Associations Between Extracurricular Activity and Self-Regulation: A Longitudinal Study From 5 to 10 Years of Age

Abstract

Purpose:
Health promotion in youth is likely to benefit from enhancing academic achievement and physical activity. The present study examines how kindergarten childhood self-regulation skills and behaviors predict involvement in both structured and unstructured physical and nonphysical extracurricular activities in the fourth grade. As a second objective this study also investigated how kindergarten childhood participation in extracurricular activities predicts classroom engagement, reflective of self-regulation, by the fourth grade.

Design:
Secondary analyses were conducted using prospective-longitudinal data.

Setting:
The Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development, Quebec, Canada.

Subjects:
Participants were randomly selected at birth from a stratified sample of 2694 born in Québec, Canada, between 1997 and 1998. Participants were included if they had complete data on teacher ratings of child self-regulation as measured by classroom engagement and parent ratings of sports participation (n = 935).

Measures:
Teachers reported self-regulation skills in children through a measure of classroom engagement. Parents provided reports of child participation extracurricular activities.

Analysis:
Ordinary least-squares regressions were conducted.

Results:
A higher-frequency kindergarten involvement with structured physical activities was associated with fourth-grade classroom engagement (β = .061, 95% confidence interval [CI]: .017, .104). Better kindergarten classroom engagement predicted more frequent participation in fourth-grade structured physical activities (β = .799, 95% CI: .405, 1.192) and team sports (β = .408, 95% CI: .207, .608).

Conclusion:
Results suggest mutual relations between physical activity and self-regulation from kindergarten to grade four. This suggests strong learning skills indicative of self-regulation and opportunities to participate in supervised physical activities or sports teams may help children develop healthy dispositions and behaviors in emerging adolescence.

Full text

Physical Activity; Intellectual Health
Associations Between Extracurricular Activity and
Self-Regulation: A Longitudinal Study From 5 to
10 Years of Age
Genevie`ve Piche´, PhD; Caroline Fitzpatrick, PhD; Linda S. Pagani, PhD
Abstract
Purpose. Health promotion in youth is likely to benefit from enhancing academic achievement and
physical activity. The present study examines how kindergarten childhood self-regulation skills and
behaviors predict involvement in both structured and unstructured physical and nonphysical
extracurricular activities in the fourth grade. As a second objective this study also investigated how
kindergarten childhood participation in extracurricular activities predicts classroom engagement, reflective
of self-regulation, by the fourth grade.
Design. Secondary analyses were conducted using prospective-longitudinal data.
Setting. The Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development, Quebec, Canada.
Subjects. Participants were randomly selected at birth from a stratified sample of 2694 born in Que
´bec,
Canada, between 1997 and 1998. Participants were included if they had complete data on teacher ratings
of child self-regulation as measured by classroom engagement and parent ratings of sports participation (n
¼935).
Measures. Teachers reported self-regulation skills in children through a measure of classroom
engagement. Parents provided reports of child participation extracurricular activities.
Analysis. Ordinary least-squares regressions were conducted.
Results. A higher-frequency kindergarten involvement with structured physical activities was associated
with fourth-grade classroom engagement (b¼.061, 95% confidence interval [CI]: .017, .104). Better
kindergarten classroom engagement predicted more frequent participation in fourth-grade structured
physical activities (b¼.799, 95% CI: .405, 1.192) and team sports (b¼.408, 95% CI: .207, .608).
Conclusion. Results suggest mutual relations between physical activity and self-regulation from
kindergarten to grade four. This suggests strong learning skills indicative of self-regulation and
opportunities to participate in supervised physical activities or sports teams may help children develop
healthy dispositions and behaviors in emerging adolescence.(Am J Health Promot 2015;30[1]:e32–e40.)
Key Words: Self-Regulation, Sports Participation, Physical Activity, Classroom
Engagement, Extracurricular Activities, Prevention Research. Manuscript format:
research; research purpose: modeling/relationship testing, descriptive; Study
design: nonexperimental (longitudinal); Outcome measure: behavioral; Setting:
national; Health focus: fitness/physical activity, intellectual health; Strategy:
education, skill building/behavior change, policy; Target population age: youth;
Target population circumstances: geographic location
PURPOSE
The knowledge, skills, and compe-
tencies children possess when they
begin their academic journey set the
course for their subsequent achieve-
ment
1
and academic attainment in the
teenage years.
2
In fact, the process
leading to high school dropout can be
judiciously traced to kindergarten.
