Article

Land-use/cover changes and their drivers on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania

March 2012
Journal of Geography and Regional Planning 5(6)

DOI:10.5897/JGRP11.050

Authors:

Salome Misana

University of Dar es Salaam

Cosmas Sokoni

University of Dar es Salaam

This paper presents the findings of a study that analyzed land use and cover change, their driving forces and the socio-economic implications on the southern and eastern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro. This study is based on data extracted from remote sensing techniques using 1973, 1984 and 1999/2000 satellite images and household interviews. The major change detected in the study area from satellite images was expansion of cultivation at the expense of natural vegetation. The area under cultivation increased from 54% in 1973 to 62 and 63% in 1984 and 2000, respectively. Expansion and intensification of cultivation were noted particularly in the lowlands while some forest areas in the highlands had become degraded. These changes led to changes in cropping patterns and crop diversification, declined productivity of land and food insecurity. The underlying drivers of these changes were demographic, government policies, economic factors, socio-cultural factors including the land tenure system, institutional factors, technological change and infrastructure development. Investments in irrigation technology, introduction of new crop varieties and government interventions to support the poor are required to improve the productivity of land and reduce the vulnerability of the people to environmental perturbations, including drought.

Evaluating the Influence of Climate and Topography on Mount Kilimanjaro Vegetation: A Comparative Analysis Using MODIS NDVI and Weather Station Data (2000–2022)

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2025
INT J CLIMATOL

Climatic and topographic factors are critical for influencing vegetation cover, especially in mountainous areas. This study investigates vegetation dynamics in the South‐Western (SW) and North‐Eastern (NE) zones of Kilimanjaro over the past two decades. We used the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data, focusing on Normalised Differential Vegetation Index (NDVI) trends and their relationship with climatic and topographic factors. The NDVI dataset for 2000–2022 was combined with Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data and corresponding climatic and topographic indices across different elevation zones. Time series analysis shows positive NDVI trends in both zones, with the NE zone exhibiting more significant increases, particularly at lower elevations (665–1800 m), while the SW zone shows positive trends mainly at higher elevations (4000–5000 m). Climatic analysis reveals a complex relationship between NDVI, temperature, and humidity, with the NE zone showing more consistent correlations and the SW zone displaying more variability, especially in the montane forest zone. A Random Forest (RF) regression model highlights the differing importance of climatic and topographic factors: elevation and temperature are the most significant predictors of NDVI in the NE zone, while humidity is the key factor in the SW zone. Overall, these results highlight the differential impacts of climate and topography on vegetation dynamics in the NE and SW zones, reflecting the complex interplay of these factors in influencing vegetation health and distribution. Future work will involve studying the effects of vegetation cover changes and climate heterogeneities on water availability on the slopes of Kilimanjaro to support effective water resource management.

Farming systems and soil fertility management practices in smallholdings on the southern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2024

In the northern part of Tanzania, the slopes of Mount (Mt.) Kilimanjaro are the most important areas, both in terms of socio-economic development and ecological succession. The main agricultural systems in the area are banana-based (in the highlands) and maize-based (in the lowlands), with strong interlinkage between them via residual transfer from the lowlands to the mountains. This study assessed the soil fertility status between the two contrasting farming areas of highland and lowland farms in Hai district along the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro. To achieve this, smallholder farmers along the slope [from above 1000 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l) banana-based down to maize-based, i.e., less than 1000 m.a.s.l] who practice crop residual transfer from maize-based to banana-based farming systems were selected. Qualitative information regarding the demographics, farming practices, and soil fertility management in the two areas were gathered using a semi-structured questionnaire. Soils from both areas (highland and lowland farms) were collected and analyzed in the laboratory for the key soil properties. The demographic results show that agriculture is mostly done by adults and elders (>40 years old). Manure was most commonly reported to be used in the highlands, while inorganic fertilizers were mainly used in lowland areas. The major challenges for soil fertility management are a shortage of manure and high cost of inorganic fertilizers. The results of soil nutrients revealed that lowland zones (>1000 m.a.s.l) had significantly ( p< 0.01) lower levels of nitrogen (0.14%) and organic carbon (OC) (1.22%) compared with highland zones. Extractable phosphorus (P) was significantly lower in both the highland and lowland zones, at 9.3 mg kg ⁻¹ and 8.2 mg kg ⁻¹ , respectively, compared with other nutrients. However, potassium (K ⁺ ) was significantly ( p <0.01) lower [0.34 cmol (+) kg ⁻¹ ] in the highland zone compared to lowland areas. The data show that there is a severe depletion of soil nutrients in the lowland area of Hai district. Notwithstanding the efforts of the small-holder farmers; the study comes to the conclusion that increasing agricultural yield and the sustainability of farming systems require replenishing the nutrients in the soil along the slope of Mount Kilimanjaro.

Factors influencing community’s adoption of domestic water conservation measures in Moshi Rural District, Tanzania

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2023

Water conservation is necessary to minimize water losses and meet the needs of the growing population. While several domestic water conservation measures (WCMs) have been developed and promoted among households in Africa, the extent of adoption and factors associated with their adoption are not well understood. We conducted an analysis to assess the current level of adoption and identify factors associated with household adoption of domestic WCMs through interviews with 150 randomly selected household heads from six villages in northern Tanzania. On average, 60% of the respondents reported implementing various WCMs whereas 40% did not implement any measures. The most adopted WCM was rainwater harvesting in water tanks, followed by wastewater reuse and the utilization of alternative cleaning methods such as brooms and towels. The likelihood of adopting WCMs was found to be higher among single heads of household compared to married heads of household. Additionally, adoption was negatively correlated with age but positively correlated with the distance between the household's residence and alternative water sources. We recommend targeting water conservation education at elderly individuals, married couples, and those residing near water sources to improve domestic water conservation practices within local communities.

Hydrological response to land use and land cover change on the slopes of Kilimanjaro and Meru Mountains

Article

Aug 2022

Land use and cover change are closely linked to catchment hydrology characteristics. Land uses and cover determine the ability of the catchment to collect, store, and release water. The catchment water storage and flow ability affect the quantity and timing of runoff, soil erosion, and sediment transport downstream. Agriculture on of the major drivers for the changes in water flow pathways, which also causes a catastrophic shift of aquatic ecosystems. We assessed the impact of land-use changes on the water flow characteristics in the Upper Pangani Sub catchment using the hydrologic model Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). Land use and cover changes within the Upper Pangani Sub catchment were analyzed between 1987 and 2017 using QGIS. The result shows that agriculture has expanded from 96,737 ha to 314,871 ha between 1987 and 2017. Bare land and built-up land have gained 14690 ha and 7083 ha respectively during this period. Land-use changes have affected the basin's land cover. Forest has decreased from 196558 ha to 106839 ha between 1987 and 2017. Bush land cover has lost 83445 ha during this period. Bushland cover fall victim to agricultural activities, whereas forest is cleared for logging and fire incidences. Consequently, surface runoff has increased from 60.84 to 73.02 (20.6% increase) between 1987 and 2017. Sediment yield has increase from 6.9 to 12.74 ton/ha (46% increase), and groundwater recharge has decreased from 106.53 to 99.56 (6.5% decrease). It concluded that land cover transformation alters hydrology characteristics of the catchment, resulting to fast surface flow, high rate of soil erosion and low infiltration rate. It is recommended that agro-forestry should be emphasized in the catchment.

