is line with consumption pattern of7
other countries such as the USA and UK, where packaging exhibit maximum share8
in total plastic consumption. After primary use of this portion of plastics, annually9
0.93 MT of waste plastics are discarded along with the household waste.11 Although,10
rag pickers recover a considerable portion of this waste, but considerable amount11
of it either being soiled with the organic matter or not found appropriate for further12
processing. In India, PE, PP, and PVC dominate the market mainly because of its13
low cost, chemical structure, physical advantages, and high durability. Polyolefins14
account for 60% of the total plastic consumption in India.10
15
Annually 1.3 MT of plastic waste is generated in India, which is 36% of total16
India’s plastics consumption. Nearly, 42% of total generated plastic waste is recycled17
in India by 20,000 recycling industries with total potential of 0.37 MT/annum.
18
According to NPWMTF (1997), in 2000–2001, more than 5,400 tonnes of plastics
19
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Plastics Waste Management in India 7
waste being generated in India per day. Percentage of plastics in MSW has also1
increased significantly from 0.7% in 1971 to 4% in 1995.14
2
Lack of biodegradability of commercial polymers, particularly used in packaging,3
industry, and agriculture, focused public attention on a potentially huge environ-4
mental accumulation and pollution problem that could persist for centuries. Disposal5
of plastic wastes has potential harmful effects on the environment and, therefore, the6
logical methods should be to recover maximum energy to maintain environmental7
sustainability. ISWM is the concept to formulate decisions about the generation of8
wastes, recycling of materials, and ultimate disposal of waste residues.
9
3. Integrated Solid Waste Management10
Solid waste treatment and disposal methods are burdened with problems. The col-11
lection of solid waste and their transport to treatment facilities or to landfills accounts12
for roughly three-fourth of the total cost of waste management. Health and hygienic13
issues are also associated with transportation and, therefore, require special attention.14
Landfill sites are mostly prone to soil and groundwater contamination, unless scien-15
tifically managed. Recycling of waste materials also preferred in some aspects but16
do possess technological constraints coupled with chances of future contaminations.17
Incineration of waste materials has had problems with odor and air pollution and also18
may not be found feasible due to intrinsic properties of the waste material. The pri-
19
ority of waste management policy is to reduce the quantity and toxicity of waste. The20
concept of waste minimization has been also widely implemented in recent years.21
The role of waste prevention can be suitably illustrated in Fig. 5. Together with waste22
prevention, significant waste reduction can be achieved by inducing the concept of23
changing product that should focus on pollution reduction and resource efficiency
24
and implementation of green design concept. Green design mainly concerns with the25
reducing the environmental impacts associated with the collection and processing26
of raw materials, manufacturing, product use, and disposal of the product (Fig. 6).27
It is an important part of the waste and pollution prevention strategy. According28
to the Office of Technology Assessment,15 major components of the green design29
are waste prevention and better management of materials. Moreover, once a par-30
ticular product reached to its end of life, the materials still possess some secondary31
economic values and, therefore, additional savings can be made by reducing easy32
disposal. Green design eases the process by which secondary raw material can be33
retrieve from any product. Moreover, a critical stage in developing a product is the34
selection of appropriate materials and, therefore, attempts should be made to select35
such raw materials and technology that are economically feasible and also environ-36
mentally sustainable. An important aspect of raw materials selection is the need to37
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8T. Banerjee et al.
Figure 5. Schematic Representation of Waste Minimization and Waste Prevention.
Figure 6. Schematic Representation of Green Design.15
reduce the toxicity of materials wherever possible. These toxic ingredients mostly
1
create enormous problems during the waste management stages when the product2
loses its usability. Therefore, green design strategies help to reduce the amount of3
toxicity associated with any compound without hampering its usefulness and quality.
4
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Plastics Waste Management in India 9
3.1. Integrated Waste Management (IWM) and Resource1
Recovery: Basic Concepts2
Definition of waste has a significant effect on waste management. To define a material3
as a “waste” has an impact on what measures can be taken, and also on what measures
4
are not permitted, as well as the administrative procedures applying to its transport,5
export or processing, sale, and reuse.16 In general, waste is the material perceived6
to have little or no value. However, waste can be properly defined as the material7
that devoid of its primary economic value but possess secondary intrinsic value.8
Waste minimization and its effective treatments is the most challenging field in9
sustainable environment.Varieties of wastes are produced from different sectors and10
due to continuous technological advancement in the processing sector, it is expected11
that the characteristics of wastes are also changeable. It is mostly emphasized that12
many of conventional waste problems can be solved by minimizing the quantities13
of these materials and also through product substitution, waste recovery, recycling,14
and waste minimization.3The waste hierarchy as illustrated in Fig. 7 describes15
some conventional approaches for the both minimization and management of waste.16
In the hierarchy of the waste management, waste prevention is the most preferred17
option. Waste prevention is also described as the combinations of source reduction18
coupled with reuse of materials. It inherently minimizes the portion of a product to19
be discarded after primary use and also motivate to reuse of a particular product in20
different applications. Source reduction can be effectively implemented by designing21
and manufacturing products and packaging with minimum volume and toxic content22
so as to help ensure that the product has a longer useful life. Reuse follows source23
reduction in waste management hierarchy. It is a waste reduction strategy where a24
Figure 7. Hierarchy of Waste Management.
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10 T. Banerjee et al.
product is used for the same or new purpose without undergoing a physical change.1
Reusing, when possible, is preferable to recycling because the item does not need2
to be reprocessed before it can be used again.3
After waste prevention, the recovery of materials for recycling and composting is4
given the highest priority. Recycling is somewhat different from reuse or remanufac-5
turing and it defines the use of collected waste materials to be used as a raw material6
for a new compound. It provides the opportunity to reclaim valuable resources and to7
minimize the amount of waste placed in landfills. Depending upon the characteristics8
of the plastics, it may be recycled or not, but plastic recycling process do contain
9
some technological constraints due to probable contamination and, therefore, special10
attention is required. The practice of the three R’s (reduction, reuse, and recycle) fits11
very well within the sustainable development concept. Resource recovery, inciner-12
ation, and landfilling are the less preferred options of waste management hierarchy,13
as they contradict the waste prevention concepts. However, there are potentials to14
recover huge amount energy and resources from the MSW if proper segregation and15
technology are available. Despite of having some advantages, the hierarchy of waste16
management has some limitations:
17
1. It is of little significance when combinations of waste management options are18
used for waste treatment.19
2. It also does not consider the economic aspects of the waste management options20
and, therefore, it has some restricted applicability in different scenario.21
3. Hierarchy does not address the specific local situations. As example, incineration22
of MSW in India is not economically feasible, as MSW mostly comprises the23
biodegradable compounds, which possess lower calorific value.24
Therefore, rather than relying on a waste reduction hierarchy, IWM suggests the25
optimization of the system and also consider that all options can have a simultaneous26
role to play. The IWM uses a combination of techniques and approaches to handle27
targeted portions of the waste stream. It is important to realize that the portions of28
the hierarchy interact with each other and that change on one level will impact or29
influence another level. Moreover, using a range of waste management options in an30
integrated system gives the flexibility to choose the best possible waste management31
option suitable in particular situations.