Child characteristics in kindergarten
significantly forecast academic attain-
ment by age 22.
3,4
In turn, school
dropout determines one’s future con-
tribution to society, as labor force
participants, parents, and health care
consumers.
5
Because its determinants
are traceable, the identification of
kindergarten preparedness character-
istics is of utmost importance. Kinder-
garten mathematics and reading
ability, in particular, predict much of
the variance in school achievement.
1,6
A self-regulation component reflect-
ing child ability to remain engaged and
show persistence during learning tasks
also predicts achievement, even be-
yond the contribution of IQ.
7,8
Such
behaviors, observed in terms of cogni-
tive, emotional, and behavioral di-
Genevie
`ve Piche
´, PhD, is with the Department of Psychoeducation and Psychology, Universite
´du Que
´bec en Outaouais, Saint-Jerome, Quebec,
Canada, and the Institut Universitaire en Sante
´Mentale de Montre
´al (IUSMM), Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Caroline Fitzpatrick, PhD, is with the
PERFORM Center, Concordia University and with the Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, Universite
´de Montreal, Montreal, Quebec,
Canada. Linda S. Pagani, PhD, is with the Universite
´de Montre
´al, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Send reprint requests to Genevie`ve Piche´, PhD, Department of Psychoeducation and Psychology, Universite´duQue´bec en Outaouais, 5 rue St-
Joseph, Saint-Jerome, QC, Canada J7Z 0B7; genevieve.piche@uqo.ca.
This manuscript was submitted October 21, 2013; revisions were requested February 7, 2014; the manuscript was accepted for publication May 23, 2014.
Copyright Ó2015 by American Journal of Health Promotion, Inc.
0890-1171/15/$5.00
þ
0
DOI: 10.4278/ajhp.131021-QUAN-537
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mensions, are likely to represent out-
comes of a high level of inhibitory
control skills, which are involved in
effortful, goal-directed, and self-disci-
plined behavior.
8,9
To remain on task
and engaged in the classroom, chil-
dren require good self-regulation
skills.
10
For example, cooperation with
teachers and other students keeping
information online to answer ques-
tions, the ability to inhibit maladaptive
behaviors, and following instructions
all draw upon self-regulation skills.
11
Moreover, children showing a high
level of physical aggression, impulsivity,
and emotional distress are likely to
present poor self-regulation skills.
12
One recent approach to support the
development of self-regulation skills
and classroom engagement is the
promotion of extracurricular activities,
especially physical activities, both in
and outside the curriculum.
13
Advo-
cates of this proposal indicate that
exercise and physical activities may
improve cognitive skills, including
those related to inhibition and control
of one’s behavior, attention, and emo-
tions.
14–16
Recent cross-sectional stud-
ies among child samples suggest that
sport and physical activities are posi-
tively associated with IQ, cognitive
skills, and academic achievement.
17–21
To explain the link between physical
activity and self-regulation skills, sever-
al pathways have been proposed, in-
cluding that exercise may induce
physiological changes in the brain.
Other authors highlight the impor-
tance of taking into account the high
levels of cognitive demands that many
sporting activities require (i.e., antici-
pating teammates’ behavior, use of
strategies).
15
It is hypothesized that the
inhibitory control skills developed
through participation in team sports
and other structured physical activities
may then be transferred to other
contexts of the child’s life such as in
the classroom.
Yet a chicken and egg problem
emerges when studying physical activi-
ty, self-regulation, and cognitive skills.
Results remain unclear, as some re-
search suggests that optimal self-regu-
lation may in turn predict regular
physical activity habits and academic
performance.
22,23
Children with a
higher level of self-discipline may more
readily meet the challenges associated
with participation in structured sport
and physical activities on a regular
basis. Also, some children may remain
inactive because they lack the necessary
self-regulatory skills.
24
It is possible that
self-regulation skills and physical activ-
ity have a positive, reciprocal relation,
where one enhances the other. To the
best of our knowledge, no epidemio-
logical longitudinal-prospective study
has addressed these relationships from
kindergarten through to emerging
adolescence in a population-based
sample. Also, none of these studies
have tested the reciprocal effects be-
tween participation in sport and phys-
ical activities and self-regulation skills.
Finally, it is still unclear if both
structured and unstructured sport and
physical activities have the same posi-
tive influence on self-regulation skills.
Most of the literature focuses on the
benefits of physical activity on self-
regulation. However, some studies
suggest that structured extracurricular
activities that are nonathletic in nature,
but cognitively engaging, may also
promote child self-regulation skills.
