The Green Brigade: The Educational Effects of a Community- based Horticultural Program on the Horticultural Knowledge and Environmental Attitude of Juvenile Offenders

Abstract

The Green Brigade horticultural program is a community-based treatment and diversion program for juvenile offenders. The program is used for vocational training and rehabilitation. The objectives of this study were to determine if participation in the Green Brigade program improved the horticultural knowledge and the environmental attitudes of participating juvenile offenders. Participants of the Green Brigade program significantly improved their horticultural knowledge exam scores as a result of participating in the program. Participants also had significant improvements in their environmental attitude scores after completing the program. However, participants attending the Green Brigade program less than 60% of the time had significantly more negative environmental attitude scores than participants attending more frequently. Further analyses showed the program was equally effective at improving environmental attitude scores for all participants regardless of gender, ethnicity, age or grade in school.

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77 ● January–March 2002 12(1)
Fruit in the russet treatments had
about 10% of their surface affected by
russet at harvest, compared with practi-
cally no russet visible on fruit classed as
nonrusseted. Russeted fruit were also
markedly more misshapen than
nonrusseted fruit (Table 1).
None of the treatments affected
seed number per fruit or total seed fresh
weight per fruit at harvest (Table 1).
There was a trend for russeted fruit to
have smaller seeds (in terms of fresh
weight per seed) but this was not signifi-
cant (P = 0.057). There were significant
positive relationships between fruit
weight and number of seeds per fruit (r2
= 0.16, P < 0.001), total seed fresh
weight per fruit (r2 = 0.22, P < 0.001)
and the fresh weight per seed (r2 = 0.15,
P < 0.001), however these relationships
in all cases were weak.
In conclusion, russeted fruit were
more misshapen than nonrusseted fruit,
but neither russet nor carbaryl affected
seed number nor seed weight per fruit.
Chemically thinning with carbaryl did
not preferentially thin russeted fruit and
is therefore not a tool of use to growers
to help eliminate fruit damaged by rus-
set.
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The Green
Brigade: The
Educational
Effects of a
Community-
based
Horticultural
Program on the
Horticultural
Knowledge and
Environmental
Attitude of
Juvenile
Offenders
Carol Cammack,1
Tina M. Waliczek,2 and
Jayne M. Zajicek3
ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS. extension
programs, adolescents, probationary
programming, vocational, education,
at-risk youth, juvenile delinquent,
gardening
SUMMARY. The Green Brigade horticul-
tural program is a community-based
treatment and diversion program for
juvenile offenders. The program is used
for vocational training and rehabilita-
tion. The objectives of this study were
to determine if participation in the
Green Brigade program improved the
horticultural knowledge and the
environmental attitudes of participat-
ing juvenile offenders. Participants of
the Green Brigade program signifi-
cantly improved their horticultural
knowledge exam scores as a result of
participating in the program. Partici-
pants also had significant improve-
ments in their environmental attitude
scores after completing the program.
However, participants attending the
Green Brigade program less than 60%
of the time had significantly more
negative environmental attitude scores
than participants attending more
frequently. Further analyses showed
the program was equally effective at
improving environmental attitude
scores for all participants regardless of
gender, ethnicity, age or grade in
school.
The securing of job skills by
underprivileged groups
became the interest of both
government and business leaders when
President Clinton signed the Personal
Responsibility and Welfare Reconcilia-
tion Act in 1996. At that time, the
President challenged employers to hire
more than 2 million people from public
assistance into work situations by the
year 2000. One of the elements that
companies found was lacking in the
nontraditional labor pool was job skills,
in addition to transportation and
childcare. Once companies initiated pro-
grams to teach basic job and social
interaction skills, however, the reten-
tion and promotion rates of participants
within the workplace were higher
(Leonard, 1998). In addition, corpo-
rate youth training programs in some of
the major metropolitan areas of the
nation discovered that by investing in
innercity youth, they helped build a
future customer base while students
gained lifelong job skills and pride in
their communities (Greengard and
Solomon, 1994).
In the criminal justice system, hor-
ticulture programs are commonly used
in the vocational training and rehabilita-
tion of adult offenders, and are becom-
ing more common in juvenile proba-
tion programs. Horticulture programs
that emphasize the acquisition of horti-
culture skills have helped enhance in-
mates’ employment opportunities as well
as their sense of community (Flagler,
1995; Migura et al., 1997; Rice and
Remy, 1994). Questionnaires given to
the participants of a program for juve-
nile offenders conducted by Rutgers
University, found that 87% of respon-
dents thought their quality of life was
improved; 80% felt they had more job
skills; and 75% believed they had ob-
tained experience that might help them
Department of Horticultural Science, Texas A&M
University, College Station, TX 77843-2133.