32
3.2. MSW and its Management33
Waste is an inevitable product of the society. In general, solid wastes other than34
hazardous and radioactive materials are considered as MSW, mostly comprises of35
all solid and semisolid materials discarded by a community. Refuse is the fraction of36
the MSW produced in a domestic household. The components of refuse are garbage37
or food waste, rubbish, glasses, cans, and papers including trash. Although all the38
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Plastics Waste Management in India 11
98
68
45
66
78
62
89
2
8
41
30
14 16
1
0
24
14
48
22
10
0
20
40
60
Percentage
80
100
Australia Canada France Germany UK The USA India
countries
Landfilled
Incineration
Other
Figure 8. Comparison of MSW Disposal Processes in Different Countries.42
solid waste from residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial sources may1
be considered as MSW; however, inherently, it does not include construction waste,2
automobile bodies, municipal sludges, combustion ashes, and industrial process3
waste even though waste might also be disposed to municipal landfills. MSW com-4
promised a tiny fraction of all the generated waste, but requires most attention due5
to its direct health impact. Historically, solid waste management was the most rudi-6
mentary sort even in the most developed countries. Food wastes usually ended up7
at a local dump, where open burning was the most common practices to sort out8
the problems. For comparison, the percentages of waste generated that is landfilled,9
incinerated, or treated by other means are illustrated in Fig. 8 for different coun-10
tries. Countries with sparse population such as Australia and Canada tend to landfill
11
most of their generated MSW, whereas densely populated countries such as Japan12
incinerate more. In present circumstances, scientific waste management in India13
is a major problematic issue and about 90% of waste is currently disposed of by14
open dumping or landfilling. However, landfills have also been widely unsuccessful15
in India because of limited site availabilities. The population of the developing16
countries is another factor that detrimentally impacts the function of landfill sites.17
As the population keeps increasing, the garbage quantity also increases, which, in18
turn, exhausts the landfill sites. Most recently, due to enhancement in consensus19
of environmental conservation in general people, the technologies to manage the20
waste have become more sophisticated. Gradual changes in the nature of wastes21
trigger the concern for environmental conservation and also stimulate the necessity22
for resource recovery. Recently, scientific landfills have replaced the open dumps,23
incineration technologies have also been markedly improved with enhanced energy24
efficiency and pollution control devices, and recycling of waste also become more25
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12 T. Banerjee et al.
economical. In order to determine the quantities of MSW generated in a community,1
there are few different processes, viz. input analysis, secondary data analysis, and2
output analysis. Among these, the output analysis, which is the direct measure of3
the quantity of the amount of MSW by weighting the refuse dumped at a disposal4
site, is mostly preferable due to its direct quantification.5
Solid waste generation in Indian cities has increased from 6 MT in 1947 to 48 MT6
in 1997 and is expected to reach 300 MT per annum by 2050.According to National7
Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI, Nagpur, India) and Central8
Pollution Control Board (CPCB, India), the per capita waste generation in India
9
varied from 0.17 to 0.76 kg/day. However, absence of formalized collection and10
waste segregation practices in most of municipalities, coupled with outdated tech-11
nologies for waste management causes serious health repercussions. According to12
the National Institute of Urban Affairs,17 the average waste collection efficiency in13
159 cities in India varied from 66% to 77%. The national average of waste collection14
is mere 72.5%, far below than that of developed countries. Table 1 reveals that per15
capita generation of MSW has increased to almost 1.5 times, from 375 to 490 gm/day16
during last 26 years (1971–1997)18 and plastics accounts nearly 0.5–5% of it. Waste17
plastics account 0.7% in households across Indian society in 1971 (TERI, 1998),18
18
which further increased to a range of 4–9% in 199619 (Table 2).19
Table 1. Decadal Growth of Per Capita and Total Urban MSW Generation in India.3,18
Per Capita Waste Total Urban Municipal
Year Generation (gm/day) Waste Generated (MT/yr)
1971 375 14.9
1981 430 25.1
1991 460 43.5
1997 490 48.1
2007 500 55.2
Table 2. Decadal Variation of Average Compositions of MSW in India.3,41
Components 1970 1995 2005
Paper 3.17 4.64 6.07
Plastics 0.64 3.22 4.88
Metals 0.66 0.43 0.19
Glass 0.38 1.72 0.34
Biodegradable 45.31 52.80 55.06
Ash and fine earth 40.76 26.82 29.6
Other unsorted 9.08 10.37 3.86
Note: All values are in percent dry weight.
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Plastics Waste Management in India 13
3.3. Application of IWM for MSW Management1
The IWM concept inherently integrates practical waste management system with
2
combination of waste stream, collection, treatment, and disposal methods. The3
primary objective is to achieve environmental benefits, economic optimization, and
4
societal acceptability. The IWM effectively reduce the quantity of solid waste either5
by recycling, incinerating, composting, or ultimate disposal of waste residue in sci-6
entific manner. No one individual method of waste management can deal with all7
the materials in a waste stream in an environmental sustainable way and also with8
economic proficiency. Inherently, waste management is the amalgamation of many9
closely related processes that are integrated itself. It is always seemed unrealistic to10
have a major focus on a specific material only because of their ready recyclability (as11
aluminum) or due to public interferences (as plastics). Therefore, the IWM (Fig. 9)12
should be sustainable, market oriented, and multi-material approach. The integrated13
approach of waste management was first proposed by W.R. Lynn, way back in14
1962. It was initially discussed as “viewing the problem as interconnected system of15
component operations and functions.” It was well understood that system analyses16
coupled with mathematical modeling were necessary to optimize waste management17
operations. Further, in 1975, Solid Waste Authority of Palm Beach Colony, Florida18
first develop and implement integrated programs of waste management incorpo-19
rating waste transportation, processing, recycling, resource recovery, and disposal20
Figure 9. Application of IWM for Waste Management and Maximum Resource Recovery.