25–
27
As a vast number of children
participate and enjoy being involved in
extracurricular activities, such as music
lessons, their potential contribution to
self-regulation also merits investiga-
tion.
Using data from the Que´bec Longi-
tudinal Study of Child Development
(QLSCD), the present study investi-
gated prospective reciprocal associa-
tions between child participation in
extracurricular activities and self-regu-
lation skills. More specifically, this
study addressed the two following main
research questions: (1) does participa-
tion in extracurricular activities (phys-
ical and nonphysical activities) in
kindergarten predict fourth-grade self-
regulatory skills, and (2) do kinder-
garten self-regulation skills and behav-
iors (classroom engagement, physical
aggression, impulsivity, and emotional
distress) predict later participation in
structured physical activities and team
sports? These relations were examined
while controlling for preexisting child
and family characteristics such as
baseline physical activity, self-regula-
tion, and cognitive ability.
We postulated that better child self-
regulation skills, assessed through
classroom engagement, would be asso-
ciated with more sports participation
in the fourth grade and that lower
levels of unregulated behaviors, as-
sessed through physical aggression,
impulsivity, and emotional distress,
would be associated with less health-
promoting outcomes. For exploratory
hypotheses, we predicted that neither
structured social activities nor nonath-
letic lessons would be associated with
either fourth-grade outcome. We also
hypothesized developmental continui-
ty between early and later measures of
the same constructs (i.e., physical
activity to physical activity, self-regula-
tion to self-regulation). Finally, pro-
spective long-term association between
kindergarten physical activity and
fourth-grade self-regulation skills were
also expected.
METHODS
The QLSCD is a public data set
coordinated by the Institut de la
Statistique du Que´bec. Data from the
QLSCD have been used in several
previous studies examining self-regula-
tion and school readiness in relation to
child health promotion and academic
achievement. Furthermore, the
QLSCD has been extensively used for
numerous studies addressing child
development, academic adjustment,
and health more generally.
28–30
For a
complete list readers are invited to
consult the following Web site: http://
www.jesuisjeserai.stat.gouv.qc.ca/.
This sample originates from a ran-
domly selected stratified sample of
2837 infants born between 1997 and
1998 in each public health geographic
area in Quebec, Canada (see Figure).
The population in Quebec, Canada,
consisted of over 7 million individuals
at that time. At the inception of the
study 93 children were deemed ineli-
gible and 172 were untraceable be-
cause of incorrect coordinates. Of the
2572 remaining children, 14 were
unreachable and 438 refused partici-
pation. Of these, 39% were firstborn.
Participants were included in this
institutional review board–approved
study if they had complete data on
teacher ratings of kindergarten class-
room engagement and parent ratings
of sports participation (n ¼935). Boys
and girls were equally represented in
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the sample (49.2% boys). Predictors
and outcomes were measured at the
end of the kindergarten (at 6 years;
mean ¼74 months) and fourth-grade
school years (at 10 years; mean ¼122
months).
Procedure
Families, teachers, and school prin-
cipals received informed consent forms
by mail. Teachers and families also
received and returned questionnaires
by mail. From kindergarten onward,
data collection took place in the
spring. Trained research assistants in-
terviewed parents by phone or in
person. Parents were compensated in
the amount of $25 and were informed
that their child would receive a small
gift. Direct assessments were mostly
done at school. When unable to be
evaluated at school, some children
were evaluated at home.
Measures
Physical Activity and Team Sports.In
kindergarten, parents indicated, over
the course of the past 12 months, how
often their child had taken part in
structured physical activities such as
dance, gymnastics, martial arts, or
circus arts with a coach or trainer and
structured sports in terms of organized
sports with a coach or instructor. Child
participation was coded as either 0
(almost never or once a month), 1
moderate (once a week or one com-
plete session), or 2 (almost every day,
several times per week, or 2 complete
sessions).
In kindergarten, parents also indi-
cated how often their child was in-
volved in unstructured physical
activities without a coach or instructor.
Parents made responses using a five-
point continuous Likert scale that
included (1) almost never, (2) once a
month, (3) once a week, (4) several
times a week, (5) every day. Child
participation was coded as either 0
(almost never or once a month), 1
(once a week), or 2 (every day or
several times a week).
When children were in fourth grade,
parents indicated how many sports
teams their child had been a part of
over the course of the previous sum-
mer. Responses ranged from 1 (no
sports) to 7 (six or more team sports).