Stakeholder perspectives on nature, people and sustainability at Mount Kilimanjaro

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2022

Effective approaches towards sustainability need to be informed by a diverse array of stakeholder perspectives. However, capturing these perspectives in a way that can be integrated with other forms of knowledge can represent a challenge. Here we present the first application of the conceptual framework of the Intergovernmental Science‐Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) to a participatory assessment of local perspectives on nature, people and sustainability on Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. This assessment was organized in the form of a participatory workshop with five different groups of stakeholders. Following this framework, we assembled information on the state of and trends in species diversity, Nature's Contributions to People (NCP), and on the main drivers of changes in species and habitats. Additionally, we gathered perspectives on the needs and opportunities for the sustainable management and conservation of natural resources from the individual to the international level. The various stakeholders agreed that both the condition and extent of the various habitats and NCP are declining. In line with available knowledge, the key direct drivers of change mentioned by the workshop participants were land use and climate change, whereas human population growth was singled out as the most important indirect driver. The most frequently suggested measures to address the observed decline in species diversity and its drivers were related to land and water management and to education and awareness raising. Yet, the stakeholder groups differed in the measures they suggested. The willingness of a diversity of knowledge holders to systematically engage in a structured discussion around all the elements of the IPBES framework provides support for its applicability in participatory workshops aimed at capturing nuanced and context‐based perspectives on social–ecological systems from informed stakeholders. The application of the IPBES framework enabled the comparability needed for developing narratives of stakeholder visions that can help identify new pathways towards sustainability and guide planning while retaining the context‐based nuances that remain unresolved with non‐participatory methods. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Predicting land use/cover changes and its association to agricultural production on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2021

Increasing demand for food production results in Land use and land cover (LULC) changes, which afflicts the provision of ecosystem services in high mountain areas. This work used time-series LULC and selected spatial metrics to predict the LULC changes for Kikafu-Weruweru-Karanga (KWK) watershed (on the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro) for the next decade. LULC maps were generated by classifying time-series satellite images. We further predicted the implications for selected staple crop production over the next decade. The simulated LULC shows expansion in built-up (by 32.55%/27.04 km 2) and agriculture (by 39.52%/52.0 km2) areas from 2018 to 2030. These results suggest that urbanization is likely the next biggest threat to water availability and food production. Grasslands and wetlands are expected to decrease by 57.24% and 39.29%, respectively. The forest area is likely to shrink by 6.37%, about 9.82 km2, and 1.26 km2 being converted to agriculture and built-up areas, respectively. However, expansion in agricultural land shows very little increase in staple food crop production records, suggesting that farm size plays a minor role in increasing crop production. Predicting the near future LULC around KWK is useful for evaluating the likelihood of achieving development and conservation targets that are set locally, nationally and internationally

Predicting land use/cover changes and its association to agricultural production on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2021

Increasing demand for food production results in Land use and land cover (LULC) changes, which afflicts the provision of ecosystem services in high mountain areas. This work used time-series LULC and selected spatial metrics to predict the LULC changes for Kikafu-Weruweru-Karanga (KWK) watershed (on the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro) for the next decade. LULC maps were generated by classifying time-series satellite images. We further predicted the implications for selected staple crop production over the next decade. The simulated LULC shows expansion in built-up (by 32.55%/27.04 km2) and agriculture (by 39.52%/52.0 km2) areas from 2018 to 2030. These results suggest that urbanization is likely the next biggest threat to water availability and food production. Grasslands and wetlands are expected to decrease by 57.24% and 39.29%, respectively. The forest area is likely to shrink by 6.37%, about 9.82 km2, and 1.26 km2 being converted to agriculture and built-up areas, respectively. However, expansion in agricultural land shows very little increase in staple food crop production records, suggesting that farm size plays a minor role in increasing crop production. Predicting the near future LULC around KWK is useful for evaluating the likelihood of achieving development and conservation targets that are set locally, nationally and internationally.

Distribution of Traditional Irrigation Canals and Their Discharge Dynamics at the Southern Slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2019

Jerome Gadi Kimaro

On the southern slopes of Mt.Kilimanjaro like in many other regions in East Africa, agriculture strongly depends on irrigation. Water is supplied to farms by an extensive network of open unlined canals, most of them built centuries ago. However, information about the distribution of these irrigation canals and the dynamics of their discharge is rare thus hampering the implementation of sustainable solutions for agricultural water management. We suppose that several factors like topography, soil properties, shifts of cropping patterns, and weak institutions affect availability and management of agricultural water. Therefore, in this study we determined (i) the distribution of irrigation canals, (ii) their discharge patterns, and (iii) constraints to their sustainable management. Mixed–method approach consisting of both quantitative and qualitative methodologies was used. The discharge of canals was measured at 11 locations along an altitudinal gradient and selected canals were mapped to understanding their distribution, physical characteristics, and potential risks that limits their optimal discharge. Terrain attributes were derived from the Advanced Space borne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and soil physical and hydraulic conductivity were measured to understand permeability and stability of the soil. Additionally, we conducted focus group discussions with participants from 15 villages and 10 key informants interviews. We found that during the dry season the discharge of canals was higher than in the short rainy season. The discharge of canals increased with decreasing elevation. The median daily discharges equaled 12.6, 9.5, and 7.0 l/s in the lower, mid and upper areas, respectively. Landscape in the central part of the study area was the steepest (slope > 60%) and the roughest (Topographic Ruggedness Index > 80 m).We attribute this to terrain heterogeneity across the landscape, thus community decisions about distribution and maintenance of canals could differ across different villages. Furthermore, current shifts of cropping patterns increased irrigation water demands. Both formal and informal water institutions were constrained with several challenges that affected overall management of canals and their sources. Findings of this study could contribute to various efforts dedicated to improve management of water resources around Mt. Kilimanjaro

Distribution of Traditional Irrigation Canals and Their Discharge Dynamics at the Southern Slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2019

Land cover changes and their determinants in the coral rag ecosystem of the South District of Unguja, Zanzibar

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2018

Following Bees and Wasps up Mt. Kilimanjaro: From Diversity and Traits to hidden Interactions of Species