The cost of publishing this paper was defrayed in part
by the payment of page charges. Under postal regula-
tions, this paper must therefore be hereby marked
advertisement solely to indicate this fact.
1Horticulture county extension agent, Texas Agricul-
ture Extension Service, Texas A&M University, Hous-
ton, TX 77084.
2Assistant professor, Southwest Texas State University,
San Marcos, TX 78666.
3Professor.
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● January–March 2002 12(1)78
RESEARCH REPORTS
secure a job. All of these benefits were as
a result of participating in the program
(Flagler, 1995).
A respect for the community and
the environment related to that com-
munity can also come from an increased
awareness and increased knowledge of
environmental issues. Environmental
knowledge improves environmental at-
titudes, and positive attitudes toward
the environment result in environmen-
tally responsible behavior (Arcury, 1990;
Hungerford and Volk, 1990;
Newhouse, 1991; Ramsey and Rickson,
1976). Studies of environmental educa-
tion programs involving activity-based
learning have shown these programs to
be highly successful (Campbell et al.,
1997; McCormick et al., 1989; Ramsey,
1993; Shinn, 1988), and research indi-
cates that children’s past experiences
with vegetation positively affect their
environmental attitudes (Harvey, 1989;
Skelly and Zajicek, 1998).
The Bexar County (Texas) Exten-
sion Service’s Green Brigade program
for juvenile offenders is one program
that combines horticultural activities and
education with juvenile offender reha-
bilitation (Cammack et al., 2001). The
purpose of this study was to determine
if participation in the Green Brigade
horticultural program resulted in an
improvement in the horticultural knowl-
edge and environmental attitude of ju-
venile offenders.
Materials and methods
POPULATION AND TREATMENT. Ju-
venile offenders from the 1996 spring
and fall sessions of the Green Brigade
program were asked to volunteer to
participate in the study (Cammack et al.,
2001). Juveniles participated in the pro-
gram on Saturdays for 16 weeks for 6 h
each day; 2 h of each day were spent in
classroom instruction learning horticul-
tural techniques, and the remaining 4 h
were spent outdoors working on land-
scaping projects in the community. An
individual Bexar County Extension Ser-
vice employee headed each Green Bri-
gade section.
INSTRUMENTATION. The horticul-
tural knowledge inventory consisted of
10 true/false statements designed to
determine participants’ knowledge of
horticultural topics. The Green Brigade
program focused on teaching xeriscape
principles; therefore, the horticultural
knowledge portion of the survey asked
questions related to xeriscaping (Table
1). Correct responses received 10 points,
while incorrect responses received 0
points. Possible scores ranged from 0 to
100. Cronbach’s alpha determined the
instrument to have a reliability of 0.60.
Questions included in the environ-
mental attitude inventory were taken
from existing instruments developed to
test environmental attitudes for chil-
dren and adolescents (Bradley and
Dettling, 1994; Campbell, 1994;
Waliczek, 1997). Various statements
were selected for use in this inventory
Table 2. The t test for paired samples analyses comparing the pretest and posttest environmental attitude individual item
scores of participants of the Green Brigade program.
Pretest Posttest
Statement meanzmeanzP
Everyone should be aware of environmental concerns. 2.75 3.24 0.005*
Special places should be put aside for animals that are endangered. 2.65 2.80 0.156
It is all right to litter if you don’t get caught. 2.69 3.18 0.019*
Environmental issues don’t really effect people who live in the city. 2.45 2.80 0.063*
It’s okay to pollute as long as you are on your own land. 3.02 3.06 0.799
Everyone should try to recycle as much as they can. 3.04 3.27 0.234
People should protect animals and plants. 3.00 3.18 0.380
All plants and animals are important. 3.00 3.41 0.012*
Plants that grow in parts of the world where there are not very many people are not important. 2.94 2.82 0.452
Big companies do not have a right to pollute rivers and streams 2.86 3.22 0.107
zIndividual environmental attitude scores ranged from 0 to 4, with higher numbers indicating more environmentally positive answers.
*Statistically significant at P ≤ 0.05.
Table 1. The t test for paired samples analyses comparing the pretest and posttest horticultural knowledge individual item
scores of participants of the Green Brigade program.