Parents also indicated how often their
child had engaged in physical activities
or sports with a trainer from 1 (never)
to 7 (5 or more times a week).
Nonphysical Activity. In kindergarten,
parents reported over the course of the
past 12 months, how often their child
had taken part in (1) structured social
activities such as clubs, community, or
religious groups, and (2) structured
nonathletic lessons such as music, art,
or drama. Child participation was
coded as either 0 (almost never or
once a month), 1 moderate (once a
week or one complete session), or 2
(almost every day, several times per
week, or two complete sessions).
Self-Regulation. Consistent with current
theory, we assessed self-regulation in
terms of its cognitive, emotional, and
behavioral dimensions through a mea-
sure of classroom engagement.
11
Kin-
dergarten and fourth-grade teachers
each rated child classroom engage-
ment reflecting the extent to which the
child demonstrated the following 11
items pertaining to student work ori-
entation, compliance, and persistence
in the classroom: works cooperatively
with other children, follows directions,
follows rules, follows instructions,
completes work on time, works inde-
pendently, listens attentively, works
neatly and carefully, puts a lot of effort
into work, participates in class, and ask
questions when he/she does not un-
Figure
Flow Chart of Participants From the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child
Development
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derstand.
31,32
Kindergarten items were
rated on a Likert scale with response
options 1 (never), 2 (sometimes), and
3 (always). Fourth-grade items were
rated on a Likert scale with response
options including 1 (never), 2 (rarely),
3 (sometimes), 4 (often), and 5 (al-
ways). Scale reliability was high at both
assessments: a¼.94 for the grade four
and kindergarten measures of class-
room engagement.
In order to verify if other measures
of child self-regulation in kindergarten
also predicted later outcomes, parent
and teacher ratings of three behavioral
measures of self-regulation were in-
cluded in the analyses: child impulsiv-
ity, physical aggression, and emotional
distress. Parents and teachers provided
ratings of child impulsivity (could not
sit still, was restless and hyperactive;
had trouble sticking to any activity;
could not stop fidgeting; was impulsive,
acted without thinking; had difficulty
waiting for his or her turn; could not
settle down to do anything for more
than a few moments; was easily dis-
tracted; was inattentive; and was unable
to concentrate, could not pay attention
for long, a¼.91); physical aggression
(hit, bit, or kicked other children; got
into fights with another child; and
physically attacked people, a¼.85
);and emotional distress (seems un-
happy or sad, is not as happy as other
children, has no energy, is feeling
tired, cries a lot, has trouble enjoying
himself or herself, and is unable to
make decisions, a¼.79) using the
Social Behaviors Questionnaire.
33
We
computed composite scores converted
on a scale from 0 to 10 from teacher
and parent evaluations to provide a
more robust assessment of children’s
behavioral characteristics.
Control Variables. Family and child
preexisting and baseline characteristics
that could possibly confound the rela-
tionship between our predictors and
outcomes were also measured (see
Table 1). Family controls included
parent reports of maternal education
(finishing high school ¼1 and not ¼0)
measured when children were 5
months old; family configuration (al-
ways intact ¼1 or not ¼0) derived from
the 5-, 17-, and 29-month assessments;
and a continuous indicator of family
functioning. Family functioning scores
represent the mean of scores from the
5- and 17-month assessments (i.e.,
‘‘planning family activities is difficult
because we misunderstand each other’’
or ‘‘we avoid discussing our fears or
concerns’’) where lower levels of the
variables are associated with less family
functioning problems.
34
When chil-
dren were in kindergarten, trained
examiners provided direct assessment
of cognitive ability using the Lollipop
Test
35
; body mass index
36
; and motor
ability in terms of locomotion and
object control using the Test of Gross
Motor Development.
37
Data Analytic Procedures
We estimated three ordinary least-
squares regressions. In a first equation,
we regressed fourth-grade measures of
sports participation on kindergarten
classroom engagement and sports par-
ticipation. In a second equation, we
regressed fourth-grade measures of
team sport participation on kindergar-
ten predictors. In a third equation, we
regressed fourth-grade classroom en-
gagement skills on kindergarten pre-
dictors. In order to account for
possible omitted variable bias, we
included preexisting and concurrent
individual and family characteristics,
which are likely to explain the rela-
tionship between our independent and
dependent variables. In the present
analyses, variables were entered simul-
taneously in a single step (see Table 2).