Thesis

Full-text available

Jan 2021

Antonia Mayr

Chapter 1 – General Introduction One of the greatest challenges of ecological research is to predict the response of ecosystems to global change; that is to changes in climate and land use. A complex question in this context is how changing environmental conditions affect ecosystem processes at different levels of communities. To shed light on this issue, I investigate drivers of biodiversity on the level of species richness, functional traits and species interactions in cavity-nesting Hymenoptera. For this purpose, I take advantage of the steep elevational gradient of Mt. Kilimanjaro that shows strong environmental changes on a relatively small spatial scale and thus, provides a good environmental scenario for investigating drivers of diversity. In this thesis, I focus on 1) drivers of species richness at different trophic levels (Chapter 2); 2) seasonal patterns in nest-building activity, life-history traits and ecological rates in three different functional groups and at different elevations (Chapter 3) and 3) changes in cuticular hydrocarbons, pollen composition and microbiomes in Lasioglossum bees caused by climatic variables (Chapter 4). Chapter 2 – Climate and food resources shape species richness and trophic interactions of cavity-nesting Hymenoptera Drivers of species richness have been subject to research for centuries. Temperature, resource availability and top-down regulation as well as the impact of land use are considered to be important factors in determining insect diversity. Yet, the relative importance of each of these factors is unknown. Using trap nests along the elevational gradient of Mt. Kilimanjaro, we tried to disentangle drivers of species richness at different trophic levels. Temperature was the major driver of species richness across trophic levels, with increasing importance of food resources at higher trophic levels in natural antagonists. Parasitism rate was both related to temperature and trophic level, indicating that the relative importance of bottom-up and top-down forces might shift with climate change. Chapter 3 – Seasonal variation in the ecology of tropical cavity-nesting Hymenoptera Natural populations fluctuate with the availability of resources, presence of natural enemies and climatic variations. But tropical mountain seasonality is not yet well investigated. We investigated seasonal patterns in nest-building activity, functional traits and ecological rates in three different insect groups at lower and higher elevations separately. Insects were caught with trap nests which were checked monthly during a 17 months period that included three dry and three rainy seasons. Insects were grouped according to their functional guilds. All groups showed strong seasonality in nest-building activity which was higher and more synchronised among groups at lower elevations. Seasonality in nest building activity of caterpillar-hunting and spider-hunting wasps was linked to climate seasonality while in bees it was strongly linked to the availability of flowers, as well as for the survival rate and sex ratio of bees. Finding adaptations to environmental seasonality might imply that further changes in climatic seasonality by climate change could have an influence on life-history traits of tropical mountain species. Chapter 4 – Cryptic species and hidden ecological interactions of halictine bees along an elevational Gradient Strong environmental gradients such as those occurring along mountain slopes are challenging for species. In this context, hidden adaptations or interactions have rarely been considered. We used bees of the genus Lasioglossum as model organisms because Lasioglossum is the only bee genus occurring with a distribution across the entire elevational gradient at Mt. Kilimanjaro. We asked if and how (a) cuticular hydrocarbons (CHC), which act as a desiccation barrier, change in composition and chain length along with changes in temperature and humidity (b), Lasioglossum bees change their pollen diet with changing resource availability, (c) gut microbiota change with pollen diet and climatic conditions, and surface microbiota change with CHC and climatic conditions, respectively, and if changes are rather influenced by turnover in Lasioglossum species along the elevational gradient. We found physiological adaptations with climate in CHC as well as changes in communities with regard to pollen diet and microbiota, which also correlated with each other. These results suggest that complex interactions and feedbacks among abiotic and biotic conditions determine the species composition in a community. Chapter 5 – General Discussion Abiotic and biotic factors drove species diversity, traits and interactions and they worked differently depending on the functional group that has been studied, and whether spatial or temporal units were considered. It is therefore likely, that in the light of global change, different species, traits and interactions will be affected differently. Furthermore, increasing land use intensity could have additional or interacting effects with climate change on biodiversity, even though the potential land-use effects at Mt. Kilimanjaro are still low and not impairing cavity-nesting Hymenoptera so far. Further studies should address species networks which might reveal more sensitive changes. For that purpose, trap nests provide a good model system to investigate effects of global change on multiple trophic levels and may also reveal direct effects of climate change on entire life-history traits when established under different microclimatic conditions. The non-uniform effects of abiotic and biotic conditions on multiple aspects of biodiversity revealed with this study also highlight that evaluating different aspects of biodiversity can give a more comprehensive picture than single observations.

Evaluation and Prediction of the Impacts of Land Cover Changes on Hydrological Processes in Data Constrained Southern Slopes of Kilimanjaro, Tanzania

Article

Full-text available

May 2021

This study provides a detailed assessment of land cover (LC) changes on the water balance components on data constrained Kikafu-Weruweru-Karanga (KWK) watershed, using the integrated approaches of hydrologic modeling and partial least squares regression (PLSR). The soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) model was validated and used to simulate hydrologic responses of water balance components response to changes in LC in spatial and temporal scale. PLSR was further used to assess the influence of individual LC classes on hydrologic components. PLSR results revealed that expansion in cultivation land and built-up area are the main attributes in the changes in water yield, surface runoff, evapotranspiration (ET), and groundwater flow. The study findings suggest that improving the vegetation cover on the hillside and abandoned land area could help to reduce the direct surface runoff in the KWK watershed, thus, reducing flooding recurring in the area, and that with the ongoing expansion in agricultural land and built-up areas, there will be profound negative impacts in the water balance of the watershed in the near future (2030). This study provides a forecast of the future hydrological parameters in the study area based on changes in land cover if the current land cover changes go unattended. This study provides useful information for the advancement of our policies and practices essential for sustainable water management planning.

Impact of Climate Change on Species Distribution and Carbon Storage of Agroforestry Trees on Isolated East African Mountains

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2019

A Review on Managing Agroecosystems for Improved Water Use Efficiency in the Face of Changing Climate in Tanzania

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2019

Jerome Gadi Kimaro

Agroecosystems are important for food production and conservation of biodiversity while continuing to provide several ecosystem services within the landscape. Despite their economic and ecological benefits, most agroecosystems in Tanzania are degraded at alarming rates. Rapid increase of human population and unprecedented impacts of climate change have influenced depletion of natural resource base within agroecosystem in recent decades compared to what communities have experienced before. Increased food demands owing to population increase have increased pressure on exploitation of land resources including water. Cultivation area and irrigation water demands have increased steadily in the last six decades. Nevertheless, approaches used for water supply have not been improved; thus, water use efficiency in most irrigation schemes is quite poor. Conversely, climate smart agricultural practices are practiced less in Tanzania. There is poor adoption of recommended adaptation among smallholder farmers due to several socioeconomic reasons. One of the key objectives of climate smart agriculture is to improve bio-geochemical interactions within landscape and decrease competition of natural resources between humans and other component of agroecosystems. This underscores the assumptions that most cropping systems in Tanzania are not managed sustainably. Moreover, comprehensive assessment of hydrological dynamics within smallholder farming in Tanzania is highly lacking. Therefore, actual causes and extent of water resources depletion are largely unknown among stakeholders. In most tropical landscapes, water resources degradation is influenced by interaction of both anthropogenic and biophysical factors operating at different times and space scales. As the capacity of water-supplying sources continues to decline, Tanzania needs profound changes in agricultural production systems in order to nourish the growing human population. This calls for strategic approaches that have wider adaptability. A literature survey study with the following objectives was conducted (i) to assess current state of agricultural water use and irrigation activities in Tanzania and (ii) to determine major constraints for sustainable water management and identify appropriate adaptation measures for their improvement across diverse cropping systems.