Pretest Posttest
Statement meanzmeanzP
A xeriscape is a creative and effective landscape that conserves water. 7.60 7.80 0.821
A xeriscape is a type of landscape consisting only of cactus and rocks. 6.80 7.80 0.255
Native plants require a lot of extra watering in addition to natural rainfall. 5.20 5.20 1.000
Mulches help keep the soil moist, prevent evaporation and keeps the weeds from growing. 7.20 8.80 0.044*
You should make the ground firm and compacted before planting grass. 3.00 5.80 0.001*
You don’t really need to plan out your garden or yard before your plant it; you should just go with
how you feel when you are actually planting it. 7.40 7.40 1.000
A nice looking xeriscape will require lots of care. 1.60 3.60 0.024*
Putting in a large grass lawn at a home, only because it looks nice is not an efficient use of water. 5.20 4.00 0.204
You should water your yard everyday, even if it doesn’t need it. 6.60 7.40 0.376
Bark chips, pine needles and gravel are all examples of mulch. 7.60 7.80 0.811
zIndividual item horticultural knowledge scores ranged from 0 to 10, with higher numbers indicating more knowledge of the correct answers.
*Statistically significant at P ≤ 0.05.
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79 ● January–March 2002 12(1)
from these existing instruments in order
to represent a wide range of environ-
mental topics. The inventory included
ten statements that students rated on a
5-point Likert scale (Likert, 1967)
(Table 2). The five possible responses to
each statement were “strongly agree,”
“agree,” “neither agree nor disagree,”
“disagree” and “strongly disagree.” The
environmental attitude surveys were
scored by assigning 4 points to a re-
sponse that demonstrated a strongly
favorable environmental attitude, 3
points to a mildly favorable response, 2
points to an indifferent response, 1 point
to a mildly unfavorable response and 0
points to a strongly unfavorable re-
sponse. The range of scores indicating a
favorable environmental attitude were
from 21 to 40. A neutral score was 20
points and an unfavorable environmen-
tal attitude was indicated by a range of
scores from 0 to 19 points. Cronbach’s
alpha (Borg and Gall, 1989) determined
the instrument to have a reliability of
0.81.
The pretest questionnaire also in-
cluded a section for student biographi-
cal information including questions
on age, gender, ethnicity, grade and
previous gardening experience. Green
Brigade attendance records for indi-
vidual participants were obtained from
the directors of each Green Brigade
session. Pretests were administered in
Feb. and Sept. 1996 spring and fall
sessions, respectively; and posttests
were administered May and Decem-
ber 1996.
DATA ANALYSIS. Since another
population with the exact characteris-
tics of the youth participating would
be difficult or impossible to obtain,
pretest scores acted as a control for
horticultural knowledge and environ-
mental attitude. Paired sample t tests
were used to identify significant differ-
ences between pretest and posttest
means. Multivariate analysis of vari-
ance was used to determine the differ-
ences in posttest scores after participa-
tion in the Green Brigade program
based on individual demographics,
session attendance and participation.
Pretest scores were used as a covariates
in the analysis to account for any pre-
existing differences among the groups.
Data were entered into the Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)
for Windows95 Release 7.5 computer
program and evaluated (SPSS, 1997).
Missing scores such as incomplete an-
swers were coded as missing values.
Results and discussion
Fifty participants of the Green Bri-
gade program completed pretest and
posttest horticultural knowledge exams
and environmental attitude survey. Par-
ticipants were primarily male (72.5%),
and Hispanic (66.7%). The mean age of
subjects was 15 years. About half of the
participants had gardened before en-
rolling in the Green Brigade program.
Due to the nature of the self-selection
process, the responses acquired were
adequate for supplying ideas and trends
for the given sample population, but are
not necessarily intended for generaliza-
tions to other populations.
HORTICULTURAL KNOWLEDGE. A
significant difference of 7.4 points be-
tween pretest and posttest mean horti-
cultural knowledge scores was found
using a paired sample t test (Table 3).
The weak correlation (Table 3) indi-
cated individual participants’ horticul-
tural knowledge pretest scores were un-
related to their posttest scores. One
possible cause for the lack of a strong
correlation may be the participants’
unfamiliarity with the xeriscape prin-
ciples focused on in the instrument.
This lack of familiarity with the subject
may have caused the participants to
simply guess which answer to select
during the pretest. This further suggests
the significantly higher posttest scores
were likely the result of a greater famil-
iarity with the subject matter gained as
a result of participating in the Green
Brigade program.