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14 T. Banerjee et al.
technologies. Finally, in 1991, a task force from Economic Commission for Europe1
defined IWM as a “process of change in which the concept of waste management2
is gradually broadened to eventually include the necessary control of gaseous,3
liquid and solid material flow in the human environment.” In 1996, United Nations4
Environment Programme (UNEP) defined IWM as a framework of reference for5
designing and implementing new waste management and for analyzing and opti-6
mizing existing system.7
In this resource-depleted world, managing the waste and to fetch maximum8
resource with minimum economic expenses is now the need that society has to
9
address. Solid waste management practices were initially developed to avoid the10
adverse health impacts that were being caused by the increasing amounts of waste11
being generated in the society. In past, solid waste management primarily includes12
collection, land disposal, and incineration of household waste. Industrial waste dis-13
posal did not receive much attention. Even though MSW is dwarfed in size and also14
in environmental impacts than that of industrial wastes, but generation of industrial15
waste is only due to virtue of the process of providing society with the materials that16
ultimately end up in our trash.5Therefore, consumption of less, not only saves the17
wastes that would have ended up in the municipal waste stream, but also reduces18
the energy, materials, and waste associated with providing those items. Therefore,19
attention need to be directed not just at the management of consumers waste, but20
at the complete set of the processes that results in the products our society seems21
to demand.5The Brundtland report clearly established that sustainable development22
can only be achieved if society in general, and industry in particular, learned to23
produce “more from less”; more goods and services from less of the world’s resources24
(including energy), while generating less pollution and waste. Therefore, the goal25
of sustainable solid waste management should be the recovery of more valuable
26
products from the waste with the use of less energy and simultaneously managing27
more positive environmental impact in terms of human health and safety. In addition28
to these, a sustainable solid waste management must inherently be more economi-29
cally affordable and socially acceptable.30
The decision regarding waste management should be flexible in terms of its31
selection from different elements of waste management options, which will result in32
minimum energy use, environmental impact, and landfill space at a cost affordable33
to the community. This goal can be achieved by various means such as segregating34
waste type, recycling of certain types of waste, and beneficial reuse of industrial35
by-products. The inherent concepts of IWM can also be applied in a community36
levels essentially consists of the following five steps:37
1. Characterization of waste and source identification.38
2. Efficient and scientific waste collection.39
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Plastics Waste Management in India 15
3. Reduction of volume and toxicity of the waste with adequate treatments.1
4. Selection of appropriate technologies in regard to different characteristics of the2
waste.3
5. Optimization of the first four steps to reduce cost and environmental impact and4
enhance social acceptability.5
Solid waste management all too often focuses almost entirely on what to do with a6
given waste stream, with the key decision being whether to incinerate the waste or7
bury it. The main goal is to reduce the volume and toxicity of waste being disposed.8
According some beliefs, recycling is an additional financial burden on a community,9
whereas land disposal based solely on the current tipping fee, which in most cases10
is lower than recycling cost. However, landfills do possess limited space and often it11
closed as unable to meet the new environmental regulations and also the total cost of12
sitting future landfills is sometimes overlooked.Again in some instances, incinerators13
were shut down due to its poor performances and as communities became more14
agitated by the possible environmental effects of incineration. Recycling also possess15
some constraints as entire municipal waste stream cannot be reduced to zero through16
a waste recycling program. Therefore, using energy and material balance approach17
at every stage in life cycle of a product can provide new insights into not only the18
solid waste problem, but also the problems of air and water pollution.5
19
4. Management of Waste Plastics: Application20
of IWM Concepts21
4.1. Source Reduction22
Waste minimization, waste reduction, or source reduction is often placed at the top
23
of hierarchy of conventional waste treatment process. Source reduction can be a24
frontend waste management approach by designing and manufacturing products25
and packaging with minimum volume and toxic content so as to help ensure that the26
product has a longer useful life. For the individual consumer or household, source27
reduction means consuming and throwing away less. Source reduction signifies to
28
any changes in the technology, raw material, designing process, packaging, and the29
use of materials or products in certain ways to reduce their amount or toxicity before30
ultimate disposal. Its often act as a precursor to effective waste management, rather31
than a part of it. Source reduction includes the reuse of material, which is always a32
better managemental process, because it avoids the costs of waste management. It33
can be as simple as declining an unnecessary bag for a small purchase or as elaborate34
as establishing a backyard composting program or choosing cleaning products that35
do not contain hazardous chemicals.36
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16 T. Banerjee et al.
4.2. Less Packaging1
Plastics used in packaging represent the largest single sector to contribute in the
2
MSW, like in Germany, it constitutes a 30% share of MSW by weight and 50% by3
volume.20 Packaging accounts for 35% in UK, 11% in Germany, and 28% in the4
USA’s total plastics consumption. It is also most important application for plastics in5
India representing 42% of total plastics consumption.12 Plastics used in packaging6
sector are more prone to be dispose off and, therefore, produce environmental degra-7
dation. Encouraging society to use less plastics bags and promoting manufacturers8
to use less plastic in packaging sector and by enhancing its potentiality to be reused,9
can reduce plastics solid waste up to a large extent.10
4.3. Product Reuse11
The reuse of materials involves either the voluntary continued use of a product for12
a purpose for which it may not have been originally intended, such as the reuse of a13
cardboard for a different purpose or the extended use of a product. Reuse is a waste14
reduction strategy where a product is used for the same or new purpose without15
undergoing a physical change. Reusing, when possible, is preferable because the16
item does not need to be reprocessed before it can be used again. Reusable plastics17
are used more than once and it competes with disposable or single-use products.18
Reusing plastics is preferable to recycling, as it uses no energy. More durable and
19
multi-trip plastic packaging has become more widespread fashion in India in recent20
years, replacing less durable and single-trip alternatives.3
21
4.4. More Durable Product22
Within the principles of waste prevention, the extension of product life cycle is23
very important aspect. The product that has the more durability certainly reduces24
the possibility to throw away quickly and, therefore, reduces the quantity of waste25
generation. Extending the product durability not only reduce waste generation, but26
also consume less resources for manufacturing the product and, therefore, such kind27
of practices should be developed in order to enhance product sustainability. Plastic28
products are much more prone to easy disposal due their low cost, easy availability,29
and product type. The service life of plastics ranges from 1 to 30 years. However,30
mostly, the house-hold plastics have the service life much lesser than it should be.31
Although the plastic compound possess the required durability, still it is our habit32
that we used to through it away. However, change in public conceptions and practices33
may reduce the problem. Moreover, through these means, the total service period34