Attrition
This study required a substantial
amount of data from several sources
and ages. An attrition analysis com-
paring the retained cases at kindergar-
ten (N ¼935) and the nonretained (N
¼1185) cases from the original sample
(n ¼2120) at 5 months on demo-
graphic variables revealed that chil-
dren in the retained sample reported
less family functioning problems (x¼
1.45. vs. 1.60, t[2106] ¼2.63, p,.01),
had more educated mothers (x¼.83
vs. .78, t[2113] ¼3.06, p,.01), and
were more likely to come from intact
families (x¼.23 vs. .29, t[2116] ¼3.02,
p,.01).
At the fourth-grade follow-up, 60.4%
of participants had complete data
across outcomes, 24.4% were missing
data on 1 outcome, and 12.6% were
missing data on more than 2 outcome
variables. A second attrition analysis
compared participants with complete
data on grade four outcomes with
participants with at least one missing
outcome. Participants with complete
outcome data experienced more family
functioning problems (x¼1.33 vs. 1.65,
t[932] ¼4.04, p,.001), were less likely
to come from a single-parent family, (x
¼.19 vs. .30, t[932] ¼3.85, p,.001),
were more likely to have a mother with
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics for the Study Variables
Variables Minimum–Maximum Mean (SD)
Dependent variables (fourth grade)
1. Classroom engagement 1–5 3.93 (0.64)
2. Team sports 1–7 2.69 (1.88)
3. Structured physical activity 0–2 2.07 (1.40)
Independent variables (kindergarten)
Self-regulation
1. Classroom engagement 1–3 2.69 (0.37)
2. Physical aggression 0–9 1.28 (1.66)
3. Impulsivity 0–9 3.02 (1.86)
4. Emotional distress 0–6 1.92 (1.14)
Extracurricular activity
5. Structured sports 0–2 0.72 (0.82)
6. Structured physical activity 0–2 0.50 (0.71)
7. Unstructured physical activity 0–2 1.45 (0.79)
8. Structured social activity 0–2 0.05 (0.25)
9. Structured lessons 0–2 0.13 (0.39)
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a high school diploma (x¼.89 vs. .73,
t[933] ¼6.46, p,.001), displayed less
impulsivity and emotional distress at
kindergarten entry (x¼2.88 vs. 3.24,
t[933] ¼2.93, p,.01 and x¼1.81 vs.
2.10, t(933] ¼3.87, p,.001, respec-
tively), and scored higher on kinder-
garten cognitive ability (x¼58.36 vs.
56.44, t[933] ¼4.02, p,.001).
We imputed missing data on the
outcome measures and control vari-
ables using the NORM multiple impu-
tation program.
38
This program uses
an iterative approach based on an
expectation-maximization algorithm to
impute missing data from available and
valid observations in the original data
set. This technique is considered an
exemplary method for treating missing
data.
39
RESULTS
The average kindergarten classroom
engagement score for the entire sam-
ple was 2.68 (SD ¼.37). Girls scored
higher on classroom engagement than
boys (x¼2.76 vs. 2.59, t[964] ¼6.89, p
,.001). Children from single-parent
families and children with mothers
who did not have a high school
diploma scored lower on classroom
engagement (x¼2.56 vs. 2.71, t[660] ¼
4.84, p,.001 and x¼2.62 vs. 2.70,
t[664] ¼2.44, p,.001, respectively).
The means for sports and other phys-
ical activities were .72 (SD ¼.82) and
.50 (SD ¼.71) respectively.
Fourth-Grade Classroom Engagement
A one-unit increase in kindergarten
classroom engagement scores predict-
ed fourth-grade increments in class-
room engagement (unstandardized b
¼.412, 95% confidence interval [CI]:
.287, .537). Unit increases in kinder-
garten physical aggression and impul-
sivity were each associated with
decreases in later classroom engage-
ment scores (unstandardized b¼
.029, 95% CI: .053, .006, and
unstandardized b¼.050, 95% CI:
.075, .024) respectively. Emotional
distress was unrelated to fourth-grade
classroom engagement.
Children more involved in struc-
tured sports in kindergarten had
higher classroom engagement scores
(unstandardized b¼.061, 95% CI:
.017, .104). Participation in other types
of physical activities or other extracur-
ricular activities was not significantly
associated with later classroom en-
gagement.