Because there was a significant
improvement overall in horticultural
knowledge mean scores, individual item
response means from the horticultural
knowledge test were compared to de-
termine if there were differences be-
tween pretest and posttest individual
item responses (Table 1). After partici-
pating in the Green Brigade program
participants scored 1.6 points higher on
Statement 4 dealing with mulch, 2.80
points higher on Statement 5 dealing
with soil and turf, and 2.0 points higher
on Statement 7 dealing with the main-
tenance requirement of xeriscapes (Table
1). These findings suggest that class-
room instruction, in addition to hands-
on activities, were useful for improving
horticultural knowledge, specifically
knowledge of xeriscape principles, in
participants of the Green Brigade pro-
gram. These results support past re-
search findings reporting that activity
based learning is an effective teaching
tool (McCormick et al., 1989; Shinn,
1988; Trexler and Barrett, 1992), and
can be enhanced by incorporating other
methods of learning such as classroom
instruction, observation and reading
(Rosenshine and Furst, 1971).
Additional analyses were conducted
Table 4. The t test for paired samples analysis comparing the pretest and
posttest environmental attitude scores of participants of the Green Brigade
program.
Group and
variable of Mean
interest NzscoreyrxSD df tP
Pretest 50 28.98 0.454 7.60 50 -2.434 0.019*
Posttest 50 31.57
zN = 50.
yEnvironmental attitude scores ranged from 18 to 40.
xCorrelation coefficient.
*Statistically significant at P ≤ 0.05.
Table 3. The t test for paired samples analysis comparing the pretest and
posttest horticultural knowledge scores of participants of the Green Brigade
program.
Group and
variable of Mean
interest NzscoreyrxSD df tP
Pretest 50 58.20 0.181 25.78 49 –2.030 0.048*
Posttest 50 65.60
zN = 50.
yHorticultural knowledge scores ranged from 20 to 100.
xCorrelation coefficient.
*Statistically significant at P ≤ 0.05.
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● January–March 2002 12(1)80
RESEARCH REPORTS
since past studies have indicated that, in
some instances, learning situations can
favor one group of participants over
another. For instance, studies have found
that even when males and females are in
the same classroom together their edu-
cational experiences are vastly different
(American Association of University
Women, 1992). Results of a multivari-
ate analysis of covariance indicated no
significant differences on posttest horti-
cultural knowledge exam scores of Green
Brigade program participants based on
gender, ethnicity, age, grade and par-
ticipation. In addition, there were no
significant differences in horticultural
knowledge posttest mean scores be-
tween the four Green Brigade sessions.
Each Green Brigade leader was given
the freedom to organize the daily learn-
ing and work activities within his/her
own session. Differences in facilities,
weather and project time constraints led
to varying amounts of emphasis on the
learning of horticultural topics between
sessions. Lack of statistical significance
due to demographic variables indicated
the program was equally effective in
teaching horticultural topics regardless
of session, gender, ethnicity, grade or
age.
ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDE. A
paired sample t test was used to analyze
the mean scores from the environmen-
tal attitude survey (Table 4). Partici-
pants scored significantly higher (2.59
points) on posttest scores in compari-
son to pretest scores (Table 4). Because
there was a significant improvement
overall in environmental attitude mean
scores, individual item response means
were compared to determine if there
were differences between pretest and
posttest individual item responses (Table
2). Statements 1, 3, 4, and 8 showed
significant improvements. The improve-
ment in the scores on statements 1, 3,
and 4 suggest participation in the Green
Brigade exposed urban youth to the
effects of environmental misuse on
people, plants and animals regardless of
place of residence. Responses to State-
ment 8 concerning the importance of all
plants and animals were also signifi-
cantly improved as a result of participa-
tion in the Green Brigade program. Past
studies have shown children living in
urban environments have a lesser appre-
ciation for nature and the outdoors and
subsequently, a poor environmental at-
titude when compared to children liv-
ing in rural settings (Bunting and Cous-
ins, 1985; Hart, 1979). However, find-
ings from the Green Brigade study indi-
cated that, while participants in the pro-
gram lived in an urban setting, they had
environmentally friendly attitudes to-
wards animals and plants that became
even more positive by the end of the
project.
A multivariate analysis of covari-
ance test indicated no significant differ-
ences in environmental attitude scores
based on gender, ethnicity, age or grade
for the participants of the Green Bri-
gade program (Table 5). These results
suggest the Green Brigade program was
just as effective at improving the envi-
ronmental attitudes of males and fe-
males, African-Americans and Hispan-
ics, and participants of various ages.