of plastic compounds is increased and the weighted average service life of plastic35
compounds helps it to be consumer’s first choice.36
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Plastics Waste Management in India 17
5. Plastics: IWM & Resource Recovery1
5.1. Recycling of Waste Plastics2
Recycling is the combination of several technologies that are carried out on waste3
plastics to produce secondary raw materials. Although recycling has a long-lasting4
history, it has only recently that environmental concerns and waste management
5
issues are considered due to gradual increase in public awareness. Nearly, all the6
waste materials found in a common MSW are well capable to undergo recycling
7
process with a variable extent of efficiencies. However, the process should be envi-8
ronmentally sound, technically feasible, and economically profitable. Recovery of
9
secondary raw materials through recycling and composting is given the highest pri-10
ority in the solid management hierarchy after source reduction and reuse. Recycling11
is somewhat different from reuse, where the materials do not return for remanu-12
facturing. The recycling process indeed requires the participation of public and,
13
therefore, the public must perform the separation of the waste material at initial14
stage. Due to plastics chemical properties, the recycling of waste plastics possess15
some technical complications but efficient collection and separation of waste plastics16
leads enhanced recycling efficiencies.17
5.1.1. Recycling: Comparison of Technologies18
Plastics encompass a wide variety of resins or polymers with different chemical char-19
acteristics. In general, plastics fall into one of the two main groups: thermoplastics20
and thermoset plastics. Roughly, 80% of used plastics are thermoplastics that can21
be repeatedly formed to a new product by the application of heat. The majorities of22
house hold plastics comprise polyolefins (polyethylene terepthalate (PET), LDPE,23
HDPE, or PP), which are thermoplastics and, therefore, are easily recyclable. Poly-24
olefins are a major type of plastic used throughout the world in applications such25
as soft-drink bottles, clear film for packaging (PET), packaging, bags, containers,26
pipes (LDPE), milk and water bottles, housewares, industrial wrappings and film27
(HDPE), automotive parts, film, battery cases, drinking straws, and electrical com-28
ponents (PP) (Table 3). In India, polyolefins share the highest percentage of total29
plastic consumption followed by PVC and PS, in contrast to 60% of the total ther-30
moplastics in Western Europe. Therefore, the possibility of waste plastic recycling31
can be more adequate, as it is anticipated that most of the waste plastics will be32
thermoplasts and hence recyclable. In contrast, the thermoset plastics lose its ability
33
to be reformed or remolded when subjected to heat or pressure and converted to a34
hard and rigid compound. Addition polymers such as PE cannot be easily recycled
35
by simple chemical methods as in case of condensation polymers. Therefore, ther-36
mochemical recycling techniques such as pyrolysis are employed in order to produce37
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18 T. Banerjee et al.
Table 3. Type of Plastic Resins, Recycling Potentials, and Use of Recycled Plastics.
Primary Recovery Recycling Use of Recycled
Polymer Application (%) Status Plastics
Polyethylene
terepthalate
(PET)
Soft drink and mineral
water bottles, textile
fibers, processed meat
packages, peanut butter
jars, pillow, and
sleeping bag filling
26 Frequently
recycled
Multi-layer
detergent bottles,
soft drink bottles,
and packaging
High-density
polyethylene
(HDPE)
Milk, water, juice, cream
bottles, and shopping
bottles
6 Often recycled Crates, detergent
bottles, irrigation
pipes, and
buckets
Low-density
polyethylene
(LDPE)
Shopping and garbage
bags, cups, and black
plastic sheets
0.1 Rarely recycled Packaging, sheets
for nursery, and
film for industry
Polyvinyl
chloride
(PVC)
Automobile seat covers,
bottles, shoe soles,
electricity pipes,
cooking oil bottles, food
wrap materials, and
building materials
Rarely recycled Floor materials and
covering
materials
Polypropylene
(PP)
Snack food wrap, straws,
car batteries, drinking
straws, disposable
syringes, medicine
bottles, and car seats,
batteries, and bumpers
6 Occasionally
recycled
Buckets and worm
factories
Polystyrene
(PS)
Pharmaceutical bottles,
disposable cups,
packaging materials,
laboratory ware, and
certain electronic uses
0.1 Rarely recycled Office accessories,
spools, and CD
boxes
a series of refined petrochemical products similar with that of commercial gasoline.1
The concept of recycling may broadly defined as the recovery of material from waste2
for a purpose that would otherwise require the consumption of virgin resources.21
3
Under this concept, plastic recycling process does include both pyrolysis as chemical4
recycling and incineration for waste to energy recovery. However, here, the incin-5
eration of waste plastics is discussed separately from that of recycling in order to6
have a comparison between two strategies. Although, the concepts of ISWM sug-7
gests the judicious application of both technologies in order to achieve the highest8
material and energy recovery, but here discussion were made separately. However,
9
it is now well established that in order to recover the optimum resources and energy
10
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Plastics Waste Management in India 19
from waste plastics, the recycling process including both chemical recycling and1
incineration exhibit the highest efficiency and low-environmental repercussions. The2
various approaches that have been proposed for recycling of waste plastics mainly3
include:4
Primary recycling,5
Mechanical recycling, and6
Plastic recycling.7
Primary recycling is the in-plant process of recycling of waste scraps materials.8
Mechanical recycling involves the separation of plastic polymer from its asso-9
ciated contaminants and further reprocessed through melting, shredding, and other10
related processes. During mechanical recycling of plastic compounds the most11
important aspect is the separation of different types of plastic resins according to12
their chemical characteristics. Due to variation in melting points, at a definite tem-13
perature, a batch of plastic resins may fully transformed and a different batch may14
exhibit partial transformations. Therefore, the mechanical recycling of waste plastics15
are mostly carried out with a single-polymer waste stream and in order to achieve16
maximum efficiency and homogenous mechanical property of produced goods.17
Moreover, mechanical recycling mostly operated at a temperature of 200–300C,18
which also results in the generation of various toxic gases.19
The third type of plastic recycling process is chemical recycling or feedstock20
recycling, which ultimately leads to complete or partial depolymerization of plastics.
21
Chemical or feedstock recycling also includes pyrolysis, hydrogenation, and gasi-22
fication. Depending upon the need of secondary materials and the availability of23
technology coupled with economic feasibility, any one method can be adopted24
for recycling of waste plastic streams. Chemical recycling is mostly the complete25
depolymerization of the associated monomers or can be partial degradation of in
26
order to produce secondary commercial products. Of the many alternative chemical27
recycling processes, pyrolysis has received the most attention. Due to thermal insta-28
bility of organic compounds, pyrolysis in an oxygen devoid condition results in the29
combination of thermal cracking and condenzation reactions that ultimately generate30
various gaseous, liquids, and solids fractions. Pyrolysis is often called as destructive
31
distillation, as it is an endothermic process in contrast to most combustion processes32
that are exothermic. The major compounds that are generated through pyrolysis33
depends on the organic characteristics of the compounds but mostly comprises of a34
gas stream primarily with hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide,35
a liquid fraction that consists of a tar oil stream containing mostly acetic acid,36
acetone, and methanol and a char consisting almost pure carbon with some inert37
materials. The effective temperature of pyrolysis for waste plastic streams varied38
from 400–650C or higher. However, the processes are basically divided into three
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20 T. Banerjee et al.