Comparison and Prediction of the above Ground Carbon Storage in Croplands on the Inhabited Slopes on Mount Kilimanjaro (Tanzania) and the Taita Hills (Kenya)

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2018

Mount Kilimanjaro and the Taita Hills are adjacent montane areas that experience similar climate and agricultural activity, but which differ in their geologic history, nature of elevation gradients and cultures. We assessed differences in cropland above ground carbon (AGC) between the two sites and against environmental variables. One hectare sampling plots were randomly distributed along elevational gradients stratified by cropland type; AGC was derived from all trees with diameter ≥ 10 cm at breast height in each plot. Predictor variables were physical and edaphic variables and human population. A generalized linear model was used for predicting AGC with AIC used for ranking models. AGC was spatially upscaled in 2 km buffer and visually compared. Kilimanjaro has higher AGC in cropped and agroforestry areas than the Taita Hills, but only significant difference in AGC variation in agroforestry areas (F = 9.36, p = 0.03). AGC in cropped land and agroforestry in Kilimanjaro has significant difference on mean (t = 4.62, p = 0.001) and variation (F = 17.41, p = 0.007). In the Taita Hills, significant difference is observed only on the mean AGC (t = 4.86, p = 0.001). Common tree species that contribute the most to AGC in Kilimanjaro are Albizia gummifera and Persea americana, and in the Taita Hills Grevillea robusta and Mangifera indica. Significant and univariate predictors of AGC in Mount Kilimanjaro are pH (R2 = 0.80, p = 0.00) and EVI (R2 = 0.68, p = 0.00). On Mount Kilimanjaro, the top multivariate model contained SOC, CEC, pH and BLD (R2 = 0.90, p = 0.00), whereas in the Taita Hills, the top multivariate model contained elevation, slope and population (R2 = 0.89, p = 0.00). Despite of the difference in land management history of Mount Kilimanjaro and the Taita Hills, mean of AGC in croplands does not differ significantly. Difference occurs on variation of AGC, type of trees contributing AGC, and environmental variables that explain AGC distribution. The research results provide reference for management of carbon sequestration on inhabited montane areas. KEYWORDS Aboveground Carbon, Cropland, Agroforestry, Cropped Land, Elevation Gradient

A glimpse at short-term controls of evapotranspiration along the southern slopes of Kilimanjaro

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2017
ENVIRON MONIT ASSESS

Future climate characteristics of the southern Kilimanjaro region, Tanzania, are mainly determined by local land-use and global climate change. Reinforcing increasing dryness throughout the twentieth century, ongoing land transformation processes emphasize the need for a proper understanding of the regional-scale water budget and possible implications on related ecosystem functioning and services. Here, we present an analysis of scintillometer-based evapotranspiration (ET) covering seven distinct habitat types across a massive climate gradient from the colline savanna woodlands to the upper-mountain Helichrysum zone (940 to 3960 m.a.s.l.). Random forest-based mean variable importance indicates an outstanding significance of net radiation (Rnet) on the observed ET across all elevation levels. Accordingly, topography and frequent cloud/fog events have a dampening effect at high elevations, whereas no such constraints affect the energy and moisture-rich submontane coffee/grassland level. By contrast, long-term moisture availability is likely to impose restrictions upon evapotranspirative net water loss in savanna, which particularly applies to the pronounced dry season. At plot scale, ET can thereby be approximated reasonably using Rnet, soil heat flux, and to a lesser degree, vapor pressure deficit and rainfall as predictor variables (R² 0.59 to 1.00). While multivariate regression based on pooled meteorological data from all plots proves itself useful for predicting hourly ET rates across a broader range of ecosystems (R² = 0.71), additional gains in explained variance can be achieved when vegetation characteristics as seen from the NDVI are considered (R² = 0.87). To sum up, our results indicate that valuable insights into land cover-specific ET dynamics, including underlying drivers, may be derived even from explicitly short-term measurements in an ecologically highly diverse landscape.

Land Cover, Land Use, and Climate Change Impacts on Endemic Cichlid Habitats in Northern Tanzania

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2017

Freshwater ecosystems are among the most threatened on Earth, facing environmental and anthropogenic pressures often surpassing their terrestrial counterparts. Land use and land cover change (LUCC) such as degradation and fragmentation of the terrestrial landscape negatively impacts aquatic ecosystems. Satellite imagery allows for an impartial assessment of the past to determine habitat alterations. It can also be used as a forecasting tool in the development of species conservation strategies through models based on ecological factors extracted from imagery. In this study, we analyze Landsat time sequences (1984–2015) to quantify LUCC around three freshwater ecosystems with endemic cichlids in Tanzania. In addition, we examine population growth, agricultural expansion, and climate change as stressors that impact the habitats. We found that the natural vegetation cover surrounding Lake Chala decreased from 15.5% (1984) to 3.5% (2015). At Chemka Springs, we observed a decrease from 7.4% to 3.5% over the same period. While Lake Natron had minimal LUCC, severe climate change impacts have been forecasted for the region. Subsurface water data from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite observations further show a decrease in water resources for the study areas, which could be exacerbated by increased need from a growing population and an increase in agricultural land use.

Community-level plant functional strategies explain ecosystem carbon storage across a tropical elevational gradient

Preprint

Full-text available

Feb 2025

1. Plant functional traits play an important role in shaping plant ecological responses to environmental conditions and influencing ecosystem functioning. However, how whole-plant functional strategies manifest at the community level to influence aboveground and belowground carbon storage across environmental gradients remains poorly understood. 2. We measured aboveground and belowground carbon stocks and the variation in whole-plant (above- and belowground) functional strategies at the community level in twelve ecosystem types across a broad savanna-forest-alpine elevational gradient of climate and land use on Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Using Structural Equation Models, we disentangled the direct and land use mediated influences of climate on carbon storage from indirect influences mediated by variation in plant functional strategies. 3. We found strong coordination between above- and belowground functional traits at the whole community level, which corresponded with functional strategies related to two major trade-offs: a slow -conservation to fast -resource acquisition axis represented by a spectrum from high leaf dry matter content to high fine root nitrogen concentration; and a size-related woody to grassy community axis represented by a spectrum spanning high canopy height to high specific root length. The slow-fast and woody-grassy strategy axes were primarily driven by precipitation and land-use intensity, respectively. 4. Both functional strategies mediated the effects of climate on carbon storage. The slow-fast strategy axis was strongly and positively associated with aboveground carbon stocks. Meanwhile, the woody-grassy strategy axis was negatively associated with both aboveground carbon stocks and soil organic carbon stocks. 5. Synthesis . We demonstrated that major plant functional strategies manifest at the community level along elevational gradients. These strategies also explain variation in carbon storage, although aboveground storage is mostly driven by trait effects, and belowground storage by direct effects of climate. Together, these results underscore the importance of incorporating functional community data into future analysis of climate change impacts on carbon storage, which would enhance our ability to predict potential shifts in ecosystem functioning.

Variation in Soil Organic Carbon and Total Nitrogen Content in Different Agroforestry Practices of Moshi Rural District, Northern Tanzania

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2024

Variation in Soil Moisture Content and Soil Organic Carbon in Different Agroforestry Practices in Moshi Rural District, Northern Tanzania

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2024

Agroforestry has been widely practiced in the northern highlands of Tanzania because of its prominent effects in reducing soil losses, maintaining soil moisture contents (SMCs), and improving land-use efficiency and farmer’s livelihood. We tested the hypothesis that variations of soil moisture contents in 0-20 cm and 20-40 cm depths from various agroforestry Practices differ significantly in intensified small-scale agroforestry systems. The relationship between SMCs and soil organic carbon was also evaluated. Soil samples were collected from 10 x 10 m2 plot in three points along the diagonal of the quadrat using soil auger. SMCs were determined by gravimetric method and expressed as SMC%. SOC was determined by Walkley and Black method and expressed as SOC %. The variation in SMCs% among the different agroforestry Practices were statistically determined by ANOVA in R software while the correlation between SMCs and SOC were statistically determined by Pearson product-moment analysis. Variation of SMCs was statistically insignificant (p>0.05) among surveyed sites. SMCs increased significantly (p<0.05) with increasing soil depth from 0-40 cm depth in all agroforestry Practices except in the mixed intercropping agroforestry practice (MAP). At 0-20 cm and 20-40 cm, SMCs differed significantly among agroforestry Practices (P = 0.071) and (P = 0.003), respectively. Coffee Intercropping Agroforestry Practice (CIAP) had higher (P<0.05) SMCs at 0-20 cm depth compared to BAP and MWPAP. But, at 20-40 cm depth, soil moisture contents in CIAP differed significantly (P<0.05) with SMCs all AFPs. SMCs showed a positively significant (P<0.05) relationship with SOC within 0-20 cm and 20-40 cm depths. The current study confirms that different agroforestry practices have different influence on the amount and vertical distribution of soil moisture. Therefore, management practices in agroforestry systems should aim to encourage the use of practices which ensure a stable amount of moisture contents in the soil