Researchers have reported varied
results when comparing the environ-
mental attitudes for various demographic
groups. Results of this study supported
past research suggesting that gender is
not a factor in environmental attitudes
(Table 5) (Bunting and Cousins, 1985;
Hart, 1979; Harvey, 1989). Harvey
(1989) reported that no matter how
appealing girls or boys found an out-
door task, their experience with vegeta-
tion elicited an improvement in their
environmental attitudes. Even under
the constraints of the relatively labori-
ous work of landscaping, Green Brigade
participants’ environmental attitude
scores significantly improved regardless
of gender.
The Green Brigade program also
improved the participants’ environmen-
tal attitudes regardless of ethnicity (Table
5). The exact relationship between
ethnicity and environmental attitude is
not clear from past research (Sheppard,
Table 5. Multivariate analysis of covariance determining the effects of gender,
ethnicity, age, grade, session attended and participation on posttest environ-
mental attitude scores of participants in the Green Brigade program.
Group and
variable Mean
of interest Nzscore SE df F P
Gender 1 1.712 0.197
Male 36 30.62 1.061
Female 14 33.18 1.543
Ethnicity 1 0.783 0.381
Black 17 31.08 1.381
Hispanic 33 32.72 1.182
Age 5 0.488 0.812
13 1 36.89 5.897
14 12 29.49 2.168
15 21 31.08 1.706
16 12 33.26 2.056
17 3 36.06 3.451
18 1 34.24 5.841
Grade 5 0.759 0.585
7 2 27.65 4.241
8 14 33.13 2.327
9 25 31.45 1.430
10 5 34.38 2.788
12 2 30.71 4.153
GEDy2 37.32 4.127
Session 3 0.821 0.489
East session, Spring 1996 15 30.77 1.412
West session, Spring 1996 16 31.80 1.429
East session, Fall 1996 8 34.66 2.030
West session, all 1996 10 31.83 1.753
Participation 4 2.650 0.047*
>90% 15 32.34 1.404
80%–89% 10 30.23 1.705
70%–79% 10 33.49 1.687
60%–69% 6 34.26 2.202
50%–60% 6 25.87 2.187
zN = 50.
yGeneral Education Development High School Equivalent diploma.
*Statistically significant at P ≤ 0.05.
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81 ● January–March 2002 12(1)
Table 6. Pairwise analysis of covariance determining the effects of the level of
participation on posttest and environmental attitude scores of participants in
the Green Brigade program.
Group and
variable of Mean
interest Nzscore Difference SE P
Participation
>90% 15 32.34 6.47 1.404 0.017*
80%–89% 10 30.23 4.36 1.705 0.127
70%–79% 10 33.49 7.62 1.687 0.009*
60%–69% 6 34.26 8.39 2.202 0.010*
50%–60% 6 25.87 --- 2.187
zN = 50.
*Statistically significant at P ≤ 0.05.
1995). Earlier studies reported Cauca-
sians were more concerned than Afri-
can-Americans about environmental is-
sues (Kellert, 1984; Van Ardsol et al.,
1965; Waliczek, 1997). However, other
studies found similar levels of environ-
mental concern among African-Ameri-
cans and Caucasians (Mitchell, 1979;
Mohai, 1990).
Similar to horticulture knowledge
improvements, there were no signifi-
cant differences in environmental atti-
tude posttest mean scores due to Green
Brigade sessions (Table 5). This sup-
ports past research (McCormick et al.,
1989) indicating that active learning
will enhance children’s environmental
attitudes, and that children’s experi-
ences with vegetation positively affect
their environmental attitudes (Harvey,
1989; Skelly and Zajicek, 1998).
Program participation was mea-
sured by the frequency that juveniles
attended the Green Brigade sessions.
Program participation was found to be
a significant factor in posttest environ-
mental attitude scores (Table 5). Posthoc
pairwise comparisons indicated that par-
ticipants with attendance rates less than
60% were found to have significantly
poorer environmental attitudes (25.9
points) than those participating more
frequently (30.2 to 34.3 points) (Table
6). The more positive environmental
attitudes were likely the result of more
exposure to topics and activities result-
ing from being present more frequently.
Participating in the Green Brigade
program improved juvenile offenders’
horticultural knowledge, which could
aid them in future job placement. Other
innercity youth training programs have
been successful at not only providing
job skills and work ethics, but also have
mentioned evidence of participants dis-
playing community pride (Greengard
and Solomon, 1994), which could lead
to less vandalism and more positive
involvement in the community. In ad-
dition, the Green Brigade program im-
proved participants’ environmental at-
titudes which is important for every
member of the global community aid-
ing in the preservation and conservation
of natural resources.
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