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THEMES IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
Special Issue, Pages 59-70
Klidarithmos Computer Books
59
Reasons to Use Virtual Reality in Education
and Training Courses and a Model to Determine
When to Use Virtual Reality
Veronica S. Pantelidis
pantelidisv@ecu.edu
Department of Library Science, College of Education,
East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA
Abstract
Many studies have been conducted on the use of virtual reality in education and training. This
article lists examples of such research. Reasons to use virtual reality are discussed.
Advantages and disadvantages of using virtual reality are presented, as well as suggestions on
when to use and when not to use virtual reality. A model that can be used to determine when
to use virtual reality in an education or training course is presented.
Use of virtual reality in education
The use of virtual reality (VR) in education can be considered as one of the natural
evolutions of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) or computer-based training (CBT).
Use of computers as instructional aids has a long history going back to the early
1950s. Serious studies began in the early 1960s. Since the advent of the microcom-
puter in 1977, computers, particularly microcomputers or personal computers (PCs),
have become a growing and recognized delivery system for many forms of education.
Virtual reality, which can be used on all types of computers, has followed that trend.
In her extensive bibliography on virtual reality in education and training, Pantelidis
(1991-2009) lists over 800 printed resources, such as articles and reports, on this
application of virtual reality, going back to 1989. The list is by no means complete
and comprehensive.
Research on the use of virtual reality in education
Many studies have been conducted on the applications and effectiveness of virtual
reality in education and training since the 1980s. McLellan (1996, 2003) provides
V. S. Pantelidis
60
comprehensive and in-depth reviews of the literature related to the research and use
of virtual reality for education and training in editions of The Handbook of Research
for Educational Communications and Technology. McLellan traces early use of virtual
reality in training to flight simulators with head-mounted displays developed at
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Ohio in the 1960s and 1970s (1996, p. 458.).
Youngblut (1998) conducted an extensive survey of research and educational uses of
virtual reality during the 1990’s. The survey attempted to answer questions about
the use and effectiveness of virtual reality in kindergarten through grade 12 educa-
tion. Youngblut found that there are unique capabilities of virtual reality, and the ma-
jority of uses included aspects of constructivist learning (1998, p. 93). Studies
showed potential educational effectiveness for special needs students (1998, p. 98).
The role of the teacher changed to facilitator (1998, p. 100). Students enjoy using pre-
developed applications and developing their own virtual worlds (1998, p. 100). The
majority of the teachers in the studies reviewed said they would use virtual reality
technology if it were affordable, available, and easy to use for students and teachers
(1998, p. 101).
Chen (2006) asserts that “although VR is recognized as an impressive learning tool,
there are still many issues that need further investigation including, identifying the
appropriate theories and/or models to guide its design and development, investigat-
ing how its attributes are able to support learning, finding out whether its use can
improve the intended performance and understanding, and investigating ways to
reach more effective learning when using this technology, and investigating its im-
pact on learners with different aptitudes”. Her research resulted in insights to a fea-
sible instructional design theoretical framework, as well as an instructional devel-
opment framework for VR-based learning environments (2006, p. 39).
A model developed by Salzman, Dede, Loftin, and Chen (1999) describes how virtual
reality aids complex conceptual learning, and how virtual reality’s features and other
factors shape the learning process and learning outcomes. The model resulted from a
study to identify, use, and evaluate immersive virtual reality's affordances as a means
to facilitate the mastery of complex, abstract concepts.
Studies show that a virtual environment can “stimulate learning and comprehension,
because it provides a tight coupling between symbolic and experiential information”
(Bowman, Hodges, Allison, & Wineman, 1998). Numerous studies have focused on
how children and young learners interact and learn in a 3D environment. Children
and young learners have been studied in high-end projection environments, such as a
CAVE (Roussos, Johnson, Moher, Leigh, Vasilakis, & Barnes, 1999). Their activity
within interactive virtual environments has been examined to learn how interaction
and conceptual learning are related in the context of a virtual environment, the Vir-
tual Playground (Roussou, 2004a; Roussou, 2004b; Roussou, Oliver, & Slater, 2006).
Reasons to Use VR in Education and Training
61
Chee (2001) argues for the need to root learning in experience, using physics as an
example. He states that physics students have little “feel” and “understanding of the
qualitative dimensions of the phenomena they study”. Chee believes that virtual real-
ity can be used to achieve this goal, “providing a foundation for students' conceptual
and higher-order learning”.