classes as low, medium, and high temperature based on the required temperature1
for complete or partial degradation of plastics. Products generated through chemical2
recycling of plastics mostly depends on feed plastics, feeding rate, effective temper-3
ature, residence time, and ultimately on efficiency of the reactor itself. However, the4
generation of liquid compound enhanced at low temperature in contrast to gaseous5
compounds at elevated temperature. According to the Achilias et al.,8with defined6
catalysts, oil and gaseous fractions were mostly recovered after chemical recycling7
of HDPE, LDPE, and PP. Generated gaseous and oil fractions have the potential to8
be reused as a feedstock in the petrochemical industries. Chemical recycling have
9
also been proved as an effective technology to produce fuel as effective as com-10
mercial gasoline.22 Low temperature (400–500C) chemical recycling of PE and11
PP mostly results in the generation of high-calorific value gases and waxes coupled12
with hydrocarbon mixture.8,22 The produced gaseous fractions possess high calorific13
value and therefore, can be reused as feedstock and liquid fractions mainly consist14
of linear olefin and paraffin mixture. The PP and PE at higher temperature (>700C)15
produce olefin mixture that has the potential to be reused for the production of16
corresponding polyolefins.22,23 However, thermal cracking of HDPE and LDPE are17
somewhat difficult due their low-thermal conductivity.24 Therefore, for these kinds18
of plastic resins, chemical recycling at low temperature with effective catalysts are19
found more appropriate due to reduced energy consumptions coupled with possible20
formation of specific hydrocarbon compounds.8,25
21
In India, an approximately 4–5% of MSW are post-consumer plastics in com-
22
parison to 6–10% in the USA, Europe and other developed countries. Daily gen-23
eration of post-consumer plastics varied from 4 to 5 thousand tons in India. The24
percentage of plastic recycling in India is much higher than many of the developed25
countries in the world. India recycled 47% of total plastic waste in contrast to China
26
(11%), the USA (3.5%), South Africa (15%), and UK (7%). India’s average waste27
plastic recycling rate is also much higher than global average of 20%. There are28
nearly 20 thousand industries in India in plastics recycling process with total daily29
capacity of 1 KT. Although plastic recycling in India is mostly mechanized, but30
generally operates at a low level of organization. There were over 2000 recycling31
units in India along with 2,500 pelletizers. Easy availability of low-cost manpower32
and exclusive market for the lower-quality products have helped in flourishing those33
recycle industries in India.34
5.1.2. Recycling: Technical Complications35
Recycling of waste plastics cannot by itself solve the environmental concerns mainly36
because of its continuous rise in proportion in MSW and also due to technical com-37
plications arises during separation or processing of different types of plastic resins.38
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Plastics Waste Management in India 21
The incompatibility between different types of plastic polymers during the recycling1
is the major issue to be addressed. As example, the presence of a single PVC bottle2
in a batch of PET type of plastic resins may spoil the whole batch and also have3
potential to damage the equipment. Different melting point of various plastic com-4
ponents can induce degradation and may develop poor mechanical characteristics.5
Moreover, the toxic emissions may have significant impact on health and quality of6
life. Economic consideration of recycling waste plastics should also be addressed in7
Indian scenario. In order to compute economic efficiencies of recycling process, we8
should count the costs of collection, material processing, market value of recycled
9
products, and reduced cost saved due to avoidance of landfill. Although in India,10
recycled plastics have the good market value but public awareness is minimum on11
health hazard associated with recycling process. Moreover, recycling is not always12
the best waste management option, due to plastic’s inherent properties. During recy-13
cling, plastic can only be reprocessed into inferior types of plastics and, therefore,14
it limits the times it undergoes recycling. Plastics cannot be recycled forever and15
that is why after being recycled for three to four times, they become unfit for further16
reprocessing. Plastics recycling process is further complicated by the potential for
17
contamination by products that they once contained.5
18
However, considering the limited available resources of the world, waste pre-19
vention and resource recovery should be the fundamental principle to sustainable20
development. The cost incurred at recycling may be effectively reduced if costs of21
waste collection and segregation are performed scientifically. In addition, on this part
22
of waste management, public participation can increase the efficiency of the whole23
system to a great extent. Without the active participation of citizen, a recovery and24
waste prevention-centric approach cannot be functional in order to effective waste25
management. In India, fundamental problems for effective waste management are
26
the waste collection, separation, and transportation to the treatment facilities. Poor27
performances in this aspect lead to fallout of the whole waste management system.28
The lacks of involvement of public with unawareness of possible health impacts29
make huge repercussions on the entire waste management system.30
5.2. Plastic Waste to Energy: Incineration31
The most effective way to reduce the volume of solid waste is to burn it in a properly32
designed and operating condition, the process called as incineration. In an ideal incin-33
eration process, the hydrocarbon compounds of the combustible residue combine34
chemically with the molecular oxygen to generates carbon dioxide and water, and as a35
residue generates oxides of metals and minerals. The basic advantages of municipal36
incinerator are that they require less land and also be effectively used for energy37
generation. Apart from these, the incineration of waste materials has a number of38
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22 T. Banerjee et al.
favorable attributes, including volume reduction, immediate disposal without waiting1
for slow biodegradation process, less land requirement, destruction of hazardous2
materials, and value addition to waste product by energy recovery or by generating3
electricity.5
4
5.2.1. MSW Incineration: Comparison of Technologies5
There are several technologies available for incineration of MSW, leading to dif-6
ferent strategies based on the conversion plant itself and on the possible inclusion of7
waste pretreatment units. Incineration for energy recovery is typically done by two8
processes. The collected MSW may directly used to mass-burn incinerator or it may9
be preprocessed to produce a more homogenous product called as refuse-derived10
fuel (RDF). The RDF mostly comprises of combustible portion of MSW and gen-
11
erally produced through shredding and sorting a relatively uniform segment of MSW.