Domestic and irrigation water quality on the southern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2024

This study assessed the water quality for drinking and irrigation purposes on the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro during the dry season under low flow conditions. Fifty-one samples covering eight different water sources (i.e., stream water from natural and anthropogenic impacted streams, domestic water, spring water, rainfall, groundwater, lake water and water from irrigation canals) were collected in a snapshot sampling campaign over 10 days in February 2023. First, physical, chemical and biological parameters were analysed and compared with Tanzanian and international drinking and irrigation water quality requirements. The samples were then ranked according to their suitability for drinking and/or irrigation using water quality indices (WQI). All drinking water quality parameters except for E. coli and turbidity were within the permissible limits. A generalised problem of faecal contamination was found in the study area, including in domestic water, highlighting the need to identify sources of contamination and remediate them before distribution. The drinking water quality index (DWQI) classified 89% of the samples as unsuitable and 11% as excellent for drinking. Irrigation water quality parameters were within the guidelines of restriction of use except for pH in 5 samples. In contrast to the DWQI, the vast majority of the water samples (88%) can be used for irrigation without restrictions according to the irrigation water quality index (IWQI). The suitability of water for irrigation was also assessed using three indices, i.e., Kelley’s Index, Soluble Sodium Percentage and Magnesium Ratio, which indicated potential problems with excess of sodium (about 30% of the samples) and magnesium (about 20%). Further studies combining suitability indices, soil characteristics and crop types are recommended to assess water quality for irrigation use.

Identification of erosion-prone areas using morphometric, hypsometric, and compound factor approaches in the Ruvu River Basin, Tanzania

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2023

Erosion status resulting from the denudation process in data-limited basins can be achieved through analysis of hydro-morphological parameters. This study aims to the identification of erosion-prone areas using morphometric, hypsometric, and compound factor approaches in the Ruvu River Basin (RRB), Tanzania under a geoinformatics environment. The morphometric and hypsometric parameters were successfully computed. The hypsometric integral (HI) and Compound Factor (CF) ranking techniques were used to assess the erosional vulnerability of the basin. It was found that RRB is a 5th stream order basin having 475 total stream segments and an overall area of 5512.54 km² with a dendritic-type drainage pattern. The bifurcation ratio for the sub-basins from 2.64 to 12 reflects the structural stability of the basin. Drainage density values of 0.121–0.967 km/km² indicate the coarser soil formation, covered by dense vegetation, with low to moderate soil erosion. Results from shape parameters viz.; form factor (0.18–0.441); circularity ratio (0.019–0.424); elongation ratio (0.479–0.749) and compactness ratio (1.536–7.225) indicates sub-basins are elongated in shape, taking moderate lag times for peak runoff to occur, and have low to moderate soil erosion. Ruggedness number (1.625–3.110) confirms that SB1, SB2, SB4, and SB15 are situated in the highly elevated regions of the RRB, and exhibit moderate to steep slopes. These localities have a sturdy influence on intrinsically erosional susceptibility. The hypsometric curve shows the maturity stages of sub-basins and the hypsometric integral exhibits its erosivity in terms of numeric magnitude. Based on both HI and CF prioritization, SB15 has the highest susceptibility to soil erosion followed by SB1 and SB7, ranked 2nd and 3rd respectively. The study proposes that remedial measures, including engineering and non-engineering means, should be considered for SB15 to mitigate soil erosion in the study area.

Small-Scale Farmers’ Vulnerability to Biophysical and Socio-Economic Risks in Semi-Arid Lowlands of Mwanga District, Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2023
ENVIRON MANAGE

Agricultural production systems in semi-arid areas are vulnerable to a myriad of risks. Using a systems approach of risk framework and a mixed-methods research design, this paper sought to explore selected biophysical and socio-economic risks that contributed to vulnerability of agricultural production systems in the semi-arid lowlands of Mwanga District, Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania. Despite the lack of statistically significant relationships between amounts of rainfall and crop production in the district, 30 focus group participants perceived that spatial and temporal changes of rainfall distribution as coupled with increased crop pest/disease outbreaks and soil loss contributed to vulnerability of agricultural production systems in terms of frequent crop failure and famine particularly amongst farmers who practised rain-fed farming in the semi-arid lowlands. Furthermore, participants perceived that crop production and yields were negatively influenced by poor marketing and institutional structures and that crop production and yields were negatively influenced by farmers’ poor access to appropriate technologies including seeds, fertilizers, agrochemicals, agricultural machinery and infrastructure including modern irrigation schemes and all-weather roads. By way of conclusion, reduced vulnerability of agricultural production systems calls for integrated enhancement of farmers’ capacity in addressing the biophysical, agro-industrial and institutional risks.

GIS application in rangeland management in Tanzania: a systematic review

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Apr 2022

5 The highland perennial farming system Sustainable intensification and the limits of farm size

Chapter

Full-text available

Feb 2022

John Lynam

The potential for sustainable intensification of highland perennial farming systems in East Africa given the limitations of declining farm size.

Evaluating Soil Carbon as a Proxy for Erosion Risk in the Spatio-Temporal Complex Hydropower Catchment in Upper Pangani, Northern Tanzania

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2021

Land use conversion is generally accompanied by large changes in soil organic carbon (SOC). SOC influences soil erodibility through its broad control on aggregate stability, soil structure and infiltration capacity. However, soil erodibility is also influenced by soil properties, clay mineralogy and other human activities. This study aimed to evaluate soil organic carbon as proxy of soil erosion risk in the Nyumba ya Mungu (NYM) catchment in Northern Tanzania. Soil organic carbon (SOC) was measured by an AgroCares scanner from which the soil organic matter (SOM) was derived using the conversional van Bemmelen factor of 1.72. A regression analysis performed between the measured loss on ignition (LOI) values and SOM from the AgroScanner showed a strong positive correlation in all land use classes (LOIFL R2 = 0.85, r = 0.93, p < 0.0001; LOICL R2 = 0.86, r = 0.93, p = 0.0001; LOIGL R2 = 0.68, r = 0.83, p = 0.003; LOIBS R2 = 0.88, r = 0.94, p = 0.0001; LOIBL R2 = 0.83, r = 0.91, p = 0.0002). This indicates that SOC from the soil scanner provided a good representation of the actual SOM present in soils. The study also revealed significant differences in the soil aggregate stability (WSA) and SOM stock between the different land use types in the Upper Pangani Basin. The WSA decreases approximately in the following order: grassland > forest land > bare land > cultivated > bush land. Land use change can thus potentially increase the susceptibility of soil to erosion risk when SOC is reduced. Since WSA was directly related to SOM, the study indicates that, where formal measurements are limited, this simple and inexpensive aggregate stability test can be used by farmers to monitor changes in their soils after management changes and to tentatively assess SOC and soil health.