Dalgarno, Hedberg, and Harper (2002) believe that the most important potential con-
tribution of 3D learning environments (3DLEs) to conceptual understanding is
through facilitation of spatial knowledge development. They have identified aspects
of a research agenda to test this, including “exploration of the characteristics of
3DLEs that are most important for spatial learning along with issues in designing ap-
propriate learning tasks”.
Selvarian (2004) researched the potential of spatial and social technologies in a vir-
tual learning environment (VLE) through presence. She proposed a VLE model and
hypotheses that correlated the spatial and social technologies with spatial and social
presence, respectively, and with low- and high-level learning, respectively. Findings
from her research “offer educators a valuable guide for the design of VLEs that en-
hance low- and high-level learning through spatial and social presence”.
Reasons to use virtual reality in education and training
Reasons to use virtual reality can parallel all the reasons one would use a two-
dimensional, computer-assisted instruction simulation (Pantelidis, 1993). At every
level of education, virtual reality has the potential to make a difference, to lead learn-
ers to new discoveries, to motivate and encourage and excite. The learner can par-
ticipate in the learning environment with a sense of presence, of being part of the en-
vironment.
The reasons to use virtual reality in education and training relate particularly to its
capabilities. Winn (1993), in A conceptual basis for educational applications of virtual
reality, states that
1) “Immersive VR furnishes first-person non-symbolic experiences that are specifi-
cally designed to help students learn material.
2) These experiences cannot be obtained in any other way in formal education.
3) This kind of experience makes up the bulk of our daily interaction with the
world, though schools tend to promote third-person symbolic experiences.
4) Constructivism provides the best theory on which to develop educational appli-
cations of VR.
5) The convergence of theories of knowledge construction with VR technology
permits learning to be boosted by the manipulation of the relative size of objects
in virtual worlds, by the transduction of otherwise imperceptible sources of in-
V. S. Pantelidis
62
formation, and by the reification of abstract ideas that have so far defied repre-
sentation”.
Winn concludes that “VR promotes the best and probably only strategy that allows
students to learn from non-symbolic first-person experience. Since a great many stu-
dents fail in school because they do not master the symbol systems of the disciplines
they study, although they are perfectly capable of mastering the concepts that lie at
the heart of the disciplines, it can be concluded that VR provides a route to success
for children who might otherwise fail in our education system as it is currently con-
strued”.
Pantelidis (1995) gives the following reasons to use virtual reality in education:
• Virtual reality provides new forms and methods of visualization, drawing on the
strengths of visual representations. It provides an alternate method for presen-
tation of material. In some instances, VR can more accurately illustrate some fea-
tures, processes, and so forth than by other means, allowing extreme close-up
examination of an object, observation from a great distance, and observation
and examination of areas and events unavailable by other means.
• Virtual reality motivates students. It requires interaction and encourages active
participation rather than passivity. Some types of virtual reality, for example,
collaborative virtual reality using text input with virtual worlds, encourage or
require collaboration and provide a social atmosphere.
• Virtual reality allows the learner to proceed through an experience during a
broad time period not fixed by a regular class schedule, at their own pace. It al-
lows the disabled to participate in an experiment or learning environment when
they cannot do so otherwise. It transcends language barriers. VR with text ac-
cess provides equal opportunity for communication with students in other cul-
tures and allows the student to take on the role of a person in different cultures.
Mantovani (2001) discusses these potential benefits of the use of VR in education and
training: visualization and reification, an alternate method for presentation of mate-
rial; learning in contexts impossible or difficult to experience in real life; motivation
enhancement; collaboration fostering; adaptability, offering the possibility for learn-
ing to be tailored to learner’s characteristics and needs; and evaluation and assess-
ment, offering great potential as a tool for evaluation because of easy monitoring and
recording of sessions in a virtual environment.
Advantages of using virtual reality
The advantages of using VR to teach educational objectives are similar in many ways
to the advantages of using a computer or interactive simulation, particularly a three-
dimensional computer simulation. Computer-based simulations have been used for
many years in computer-assisted instruction (CAI). In fact, advantages of computer-
Reasons to Use VR in Education and Training
63
based simulations are well known. Zacharia (2003), referring to Chou (1998) asserts
that “researchers attribute success of simulations to the empowerment of students,
the unique instructional capabilities, the support for new instructional approaches,
the development of cognitive skills, and the development of attitudes”. Ferry et al.