12
From the energy recovery perspective, MSW incineration through RDF gasification13
demonstrates maximum efficiency, but it has some negative environmental reper-14
cussions. In order to achieve environmental sustainability, a dedicated incinerator15
with air pollution control devices provides the optimum results. However, in terms16
of economic profitability, gasification allows the highest revenues from the sale of17
energy.26 Selection of an appropriate technology for an MSW incineration system18
depends critically upon the size of facility under consideration. Several researchers19
have compared different waste to energy strategies of waste management options.20
According to Klein,27 gasification reveals the best electrical conversion efficiency21
but also posses higher operating costs. Murphy and McKeogh28 concluded that gasi-22
fication is more suitable than traditional combustion process. Gasification produces23
a greater quantity of electricity and results lower specific total costs coupled with24
lower emissions of CO2. Baggio et al.29 compared traditional combustion techniques25
in a dedicated grate combustor with the thermo-select gasification process and the26
high-temperature pyrolysis process associated with a plasma system. Gasification27
and pyrolysis technologies generate lesser amount of gas to be treated than tradi-28
tional combustion. Again, emission factors for most of the gases from traditional29
combustion are higher than those from gasification, except oxides of nitrogen and30
mercury. However, if comparisons are made between advanced thermal conver-31
sions, such as pyrolysis and gasification, and mass burn combustion technologies32
then advanced thermal conversion technologies have negligible variations in costs,
33
lower environmental emissions, and higher energy recovery efficiency.30
34
5.2.2. Incineration: Technical Complications35
However, waste-to-energy faces societal resistance because of community fears that36
its emission may cause adverse health impacts. Moreover, the incinerator plant is37
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Plastics Waste Management in India 23
relatively expensive in capital cost as well as operating cost. Again MSW in particular1
locality may not suit for incineration if it does contain a majority of biodegradable2
compounds. For instance, MSW high in plastics are very suitable for incineration but3
unsuitable for biological degradation. In India, incineration is not a common waste4
management practice, as the garbage is low in calorific value and waste volumes5
are generally low for a central facility. The MSW composition is largely organic6
with high moisture content, making it further unsuitable for incineration. The MSW7
generated in Indian cities mostly comprises of 50% of moisture and nearly 25% of8
inorganic content, which results a low energy value of 3,000–4,500 kJ/kg. Due to
9
similar reason, an incinerator once installed in Timarpur, Delhi had to shut down in10
the 1980s. Moreover, the technology for incineration is not available domestically11
and the import options are highly capital intensive. The performances of various12
incinerators installed in various cities in India also demonstrate poor performances.13
The possibility of production of RDF has also been not useful due to nonavailability14
of a local market. In summary, developing countries such as India do not find this15
method to be very favorable, especially considering the waste content and the high16
costs of setting up and running the plants.
17
Incineration of MSW also leads to generation of toxic emissions that contain18
heavy metals, dioxins, and other volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Metals viz.19
zinc, cadmium, arsenic, lead, and mercury are the parts of waste stream and,20
therefore, when incinerated, they become part of generated gases and also persist21
with soot particles and generated ash. The removal of these metals are simplified
22
when they condensed and absorbed to fly ash particles in contrast to its removal23
during combustion stage. Ashes produced through mass burn incinerator are also a24
potential threat of contamination. Roughly 90% of the produced ash in an MSW25
incinerator is bottom ash that is potentially less toxic than that of fly ash. Mostly,
26
the fly ash is considered as hazardous and, therefore, requires special attention for27
further treatment. Apart from ash, dioxins, and furans may also produced through28
MSW incinerators that can be carried long distances from their emission sources,29
persist for decades in the environment without breaking down into less harmful com-30
pounds, and accumulate in soil, water, and food sources. Further, landfills are still31
required for the disposal of the ash, which adds to the operational cost of an incin-32
erator.A proper incinerator location enhances acceptance, results in economic waste33
collections, facilities efficiencies, and promotes economic feasibility. The factors that34
should be considered for site selection of MSW incinerators are:35
1. Constant availability of MSW and its characteristic compositions.
36
2. Isolation with respect to residential area.37
3. Direction and persistence of wind and atmospheric stability.
38
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24 T. Banerjee et al.
Table 4. Basic Comparison of Heating Values of Different Components of MSW.
Heating values
Materials LHV (MJ/kg) DHV (MJ/kg) HHV (MJ/kg)
Paper 15.717.418.5
Plastics 32.833.136.5
PE 43.243.243.7
PS 37.437.437.5
PU 26.726.727.8
PVC 23.023.123.4
Textiles 18.517.322.5
Food wastes 5.211.715.2
Glass 0.20.20.1
Note: HHV: higher heat value or gross heat value, LHV: lower heat value, and
DHV: dry heat value.
4. Proper handling of residue and its effective disposal site.1
5. Availability of power, skilled people, hygienic and safe transportation, and water.2
The energy content of MSW depends on its composition as well as its moisture3
content. Plastics have high calorific value (36,500 kJ/kg) (Table 4) and it is very much4
comparable with the coal (28,500 kJ/kg) and fossil fuel (42,500kJ/kg). However, in5
polymers where the carbon-hydrogen content is diluted with the presence of other6
elements such as chlorine, nitrogen, or oxygen, the calorific value gets lower. If waste7
plastics are separated and processed for energy recovery with efficient emission8
control then it can be better option to manage waste plastics. On an average, the9
production of plastic uses 5% of the world’s oil as feedstock compared to 85% used10
for heating and transport. Most of this is recoverable via energy recovery in the form11
of heat, which can then be converted to electricity.12
5.2.3. Fate of Plastics in Incineration13
To determine the anticipated pollutants from incineration of MSW, the composition14
of it should be established. Apart from generating air pollutants, other major consid-15
eration is the charge that plastics provide to the active gases during the incineration,16
which ultimately causes corrosion of the equipment. PVC is the major type of plastics17
that responsible for the generation of hydrogen chloride (HCl). The burning of PVC18
in incineration temperature above 300C results in the generation of HCl, water19
vapor, and carbon dioxide.The residues of incineration are mostly basic in nature and,20
therefore, neutralize a portion of generated HCl. Additional application of lime to21
refuse also contributes effectively for the reduction of corrosion due to HCl. Plastics22
undergo different chemical transformation according to their chemical nature during23
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Plastics Waste Management in India 25
incineration; therefore, it is important to determine emission potential of it. In incin-1
erator, the degradation of plastics takes place at 100–300C. The incineration of2
PVC at 170–300C generates dioxin, poly aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), furan,3
and HCl.21 The burning of PVC at 600C yields a series of aliphatic and aromatic
4
hydrocarbons, among them benzene is the major organic degradation product.31
5
According to Baum & Parker,21 pollutants emission from the incineration of plastics6
are much higher at lower temperature due to incomplete burning of plastics. Gen-7
erally, mass-burn incinerator works at a temperature above 700C and plastics goes8
complete oxidation at a range of 700–900C. The generation of dioxin and furans9
can be reduced to nondeductible levels at temperature over 900C with residence10
times over 1–2 s.5However, if during incineration dioxin-furan precursors have not11
been completely destroyed, then as the exiting gases cool, it can react in the presence12
of fly ash to form new dioxin and furans.13
5.2.4. Comparison between Recycling and Incineration
14
Incinerator is a high-temperature heating system and a valuable means of waste dis-15
posal. However, there can be significant impacts associated with the plastic incin-16
eration process if adequate air pollution control devices are not installed. Again,17
the process also may not be found feasible in a situation where mostly MSW com-18
prises of biodegradable compounds. Recycling is the means of conserving energy19
by replacing raw materials in manufacturing products, thereby reducing acquisition20
of virgin materials from the natural environment. It may be now well demonstrated21
that economically feasible technologies are available to mechanically sort out the22
various components of the MSW and, therefore, to implement adequate technology23
for each components. However, the objectives of the waste prevention or IWM24
cannot only be achieved through incineration or recycling as both systems may be25
most effectively only be used as complementary to each other. Some plastics are26
recycled easily and, therefore, can be recycled to produce a new product. However,27
recycling a plastic compound restricts its future use in certain sectors and at present28
situation the market value of recycled components is not encouraging. Substances29
such as pesticides and oils generally migrate slowly into the plastics and may remain30
into it after melting or reforming process during recycling. Again recycling by itself31
will not eliminate the solid waste problems. There are always considerable amount32
of nonrecyclable plastics residue left for ultimate disposal and, therefore, in this33
particular situation, incineration may be an encouraging practices. The primary34
objectives of IWM were waste prevention and resource recovery from the waste35
materials. Crude oil is mostly used for the manufacture of plastic additives and as36
a nonrenewable source of energy, the future consumption of this limited resources37
must be minimized. Recycling waste plastics conserves nonrenewable fuels almost38
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26 T. Banerjee et al.