Effects of Land Use Change Related to Small-Scale Irrigation Schemes in Kilombero Wetland, Tanzania

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2021

Increasing agricultural land use intensity is one of the major land use/land cover (LULC) changes in wetland ecosystems. LULC changes have major impacts on the environment, livelihoods and nature conservation. In this study, we evaluate the impacts of investments in small-scale irrigation schemes on LULC in relation to regional development in Kilombero Valley, Tanzania. We used Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information System (GIS) techniques together with interviews with Key Informants (KI) and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) with different stakeholders to assess the historical development of irrigation schemes and LULC change at local and regional scales over 3 decades. Overall, LULC differed over time and with spatial scale. The main transformation along irrigation schemes was from grassland and bushland into cultivated land. A similar pattern was also found at the regional valley scale, but here transformations from forest were more common. The rate of expansion of cultivated land was also higher where investments in irrigation infrastructure were made than in the wider valley landscape. While discussing the effects of irrigation and intensification on LULC in the valley, the KI and FGD participants expressed that local investments in intensification and smallholder irrigation may reduce pressure on natural land cover such as forest being transformed into cultivation. Such a pattern of spatially concentrated intensification of land use may provide an opportunity for nature conservation in the valley and likewise contribute positively to increased production and improve livelihoods of smallholder farmers.

Methods and data sources - Africa Farming Systems

Chapter

Dec 2019

This book applies a unique, structured, systems methodology for characterizing and grouping large populations of farm households with broadly similar livelihood, production and consumption patterns, and for whom similar development strategies would be appropriate. As a result African households across the continent are grouped into 15 major farming systems and 58subsystems. The farming systems analysis integrates an extensive range of spatial data, administrative statistics, assessment reports and expert knowledge, in order to update the 2001 FAO/World Bank farming systems analysis. Pattern recognition is key to teasing out the diversity inherent to African agriculture and to understanding common livelihood patterns (derived from crops, trees, livestock, fish and off-farm income), constraints and opportunities which define each farming system. The principle of central tendency is used to identify the core length of growing period and travel time to the nearest market town, which are two key indicators of access to agricultural resources and access to agricultural services, respectively, that shape livelihood patterns in each farming system. The method allows farming system drivers, trends and strategic interventions to be identified for policymakers, investors and research planners, using a synthesis of UN statistics, assessment reports and expert knowledge.

Historicity of personal names in Tanzania: the case of the names in the Rombo-Chagga community in Kilimanjaro

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2020

The history of African societies, which are mostly oral, could be deciphered through onomastics. This is possible because naming practices, which are elaborate, and personal names, which are meaningful, are cherished in African communities. In most cases, the circumstances at birth, which split into several strands, dictate the choice of the name by the name-givers. Naming practice is an elaborate phenomenon amongst the Rombo-Chagga people of Kilimanjaro in Tanzania on two grounds. On the one hand, clan names are associated with Chagga calendar and socioeconomic activities, e.g. Mkenda "born during unlucky days". On the other hand, home-names reveal circumstances at birth and historical events within the family and beyond, e.g. Ndekir"yo"I am cured". In addition, amongst the Bantu speaking communities in Sub-Saharan Africa, naming practices have been influenced by Christianization, Islamicization and colonization. The personal names of the Rombo-Chagga people reveal the strands of religious (formal) names and foreign (English or Kiswahili) names, e.g. Barakaeli "God-bless".

Farming systems and food security in Africa: Priorities for science and policy under global change

Book

Feb 2020

Knowledge of Africa's complex farming systems, set in their socio-economic and environomental context, is an essential ingredient to developing effective strategies for improving food and nutrition security. This book systematically and comprehensively describes the characteristics, trends, drivers of change and strategic prioritiesf or each of Africa's fifteen farming systems and their main subsystems. It shows how a farming systems perspective can be used to identify pathways to household food securiity and poverty reduction, and how strategic interventions may need to differ from one farming system to another. In the analysis, emphasis is placed on understanding farming systems drivers of change, trends and strategic priorities for science and policy. Illustrated with full-colour maps and photographs throughout, the volume provides a comprehensive and insightful analysis of Africa's farming systems and pathways for the future to improve food and nutrition security. The book is an essential follow-up to the seminal work 'Farming Systems and Poverty' by Dixon and colleagues for the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and the World Bank, published in 2001.

Effects of land use and elevation on the functional characteristics of soil enzymes at Mt. Kilimanjaro

Article

Feb 2020
EUR J SOIL BIOL

The mobilization of soil nutrients bound in organic matter is largely mediated by enzymes derived from plants, soil microorganisms and animal residues. Land-use change alters important soil characteristics that may affect the activities of soil enzymes. However, mechanistic understanding of how land use and management practices influence the catalytic properties of enzymes in top-and subsoil are still scarce, especially in African ecosystems. We linked catalytic properties i.e. substrate affinity constant (K m) and maximum reaction rate (V max), determined by Michaelis-Menten kinetics, to a set of environmental and microbial variables in the soils of a land-use sequence (6 ecosystems) ranging from natural forests to agricultural fields at Mt. Kilimanjaro. The sensitivity of K m and V max of four extracellular hydrolytical enzymes, β-galactosidase, cellobiohydrolase, phosphatase and chitinase to changing environmental conditions were tested by fluorogenic substrates in topsoils and subsoils. The β-galactosidase activity increased with increasing soil depth. Other extracellular enzyme (cellobiohydrolase, phosphatase and chitinase) activities decreased with depth. The affinity of enzymes to substrates was higher in soils of natural compared to agricultural ecosystems: i.e. higher under forests than under cropland. The activity of β-galactosidase, cellobiohydrolase and chitinase enzyme were highest in lower mountain forest and grassland (less disturbed ecosystems). This indicated that changes in land use and management practice not only affects enzyme activity but also controls enzyme kinetics (K m and K a) thus pointing towards the expression of different enzyme systems. Therefore, we concluded that anthropogenic activities result in alteration of C and nutrient cycling by affecting microbial activities and enzymes catalytic properties.

Water management under traditional farming systems: Practices and limitations of the Mfongo system around Mt. Kilimanjaro

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2019

The southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro hosts one of the oldest traditional irrigation system in Tanzania, locally known as Mfongo. Today the system is facing several challenges that affect local livelihoods and provision of other ecosystem services. To study the structure of the traditional irrigation systems and its management limitations in the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania, an interview survey was conducted whereby focus group discussions and key-informants were used as main tools for data collection. Study findings suggest that current water uses under the Mfongo system is not sustainably managed, thus leading to imbalanced water supply among key users. The system is characterized with low water conveyance efficiency and high losses during storage. Disturbances in catchment areas have increased and community participation in canals management has declined. Moreover, poor technical support, conflicting policies and unequal opportunities to land ownership limit local efforts dedicated to improve irrigation activities around Mt. Kilimanjaro. There is an urgent need for technical research on alternative options for agricultural water supply in the area and a need of minimizing water losses from supplying and storage infrastructures.

AFRICAN MOUNTAINS STATUS REPORT

Technical Report

Full-text available

Nov 2019

Th e African Mountains Status Report provides information on the status, trends and levels of threats affecting mountain ecosystems and communities in Africa. The process of compiling this report, started in August 2013 and benefited input from various experts, Mountain Partnership members and specialized institutions in Mountains ecosystems. Special thanks go to SDC for the financial support without which, this report would not have been compiled.