(2004) state that “Whilst we acknowledge that a simulation is only a representation
of real-life, there are features that can enhance real-life experience. For example, a
simulation can provide authentic and relevant scenarios, make use of pressure situa-
tion that tap users’ emotions and force them to act, they provide a sense of unre-
stricted options and they can be replayed”, referencing Aldrich (2004). Steinberg
(2000) contends that “students should know that simulations make it possible to ex-
plore new domains, make predictions, design experiments, and interpret results”.
One major advantage of using virtual reality to teach objectives is that it is highly mo-
tivating. An investigation by Mikropoulos, Chalkidis, Katsikis, and Emvalotis (1998)
of the attitude of education students towards virtual reality as a tool in the educa-
tional process, and towards virtual learning environments on specific disciplines,
found students had a favourable attitude towards virtual reality in the educational
process.
VR grabs and holds the attention of students. This has been documented in the re-
ports of a number of research studies. Students find it exciting and challenging to
walk through an environment in three dimensions, interact with an environment, and
create their own three dimensional (3D) worlds.
Virtual reality can more accurately illustrate some features, processes, and so forth
than by other means. VR allows extreme close-up examination of an object. VR gives
the opportunity for insights based on new perspectives. Looking at the model of an
object from the inside or the top or bottom shows areas never seen before. For ex-
ample, once a molecule is modeled in VR, students can study it in detail, go inside the
molecule, walk around, and become familiar with its parts. VR allows examination of
an object from a distance, showing the whole rather than a part. A VR model of a
neighborhood gives the inhabitants a different perspective on the interconnections
between buildings, streets, and open areas.
VR can change the way a learner interacts with the subject matter. VR requires inter-
action. It encourages active participation rather than passivity. The participant who
interacts with the virtual environment is encouraged to continue interacting by see-
ing the results immediately. VR provides an opportunity for the learner to make dis-
coveries previously unknown. New perspectives are made possible by modeling the
real world, and studying the model can provide insights never before realized. VR
allows the disabled to participate in an experiment or learning environment when
they cannot do so otherwise. They can do chemistry and physics lab experiments and
learn by doing. VR allows a learner to proceed through an experience at his or her
own pace. The learner decides what to do when interacting with the virtual environ-
V. S. Pantelidis
64
ment. VR allows a learner to proceed through an experience during a broad time pe-
riod not fixed by a regular class schedule.
VR allows a learner to learn by doing, a constructivist approach. VR provides experi-
ence with new technologies through actual use. A simulation of a new process with a
new piece of equipment can train a worker. VR provides a way for some objectives to
be taught via distance education which were previously impossible to teach in that
way.
Disadvantages of using virtual reality
The disadvantages of using virtual reality are primarily related to cost, time neces-
sary for learning how to use hardware and software, possible health and safety ef-
fects, and dealing with possible reluctance to use and integrate new technology into a
course or curriculum. As with all new technology, each of these issues may fade as
time goes by and virtual reality becomes more commonly used in areas outside of
education.
When to use and when not to use virtual reality
Virtual reality is not appropriate for every instructional objective. There are some
teaching scenarios when VR can be used and some when it should not be used.
Pantelidis (1996) makes the following suggestions on when to use and when not to
use virtual reality in education.
Use or consider using virtual reality when
• a simulation could be used.
• teaching or training using the real thing is dangerous, impossible, inconvenient,
or difficult.
• a model of an environment will teach or train as well as the real thing.
• interacting with a model is as motivating as or more motivating than interacting
with the real thing.
• travel, cost, and/or logistics of gathering a class for training make an alternative
attractive.
• shared experiences of a group in a shared environment are important.
• the experience of creating a simulated environment or model is important to the
learning objective.
• information visualization is needed, manipulating and rearranging information,
using graphic symbols, so it can be more easily understood.
Reasons to Use VR in Education and Training
65
• a training situation needs to be made really real.
• needed to make perceptible the imperceptible.
• developing participatory environments and activities that can only exist as com-
puter-generated worlds.
• teaching tasks involving manual dexterity or physical movement.
• essential to make learning more interesting and fun.
• needed to give the disabled the opportunity to do experiments, and activities
that they cannot do otherwise.
• mistakes made by the learner or trainee using the real thing could be devastat-
ing and/or demoralizing to the learner, harmful to the environment, capable of
causing unintended property damage, capable of causing damage to equipment,
or costly.
Do not use virtual reality if
• no substitution is possible for teaching/training with the real thing.
• interaction with real humans, either teachers or students, is necessary.
• using a virtual environment could be physically or emotionally damaging.
• using a virtual environment can result in "literalization" (Stuart, 1992), a simu-
lation so convincing that some users could confuse model with reality.