exclusively, but it depends on the chemical nature of plastics itself. Moreover, while1
the environmental and resource value of the plastic recycling is well established, the2
economic constrains under current scenario and regulatory conditions are uncertain.3
Therefore, it will be inadequate to compare the effectiveness recycling and incin-4
eration process for solid plastic waste management but simultaneous application5
of both technologies depending on the characteristics of the plastic material and6
economic efficiency for a particular situation should be more viable.7
5.3. Landfilling of Waste Plastics8
Landfilling is the means of disposing waste under the soil cover. Since plastics9
are mostly act as inert materials, therefore, landfill methods are thought to be an10
effective method for the disposal of waste plastics. Despite the continuous growth of11
recycling, source reduction and energy recovery, some proportion of the waste will12
always need to dispose. Further, the simplicity to practice landfilling makes it the13
most common method for disposing of MSW. However, mostly plastics are resistant14
against microbial attack and, therefore, remain persistent in environment that results15
a significant source of environmental pollution, potentially harming life.16
In landfill, the degradation of plastics is the process of physical or chemical17
change in plastic polymer due to several environmental factors, viz. sunlight,18
moisture, temperature, biological activity, etc. The biological degradation of plastic19
polymers can be defined as the processes that induce changes in polymer prop-20
erties due to effects of biologically induced chemical and physical reactions that21
subsequently result the chemical transformations. The principle mechanism for22
the biodegradation of high molecular weight plastic polymer is enzymatic oxi-23
dation or hydrolysis that creates certain functional groups that gradually improves24
its hydrophilicity. These functional groups make the plastic resins more prone25
to gradual degradation to its monomer through the enzymatic actions of several26
microbes. During degradation, the polymer is first converted to its monomers, which27
further mineralized through the action of variety of microorganisms. Moreover,28
due to depolymerization of long chain polymer, produced low molecular weight
29
makes it more accessible for further microbial assimilation.1However, the extent30
of biodegradation and the generation of final products depend on several envi-31
ronmental factors. Under aerobic conditions, CO2and H2O are the final products32
with microbial biomass. In contrast, under anoxic conditions like in landfills or33
composting, primary products are the microbial biomass, CO2,CH
4, and H2O.32
34
However, complete biodegradation of plastic polymers can hardly be achieved as35
the portion of polymer will generally incorporated into microbial biomass or any
36
other natural products. Degradation of PE in landfills has been reported by different
37
researchers through various mechanisms such as chemical degradation, thermal38
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Plastics Waste Management in India 27
degradation, photodegradation, and biodegradation. Mostly, PE is prone to pho-1
todegradation and/or chemical degradation, which is mainly achieved through two2
principle mechanisms: hydrobiodegradation and oxobiodegradation.33 However,3
some researchers also reported that PE sheet incubated in moist soil for 12 years4
shows no signs of deterioration34 and only partial degradation could be achieved after5
32 years.35 Biodegradation of PS has not been extensively reported, but microbial6
decomposition to its monomer has been described by Tsuchii et al.36 The PVC can be7
subjected to thermal degradation and photodegradation but biodegradation of PVC8
is only achieved partially by the application of white-rot fungi.37
9
However, traditional plastics are not biodegradable and, therefore, only disin-10
tegrate into tiny particles that eventually liberate different compounds that have11
potential to contaminate groundwater, if not properly managed. Moreover, burying12
waste plastics in landfill is not a proper IWM approach, as it only reduces any13
possibilities for recovery of any secondary raw materials or energy for further use.14
Traditional plastics production requires large amounts of natural resources, primarily15
nonrenewable fossil fuels, both as a raw material and to provide energy for the man-16
ufacturing process. Roughly, 10% of the world’s annual petroleum production is
17
consumed in the production of plastic resins; 4% is used as a raw material and an18
additional 6% is consumed in the form of fuel or energy during manufacture. Even-19
tually, if the waste plastics are landfilled, then it reduces any possibilities to recover20
the secondary raw materials from these waste products. Generation of waste not21
only has significant environmental impacts, but it also places a great pressure on the
22
finite resources of the earth. Therefore, waste management decision must be tied23
inextricably to conserve resources and its utilization. Moreover, burying the plastics24
waste blocks the natural supply of air and water to the soil, thereby affecting plant25
life, reducing the water-retaining capacity of the soil and affects the water table.
26
5.4. Plastic Waste Management: Recent Approaches27
The productive use of waste material represents a means of alleviating some of the28
problems of solid waste management. Since, the disposal of waste plastic in landfill29
has several harmful effects on the environment; therefore, the logical methods for
30
reduction negative effects are the applications of these materials in other industries.31
The application of waste plastics as a fuel in cement kilns has a potential to be an32
effective measure of waste reduction. Moreover, due to extreme temperature inside33
kilns, the possibility of generation of any toxic gases also reduces. Waste plastics are34
most suited to be use as a fuel as it has a calorific value well comparable to that of35
conventional fuel. However, chlorinated compound as PVC is especially considered36
because produced HCL and chlorine gas can be readily neutralized. The efficient37
use of waste plastics as a fuel has further environmental benefits, as no solid or ash38
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28 T. Banerjee et al.