Evidence of climate change impacts on water, food and energy resources around Kilimanjaro, Tanzania

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2019
REG ENVIRON CHANGE

This review presents research evidence of climate change and anthropogenic impacts on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro and its implications on water, food and energy production (WFE nexus). While there exist divided scholarly opinions on the impacts of climate change on the Mt. Kilimanjaro glacier, consistent decreases in precipitation amounts are evident throughout the existing literature. The 2050 projections indicate increases in the precipitation amounts by approximately 16–18%. However, it is also stated that there will be a concomitant increase in water deficit of about 71%, 27% and 1% in agriculture, hydropower and livestock production respectively. Despite a large number of researches on impacts of climate and anthropogenic pressure on WFE along Mt. Kilimanjaro slopes, there are still limited long-term, good-quality and high-resolution altitudinal precipitation, temperature records and observation network. Moreover, there is limited information on groundwater recharge areas and their stability under changing environment. It is not clear how the interdependence and interaction between climate change, irrigation, vegetation and river discharges affect groundwater recharge process. Also, there is scarce information on future land use/cover changes. Very limited studies focused on fog water deposition for Mt. Kilimanjaro forest and East Africa, despite its relevance as the water tower of the mountain streams. The review further highlights how both climate and anthropogenic impacts may affect ecosystem services in the region. There is a need for developing adaptive strategies for responding to climate change and anthropogenic impacts on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro now and into the future.

Enhancing knowledge among smallholders on pollinators and supporting field margins for sustainable food security

Article

Aug 2019
J RURAL STUD

Agro-ecological intensification (AEI) harnesses natural processes, such as pollination, that support sustainable crop production and can buffer against future food security risks. However, the transition from conventional agriculture, which relies on inputs that can damage natural ecosystem processes, to more sustainable food production under AEI, is knowledge-intensive. Here, we investigated knowledge gaps among smallholder farmers about pollinators and field margins in a bean agri-system in Tanzania. While 77% of farmers were familiar with and identified honeybees correctly prior to training, only 52% understood their role as a pollinator of crops. Furthermore, 80% and 98% of farmers were unaware of the significance of wild (solitary) bees or the importance of hoverflies as pollinators. A high level of synthetic agrochemical use was reported for the management of pests and weeds, particularly in the more agriculturally intensive production systems. However, an end-line survey conducted one year after training showed an increase in knowledge and the majority of farmers, 99%, 54% and 62% subsequently recognised honeybees, hoverflies and solitary bees respectively, by name. Furthermore, 95%, 69% and 60% of farmers understood the importance of honeybees, hoverflies and solitary bees respectively, as crop pollinators and natural enemies (for hoverflies). Similarly, a majority of farmers recognised the benefits of biopesticides as environmentally safer over synthetic pesticides as well as the value of field margins in supporting pollinators and other ecosystem services. We argue that, improving understanding among smallholder farmers of ecosystem services and their ecological requirements is both feasible and essential to achieving sustainable intensification in small holder farming systems.

Understanding nexuses between precipitation changes and climate change and variability in semi-arid lowlands of Mwanga District, Tanzania

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2019

Teatime on Mount Kilimanjaro: Assessing climate and land use effects on litter decomposition and stabilization using the Tea Bag Index

Article

Feb 2017

Decomposition is one of the most important processes in ecosystem carbon (C) and nutrient cycles, and is a major factor controlling ecosystem functions. The functioning of Afromontane ecosystems and their ability to provide ecosystem services are particularly threatened by climate and land‐use change. Our objectives were to assess the effects of climatic conditions (elevation and seasonality) and land‐use intensity on litter decomposition and C stabilization in ten ecosystems along the unique 3000 m elevation gradient of Mt. Kilimanjaro. Tea‐Bag Index parameters (decomposition‐rate‐constant k and stabilization‐factor S) were used to quantify decomposition of standardized litter substrate. Nine pairs of tea bags (green and rooibos tea) were exposed in each ecosystem during the short‐wet, warm‐dry, long‐wet and cold‐dry season. Decomposition rate increased from k=0.007 in savanna (950 m elevation), up to a maximum of k=0.022 in montane cloud forest (2100 m). This was followed by a 50% decrease in (sub‐)alpine ecosystems (>4000 m). Savanna experienced the strongest seasonal variation, with 23 times higher S‐values in dry season compared to wet season. The conversion of savanna to maize monocultures (~1000 m), and traditional agroforestry to large‐scale coffee plantations (~1300 m) increased mean k‐values, and stabilization factors were about one third lower. Forests between 1900 and 2100 m represent the zone of sufficient moisture and optimal temperature conditions. Seasonal moisture (lower slope) and temperature limitation (alpine zone) decreases litter decomposition. Mt. Kilimanjaro ecosystems are highly sensitive to land‐use change, which accelerates ecosystem cycles and decreases C stabilization.

Plant species composition, richness and diversity in different agroforestry practices of Moshi rural district, Northern Tanzania

Article

Feb 2025

Knowing the lay of the land: changes to land use and cover and landscape pattern in village tank cascade systems of Sri Lanka

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2024

Social-ecological systems (SESs) possess a great diversity of land use and land cover (LULC) types with unique assemblages of biodiversity and ecosystem services. However, LULC changes due to landscape fragmentation are emerging as major threats to the system productivity of SESs around the world. This study examined changes to LULC extent and landscape patterns in the Village Tank Cascade Systems (VTCSs) of Sri Lanka using satellite imagery and GIS techniques between 1994 and 2021. Multispectral Landsat images (5 TM and 8 OLI/TIRS) obtained from Google Earth Engine were classified using machine learning algorithms. Overall accuracies obtained were 85.9% (1994) and 88.6% (2021). The LULC change matrix and spatial pattern metrics were used to examine LULC and landscape pattern change dynamics over the VTCS landscapes. LULC change matrix results revealed that forest, which is the dominant LULC class covering 73.7% of the total land area was reduced by 206,725 ha due to transformation into agricultural (70.43%) and scrub (24.33%) lands between 1994 and 2021. Over this time landscape pattern of the VTCS has gradually changed from forest to agricultural land-dominated landscape, with forest and agricultural land types showing a significant negative correlation (p < 0.001; R ² > 0.868), particularly in the southeastern region. Landscape patterns were analysed based on eight spatial metrics calculated at both the landscape and class levels using FRAGSTATS spatial pattern analysis software. At the landscape level, the structure became more dispersed and complex in shape. Heterogeneity was noted to have gradually increased with weakening connectivity, whereas the fragmentation process had gradually accelerated. At the class level, the dominance of forest patches decreased, fragmentation and isolation increased, and connectivity and shape complexity reduced leading to the loss of fragmented forest habitats. The number of patches within the agricultural class increased and became more aggregated and complex in shape. Landscape performance indicators show that VTCSs have experienced a gradual loss of environmental sustainability. Assessment of LULC along with fragmentation can help to monitor the spatial pattern impacts that determine ecological integrity. Thus, the study provides scientific guidance for ecological restoration in degraded VTCSs to effectively improve ecological productivity.