Fourth-Grade Structured Physical
Activity and Team Sports
Children more involved in struc-
tured sports during kindergarten par-
ticipated in more weekly sessions of
structured physical activities (unstan-
dardized b¼.528, 95% CI: .392, .664)
and were involved in more team sports
(unstandardized b¼.160, 95% CI:
.090, .229) in fourth grade. Participa-
tion in structured physical activities
(such as dance or gymnastics) was also
related to later weekly participation in
structured physical activities (unstan-
dardized b¼.259, 95% CI: .106, .411).
Unstructured physical activity, as other
nonphysical activities, was unrelated
with later structured physical activity or
sports (see Table 3).
A one-unit increase in kindergarten
classroom engagement scores predict-
ed fourth-grade weekly sessions of
structured physical activities (unstan-
dardized b¼.799, 95% CI: .405, 1.192)
and participation in team sports (un-
standardized b¼.408, 95% CI: .207,
.608). Increments on physical aggres-
sion were also associated with more
team sport involvement (unstandard-
ized b¼.110, 95% CI: .073, .148). Both
impulsivity and emotional distress were
unrelated to later health-promoting
outcomes.
DISCUSSION
As expected, the present findings
suggest a reciprocal positive association
between self-regulation skills and
Table 2
Bivariate Correlations Between Dependent and Independent Variables†
123456789101112
Outcomes
1. Classroom engagement — 0.078* 0.163*** 0.508*** 0.341*** 0.464*** 0.225*** 0.136*** 0.166*** 0.01 0.038 0.063
2. Team sports — 0.331*** 0.114*** 0.174*** 0.010 0.047 0.238*** 0.009 0.021 0.041 0.037
3. Structured PA — 0.188*** 0.013 0.079* 0.116*** 0.327*** 0.166*** 0.008 0.023 0.073*
Predictors (kindergarten)
4. Classroom engagement — 0.384*** 0.663*** 0.332*** 0.119*** 0.114*** 0.041 0.038 0.079*
5. Physical aggression — 0.481*** 0.195*** 0.012 0.135*** 0.021 0.004 0.047
6. Impulsivity — 0.352*** 0.017 0.083* 0.013 0.03 0.056
7. Emotional distress — 0.060 0.104** 0.055 0.002 0.062
8. Structured sports — 0.153*** 0.038 0.025 0.058
9. Structured PA — 0.036 0.063 0.091**
10. Unstructured PA — 0.003 0.057
11. Structured SA — 0.007
12. Structured lessons —
† PA indicates physical activity; and SA, social activity.
*p,0.05.
** p,0.01.
*** p,0.001.
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structured physical activity. This find-
ing was found above and beyond
controlling for preexisting characteris-
tics such as baseline physical activity
and cognitive abilities. There are no
longitudinal-prospective studies, to the
best of our knowledge, that have
investigated this possible bidirectional
influence, especially among a repre-
sentative population-based sample of
children. Furthermore, none of these
studies has verified the unique and
independent influence of various types
of extracurricular physical activities
(structured, unstructured sports) and
nonphysical activities (e.g., music les-
sons) on self-regulation skills in chil-
dren.
First, our findings highlight the
contribution of structured sports for
later self-regulation skills. Cross-sec-
tional research has produced similar
findings with a sample of adoles-
cents.
40,41
In interpreting these results,
it may appear as though the structured
or supervised nature of the physical
activities rather than their athletic
orientation was the source of influence
in this association. However, the pre-
sent study did not support this hy-
pothesis because participation in
structured nonathletic activities (e.g.,
music lessons, religious activities) did
not have a similar effect on the later
outcomes. Results suggest that early
participation in sports facilitate the
development of self-regulation skills
such as effortful, goal-directed, and
self-disciplined behavior. Children in-
volved in team sports, in particular,
may develop a unique sense of be-
longing to their group of peers and
coaches. Being part of a special group
that has a common goal of thriving to
win may heighten the importance of
respecting the rules and keeping re-
sponsibilities. Also, as postulated earli-
er, the complex cognitive demands
placed on children involved in team
sports may promote acquisition of
highly regulated behaviors and emo-
tions, which then transfers to other
contexts.
Second, kindergarten child self-
regulation, as reported by classroom
engagement, was related to later
structured physical activity and sports
participation. Children who were bet-
ter able to follow instructions and
remain focused in the classroom were
involved in more structured physical
activity by the fourth grade even after
taking into account their baseline
physical activity. Our findings are
consistent with two theoretical mod-
els, social cognitive theory
42
and the-
ory of planned behavior,
43
which
suggestthatself-regulationskillsmay
predict physical activity level and
other health promoting–related be-
haviors. Prior research has shown a
positive association between self-regu-
latory skills and later health-related
behaviors like physical activity and
sports participation.