• virtual reality is too expensive to justify using, considering the expected learning
outcome.
A model to determine when to use virtual reality
in education and training courses
Educators and trainers make use of many instructional aids in teaching courses, such
as textbooks, videotapes, films, computer software, and, increasingly, the Internet
and the World Wide Web with podcasts, blogs, and virtual environments. Learning
theory, instructional theory, learning styles, and types of intelligence are used to help
determine which type of aid or medium should be used. What is being taught, how it
is being taught, the behavioral outcome, and other factors also help determine the
medium chosen.
A course of study can be composed of hundreds of specific objectives, each of which
must be mastered by the student. Traditionally, objectives have been taught using
textbooks, lectures, discussions, and some forms of media. Virtual reality can be used
to teach some of these objectives, and it can be used to determine whether certain
objectives have been mastered.
V. S. Pantelidis
66
The educator or trainer must decide when and where to use VR. A model for deter-
mining when to use VR in any one course can help in making these decisions. Decid-
ing when to use VR leads to decisions on where to use VR.
The author proposes such a model. The model considers the research on the reasons
to use and advantages of using simulations, particularly computer-generated simula-
tions. Findings on reasons to use and advantages of using virtual reality are then con-
sidered. The author believes that using research findings for both computer-
generated simulations and virtual reality makes the model more flexible. Although
specific, the model is broad enough to adjust for changes in the technology of virtual
reality in the future.
The 10-step model to determine when to use virtual reality includes the following
steps.
Step 1. The specific course objectives are defined.
Step 2. The objectives that could use a simulation, a computer-generated simulation,
or virtual reality (a 3D simulation) as a measurement or means for attainment are
selected. Reasons to use and advantages of using simulations and virtual reality are
considered when making the selections.
Step 3. Refine the selection list by choosing those that can use a 3D simulation, using
virtual reality, as a measurement or means for attainment of course objectives.
Step 4. For every objective in the list, perform the following substeps:
Substep 1. Determine level of realism required, on a scale from very symbolic to very
real.
Substep 2. Determine type of immersion and presence needed, on a scale from no
immersion into the 3D environment (for example, desktop VR) to full immersion (us-
ing head-mounted display, gloves, and so forth), and no feeling of presence to strong
feeling of presence.
Substep 3. Determine type of interaction with, and sensory input and output to and
from, the virtual world or environment needed, (for example, haptic - tactile or feel-
ing, 3D sound, audio, visual, text, gesture).
Step 5. According to Step 5 choices, VR software, hardware and/or delivery system
(for example, Internet/World Wide Web) are chosen.
Reasons to Use VR in Education and Training
67
Step 6. The virtual environment (VE) is designed and built.
• According to requirements of the objective, it may be built
• by instructor or virtual world builder,
• by the students,
• or obtained prebuilt and modified.
Step 7. The resulting virtual environment is evaluated using a pilot group of students.
Step 8. Evaluation results are used to modify the virtual environment. Steps 7 and 8
are repeated until the virtual environment is shown to successfully measure or aid in
attainment of the objective.
Step 9. The virtual environment is evaluated using the target population.
Step 10. Evaluation results are used to modify the virtual environment. Steps 9 and
10 are repeated as needed to keep the virtual environment relevant to the objective.
Evaluation and modification continues as long as the virtual environment is used
with the target population.
The model is shown in Figure 1.
The author has used this model as part of student assignments in virtual reality
courses since 1995. It has been revised a number of times. The model is based on the
work of Dr. Leslie J. Briggs and Dr. Robert Gagné (see Gagné & Briggs, 1979, for a
thorough explanation of their model for instructional design).
It is a tribute to the work of Briggs and Gagné, and to that of leaders in the use of
simulation in teaching, such as Dr. Martha Jane K. Zachert (see Zachert, 1975; Zachert
& Pantelidis, 1971), that their models and the results of their work, can be adapted
and used with the still evolving technology of virtual reality at the beginning of the
21st century.
Conclusion
Virtual reality has a place in education and training. Research on educational applica-
tions of VR, as well as research on the educational use of simulations has shown its
value. There are many reasons to use VR and advantages to using VR. The educator or
trainer has only to determine when to use it. The use of a model can help make that
determination. Such a model can play a part in the continuing search for ways to use
virtual reality in education and training courses.
V. S. Pantelidis
68
Figure 1. Model for determining when to use virtual reality in education and
training courses. Copyright 1997, 2009 by Veronica Sexauer Pantelidis.
Reasons to Use VR in Education and Training
69
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