residues are produced and air emissions are not greater than fossil fuels. A cement1
plant of annual 1 MT capacity have the potential to consume about 10–30 thousand2
MT of plastics waste, which reveals the actual potential of this technology to be most3
effective to sort out waste plastic disposal problems. In recent years, large fractions4
of energy needed for the production of cement comes from the waste used as an5
alternative fuels. Plastic wastes play a significant contribution to the replacement6
of nonrenewable fossil fuels such as coal or petroleum. In several European coun-7
tries, there is already growing competition between the cement industries and MSW8
incinerators producing energy, both competing for the use of plastic waste as an
9
alternative fuels. However, the use of processed plastics as fuel for cement kilns is10
often considered as in term of energy recovery.11
The waste plastics have the potential to be reused as an alternative fuel in the12
blast furnace and often considered as recycling of waste. For the smelting of iron ore13
(FeO), traditionally, coal is used to fuel the furnace and to generate carbon monoxide14
(CO) and heat. This reaction occurs when CO gas, released from the burning coal,15
combines with the oxygen molecule from iron oxide to produce iron and carbon16
dioxide (CO2). Recently, waste plastics have replaced substantial portion of coke17
or pulverized coal for producing pig iron from iron ore. Waste plastics burnt in the18
absence of sufficient oxygen similar to that of coal and produces CO that further19
used as a reducing agent to convert iron ore to pig iron (Fe). Moreover, extreme tem-20
perature (over 1,500C) inside the blast furnace reduces the ash generation and any21
possibilities of dioxin and HCl gas formation. However, eventually if any minute
22
amounts of dioxin or HCl do produce at blast furnace may readily neutralize by23
limestone. However, it is essential to identify the optimal ratio of plastic to coal as24
when plastic is added, hydrogen molecules from the plastic combine with oxygen25
to produce water vapor (H2O), iron and reduced amounts of CO2. Water reacts26
more aggressively than CO2under high temperatures and causes other fuels in the27
furnace to degrade. Moreover, the presence of PVC at waste plastic stream produces28
chlorine gas that has the potential to corrode the furnace. In order to prevent the dif-29
fusion of chlorine inside the blast furnace, coal tar and converter dust have excellent30
implication.38
31
Except from the principles of waste prevention, the recycling of waste plastics has32
become most promising and environmental friendly among the other means of IWM33
methodologies. However, the recycling of waste plastics can be achieved by several34
means depending on the characteristics of the plastic polymer and required product35
itself and, therefore, can be classified into primary, secondary, tertiary, and qua-36
ternary forms. Among these, the most efficient method in terms of environmental37
conservation is feedstock or tertiary recycling that mainly useful to covert waste38
polymers to original monomers or other valuable chemicals compounds. Feedstock39
recycling principally converts waste plastics to their constituent monomers that are40
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Plastics Waste Management in India 29
then further processed either separately or with petroleum residues to derive conven-1
tional fuel. With the presence of catalytic additives, long-chain plastic polymers split2
to liquid, solid, and gaseous series of refined petrochemical products and particularly3
of a liquid fraction very similar with that of gasoline.22 It has been previously dis-4
cussed that at higher temperature due to thermal cracking of PE and PP, a mixture of5
olefin with certain aromatic compounds and high-calorific value gases are achieved.6
Chemical recycling of waste plastics viz. HDPE, LDPE, and PP with specific cata-7
lysts generate aliphatic compounds that can be easily used as a raw material for the8
production of refined fuels.8However, coprocessing of petroleum residue with waste9
plastics helped to enhance the hydrogen content of the final product and makes it10
more useful. Therefore, apart from recycling only plastic polymer, researchers have11
also studied coliquefaction of coal and waste polymers. On a laboratory scale exper-12
iment, it was found feasible to convert waste plastics coupled with conventional coal13
to liquid fuel at a relatively high temperature (400–450C) and moderate to high14
hydrogen pressure.39
15
6. Conclusion16
In brief, this article emphasizes on the increasing trend of global as well as Indian17
plastic production and consumption scenario. Moreover, with the concepts of ISWM,18
plastic waste disposal problems are tried to sort out. Plastics are the integral part of the19
society due to its extreme versatility and durability, light weight, excellent thermal20
and electrical insulations, chemical resistance, and safety in regards to its competing21
materials. However, coupled with all these properties and its relative inexpensiveness22
have made these plastics much more prone to easy disposal and, therefore, causing23
concern for environmental safeguard.When plastic products are used and discarded,24
these plastics and additives are undesirable from an environmental view point. Tra-25
ditional plastics are not biodegradable and are extremely difficult components for26
landfilling for its volume and any future possibilities of groundwater and soil con-27
taminations. Incineration is generally not found technically feasible in most of the28
developing countries and also possess chances of air emission if not scientifically29
managed. Recycling of waste plastics is the most attractive method in accordance30
with the principles of sustainable development but can only be achieved for a limited31
period as only inferior type of plastic can be produced through recycling with several32
use restrictions.33
All these emphasize that no one individual method is sufficient to deal effectively34
with all materials in waste in an environmental sustainable way. In reality, if we35
consider IWM principles, then it emphasizes that any waste management is built36
up of many closely related and integrated processes. Therefore, instead of focusing37
March 27, 2012 11:24 9.75in x 6.5in b1272-ch17 Handbook of Environmental and Waste Management Vol. 2 1st Reading
30 T. Banerjee et al.
on and comparing individual options, attempt should be made to integrate waste1
management systems in such a way that it can deal with the whole waste stream,2
and then compare their overall performances in environmental and economic terms.3
In fact, an IWM system can itself become a part of a resource management system,4
where all resources are managed within a single optimized system.5
However, in order to reduce the waste plastic problem what we can do is to6
adopt the principles of waste prevention. Waste prevention undoubtedly needs to be7
a central theme of social responsibility. Apart from this, considerable shifts in per-8
ception and behavior among consumers are also essential in order to either restrict
9
or to minimize the use of plastics. The use of plastics need not be reduced but what is10
of urgent required is to use the plastic compound judiciously and to promote reuse of11
plastics. If plastic compounds are made more durable and if general the perception12
of consumer is changed regarding the reuse of plastic and less disposal, then inher-13
ently the waste plastic problem can be sort out. However, in Indian situations, there14
are several constraints such as proper collection, segregation, and transportation of15
the discarded plastic material. However, increase in public awareness coupled with16
changes in individual behavior can be an effective way to reduce the environmental
17
repercussions of waste plastics. Apart from these, in a resource limited world, the18
recovery of energy and resources should be fundamental principle to sustainable19
development and in order to achieve its active public participation and proper imple-20
mentation of regulations are essential.21
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... Solid waste in municipal areas could be any kind of waste, for example, it can be semisolid, solid, non-biodegradable, or biodegradable. Pollution such as air, land, or water depends either on municipal or industrial waste (Banerjee et al. 2014). Research proved that plastic neither decomposes nor degrades instantly; it gets accumulated and could remain in the soil for about 300-400 years (Thompson et al. 2009). ...
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