22,23
Thus, chil-
dren who are better able to self-
regulate and master their own behav-
ior may be more likely to develop and
sustain inclinations towards exercising
during the transition from childhood
to adolescence. The emotional and
behavioral components of child self-
regulation were also measured
through physical aggression, impul-
sivity, and emotional distress. These
variables were unrelated to later
physical activity or team sports, with
the exception of physical aggression.
Children showing higher levels of
physical aggression were found to be
more involved in fourth-grade team
sports than less aggressive children.
Team sports are competitive and
sometimes involve aggressive behav-
iors. As such, it is possible that a
certainamountofaggressivebehavior
benefits team sports participation.
Third, as hypothesized, the more
children engage in structured and
Table 3
Unstandardized Regression Coefficients Reflecting the Relationship Between Kindergarten and Fourth-Grade Measures of
Self-Regulation, Physical Activity, and Team Sports†
Independent and Control Variables
Fourth-Grade
Classroom Engagement
Fourth-Grade
Structured Physical Activity
Fourth-Grade
Team Sports
Independent variables (kindergarten)
Self-regulation
1. Classroom engagement 0.412 (0.287, 0.537)*** 0.799 (0.405, 1.192)*** 0.408 (0.207, 0.608)***
2. Physical aggression 0.029 (0.053, 0.006)* ns 0.110 (0.073, 0.148)***
3. Impulsivity 0.050 (0.075, 0.024)*** ns ns
4. Emotional distress ns ns ns
Extracurricular activity
5. Structured sports 0.061 (0.017, 0.104)** 0.528 (0.392, 0.664)*** 0.160 (0.090, 0.229)***
6. Structured physical activity ns 0.259 (0.106, 0.411)** ns
7. Unstructured physical activity ns ns ns
8. Structured social activity ns ns ns
9. Structured lessons ns ns ns
Adjusted R
2
0.367 0.152 0.170
† Regression models control for child sex, body mass index, locomotion, object control, cognitive ability, family configuration, maternal education, and
family functioning. Upper and lower bound estimates of the 95% confidence intervals are presented in parentheses. ns indicates not significant.
*p,0.05.
** p,0.01.
*** p,0.001.
American Journal of Health Promotion September/October 2015, Vol. 30, No. 1 e37
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supervised physical activities in kinder-
garten, the more they seem to main-
tain these pursuits 4 years later. This
finding converges with previous studies
that have highlighted the relative long-
term stability of healthy lifestyle choic-
es.
44–46
It is possible that parents are
responsible for their children’s partic-
ipation in physical activities in kinder-
garten. Parents who value physical
activity may be more likely to enroll
their child into structured sports and
transmit such values to their child.
Nevertheless, the significant associa-
tion between kindergarten and fourth-
grade participation in sport-related
activities suggests either that parents
remain influential or that children are
actively involved in the parent’s deci-
sion to register them for sports at age
10. It is worth noting that our results
remained significant after controlling
for family and socioeconomic factors
likely to influence participation in
after-school activities, such as maternal
education, family functioning, and
family configuration. Our results sug-
gest that early involvement in struc-
tured sporting activities, regardless of
the motivation, forecasts later involve-
ment in sports. Also, participation in
unstructured sports, structured social
activities, or nonathletic lessons (e.g.,
music, art or drama) did not predict
structured sports or participation in
team sports. Only those children en-
gaged in structured physical activities
and team sports on a regular basis were
likely to pursue their involvement 4
years later.
Fourth, we found developmental
continuity between first- and fourth-
grade self-regulation skills and behav-
iors. Children who are highly engaged
in their classroom at the beginning of
their school trajectory seem to main-
tain their engagement 3 years later.
Also, a higher level of impulsivity and
physical aggression, both examples of
unregulated behaviors in childhood
years, were inversely related to later
classroom engagement. These findings
are consistent with past research
showing developmental continuity in
attention and inhibitory control across
childhood.
47
Our results remained
significant even after controlling for
early child factors likely to influence
self-regulation skills such as cognitive
ability. These findings suggest the
importance of intervening early to
boost cognitive and executive function
ability to promote classroom engage-
ment and school achievement, as well
as prevent the incidence of behavioral
problems (e.g., externalizing disor-
ders) in children.
Limitations
Three limitations merit discussion.
First, the correlational design of this
study prevents us from inferring cau-
sality. Nonetheless, the use of a longi-
tudinal design also allows us to
determine the temporal precedence of
our independent variables. To reduce
the possibility of third variable bias, we
have included baseline measures of
physical activity and self-regulation. In
order to prospectively control for ad-
ditional confounding factors, our
analyses also took into account child
psychosocial skills and cognitive ability,
and family characteristics linked to
socioeconomic status. Second, selective
attrition also represents a limit, inher-
ent to most longitudinal designs.
However, in order to reduce the influ-
ence of selection bias on our results, we
performed multiple imputations. This
technique is considered an exemplary
method for treating missing data given
that it provides a realistic estimate of
standard error terms.
38
Third, the coefficients in the present
study range from small to moderate.
Nonetheless, from a cumulative risk
perspective, even relatively small effects
remain important when high-stake
public health outcomes such as self-
regulation and school engagement are
the object of investigation.
Practical Implications
In North America, obesity preva-
lence rates and sedentariness are
growing among youth, contributing to
a wide range of lifetime health risks. In
the long term, physical inactivity is
related to decreased productivity and
absenteeism.
46,48–50
In turn, the eco-
nomic burden of physical inactivity in
Canada in 2009 was estimated at $6.8
billion.
46
School disengagement and
dropout are also major concerns in
occidental societies as they predict a
wide range of social, health, and
economic consequences. Results of the
present study suggest that kindergar-
ten self-regulation and sports partici-
pation may represent valuable
intervention targets given their inde-
pendent contribution to optimal child
functioning in the fourth grade. Inter-
vention strategies to promote both of
those important aspects of child de-
velopment in day care settings, schools,
and communities should be developed
and encouraged.
First, it seems important to promote
the development of early child regula-
tory characteristics to help children
develop classroom engagement. Stud-
ies have shown that some educational
enrichment programs can enhance
self-regulation in 4- to 5-year-olds
9,14,51
and promote academic success.
52
In
particular, experimental evaluations
9,51
strongly suggest the effectiveness of
Tools of the Mind and the Montessori
preschool program toward improving
child executive functions, participation
in learning, and academic achieve-
ment. Also, the importance of positive,
supportive. and autonomy-promoting
parent-child relationships in the de-
velopment of child self-regulation skills
has been recently underlined.
53
In this
context, universal programs targeting
such positive parenting skills (i.e.,
Triple P
54
) may be an interesting
resource to help children develop self-
regulation. Our results suggest that
such programs may indirectly, in the
long run, also help to promote physical
activity in children.
Second, it may be advantageous for
schools to offer a variety of extracur-
ricular structured physical activities
and sports teams for their pupils, even
as early as school entry. Also, it is
suggested that they target children at
higher risk of sedentariness and those
presenting behavioral problems, who
may benefit more from participating in
these sporting activities. Third, com-
munities constitute a unique setting
for promoting recreational physical
and educational enrichment activities.
As a result, initiatives to increase public
access to parks and playgrounds should
be encouraged in order to allow
children and their families to engage
in team sports (i.e., basketball, base-
ball). Fourth, it is suggested that the
results of this study be used by policy
makers, to help promote (1) active
schools and communities and (2) the
access to preschool or school educa-
tional enrichment programs that target
self-regulation skills.
e38 American Journal of Health Promotion September/October 2015, Vol. 30, No. 1
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Acknowledgments
This research was funded by the Social Sciences and
Humanities Research Council of Canada held by Dr. L.
Pagani. The authors report no conflict of interest.
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SO WHAT? Implications for
Health Promotion Practitioners
and Researchers
What is already known on this topic?
Child physical inactivity and school
dropout are costly for individuals and
society, because they forecast later
adult well-being, health, and pro-
ductivity.
What does this article add?
Our findings suggest that promot-
ing active behaviors may help im-
prove population patterns of
sedentariness and academic disen-
gagement.
What are the implications for health
promotion practice or research?
The present study can inform
school policy and public health. Our
results suggest it may be advanta-
geous for schools to (1) target
children at higher risk of sedentari-
ness or low sports participation and
(2) increase the number of possible
structured physical activities and
sports offered to children. Also,
communities constitute a unique
setting for promoting recreational
physical and educational enrichment
activities. As a result it is important
that policies support these initiatives
in order to ensure that all families
have access to structured physical
activities.
American Journal of Health Promotion September/October 2015, Vol. 30, No. 1 e39
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May be distributed widely by e-mail.
Posting on Web sites prohibited.

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e40 American Journal of Health Promotion September/October 2015, Vol. 30, No. 1
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