Domestic and Irrigation Water Quality on the Southern Slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro

Preprint

Full-text available

Jun 2024

This study assessed the quality of water for drinking and irrigation purposes on the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro during the dry season under low flow conditions. Fifty-one samples covering 8 different water types were collected in a snapshot sampling campaign over 10 days in February 2023. First, physical, chemical and biological parameters were analysed and compared with Tanzanian and international requirements for drinking and irrigation water quality. The samples were then ranked according to their suitability for drinking and/or irrigation using water quality indices (WQI). All drinking water quality parameters except for E. coli and turbidity were within the reference standards. A generalized problem of faecal contamination was found in the study area, including in domestic water, which highlights the need to identify sources of contamination and remediate before distribution. The drinking water quality index (DWQI) classified 77% of the samples as unsuitable, 4% as poor or very poor and 19% as good or excellent for drinking. Irrigation water quality parameters were within the guidelines of restriction of use except for pH in 5 samples. All samples were classified as safe for irrigation according to the irrigation water quality index (IWQI). However, five other irrigation indices (Kelley’s Index, Soluble Sodium Percentage, Permeability Index, Residual Sodium Bicarbonate and Magnesium Ratio) showed potential problems with excess of sodium and magnesium. A combination of indices is recommended for assessing water quality for irrigation use.

Long-term vegetation trends and driving factors of NDVI change on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro

Article

Apr 2024

Land use change using cellular automata in Gedong Tataan District Pesawaran Regency

Conference Paper

Jan 2024

Drivers of changing cropping patterns in Nepal: A review

Article

Dec 2023

Lal Bahadur Oli

This paper reviews various aspects of drivers of changing cropping patterns in Nepal based on secondary data sources. Data were acquired from Google Scholar and Research Gate database 32 relevant professional journal articles in between 2000-2022 were intensively reviewed. The drivers of changing cropping patterns are complex and interrelated in the farming system. Spatial analysis of cropping patterns of different geographical scales shows that cropping pattern is an integral part of a behavioral focus to reflect the space relation of the community people. The drivers of changing cropping patterns are numerous and intricately linked. It is challenging to gauge the relative significance of the effects ascribed to each scale of the driver or the interactions between them at any particular geographic region. The study revealed that there are several types of drivers for changing cropping patterns. Among these various types of drivers, the theme of technological advancement/inputs, climate change, infrastructural development, road connectivity, and market demand play prominent roles in changing cropping patterns however other drivers such as off-farm employment, agriculture service extension/training, government policies, population growth/change/migration (rural to urban; international.), are also remarkable in this studies. In the Nepalese context, this study indicates that the more prominent role playing drivers of changing cropping patterns are technological advancement /inputs, infrastructural development and road connectivity, and market demand and climate change however land degradation and government policies also play a role to shifting cropping patterns. These all drivers interact and link with each other, leading to changing cropping patterns in Nepal.

An Overview of Environmental Resources in Africa: Emerging Issues and Sustainable Exploitation

Chapter

Full-text available

Apr 2023

The natural environment is composed of both living and nonliving resources and their interaction dictates the condition of the environment. It provides food, shelter, economic returns, food source, and sustenance to diverse biota. The major components of the environment are the mountains, aquatic bodies, forests, and grasslands which provide a haven for diverse species of animals. Some of these components and areas serve as travel and tourist destinations, thereby providing foreign exchange which results in economic growth. The Northern African regions are well-established in these activities when compared with the sub-Saharan regions of Africa. These regions have potentials that can be exploited for revenue generation if policies are created to harness these resources. The synergy between atmospheric, water, and mineral resources in the environment must be preserved to enjoy the use and non-use benefits. Although, these resources are affected by human pressures in the form of overharvesting of natural resources, changes in a habitat-like fragmentation and modification, and the introduction of invasive alien species. Measures such as good governance and community participation by locals are important in resource management. To this end, this chapter reviews the environmental resources and approaches for sustainability.KeywordsNatural resourcesSustainabilityHuman populationEnvironmental policyCommunity participation

Mountain farmers and ecosystems: changing land use and livelihoods in Mount Rungwe, Tanzania

Article

Nov 2022

Verdiana T. Tilumanywa

This paper analyses long-term and incremental land use changes that have taken place in Mount Rungwe ecosystem in Tanzania from 1973 to 2010 basing on information derived from satellite images, household socio-economic data, focus group discussions and interviews with key informants. While most literature on land use change reports negative effects, land use changes in Mount Rungwe ecosystem have positively benefited communities through more diversification and greater commercialisation. The paper demonstrates that rural communities’ livelihoods are both a cause and a result of changes in the natural Mount Rungwe ecosystem. The changes in land use through cropping patterns and reforestation took advantage of opportunities from population increase, access to markets and agricultural resources management. Consequently, the changes have qualitatively improved communities’ livelihoods and forest ecosystems. The paper broadens our understanding on the potential land use changes in mountain ecosystems for enhancing rural livelihoods and the environment in line with the Boserup’s agricultural intensification theory.

Assessment of plant species composition and natural regeneration in abandoned settlements in the lower montane forest of Kilimanjaro National Park, Tanzania

Article

May 2022

Anthropogenic modification of montane forests to other land uses has significant effects on native vegetation and the ecological functions of plant communities, such as in the forests of Mount Kilimanjaro. This study was carried out in Kilimanjaro National Park at the former Engushai forest village, where local people were relocated for conservation in 2006. Forty 20 × 50 m plots were established in areas with different historical land use (former settlement, former cultivation, transition and natural forest). We recorded 132 plant species, representing 114 genera and 58 families. The highest tree species richness was recorded in the forest zone (11 ± 1 per plot), followed by in the transition zone (7 ± 1), former cultivation zone (4 ± 1) and former settlement zone (4 ± 0.4). The natural forest was more diverse in terms of tree species than other sites (H’ = 1.83 ± 0.09, evenness of 0.48 ± 0.02). Analysis of variance showed significant variation in tree species richness, diversity index and evenness among previously disturbed sites and natural forests. The vegetation is at an early stage of succession in anthropogenically impacted areas. However, the domination of Vernonia lasiopus and Bothriocline longipes in the formerly degraded areas was crucial for restoring the microclimate and soil fertility vital for forest development. There is adequate potential for and patterns of natural regeneration of indigenous trees in the anthropogenically impacted areas. The current passive management by Kilimanjaro National Park facilitates forest recovery, indicating the high resilience of these montane forests. It is recommended to monitor the future recovery and succession of the lower montane forest.

Growing Concern for the Conservation of Cavity-Nesting Birds Outside Protected Areas: Can Artificial Nest Boxes Be Effective Conservation Tools?

Chapter

Full-text available

May 2020

The overwhelming demand of deadwoods outside protected areas has not given deadwoods enough time to remain standing for the formation of the tree cavities by birds and other natural agents. Consequently, cavity adopter and large-bodied species face difficulties in finding and establishing acceptable nest sites. The focus of biodiversity conservation has been mainly within protected area systems, and less attention has been given to areas outside protected areas despite the fact that these areas support a bigger proportion of bird community. A high pace of deadwood loss on the entire landscape on the southern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro is an irreversible situation in which is increasingly becoming a growing concern for the conservation of biodiversity beyond protected areas. Here, we investigate what extent deadwoods have in providing nest sites among cavity-nesting birds. We do this through observations and by placing artificial nest boxes on trees within three different land-use types. We found that deadwood volume and number of natural tree cavities were lower at coffee plantations as compared to mixed farming areas and Kilimanjaro National Park (KINAPA). Likewise, tree cavity positions from the ground were higher at coffee plantations than in other two land-use types. However, application of artificial nest boxes reveals that a good number of larger artificial nest boxes had greater occupancy, as did boxes placed at higher positions on trees from the ground at coffee plantations and mixed farming areas than at KINAPA, suggesting a shortage of natural cavity-nesting sites for larger birds and an avoidance of nest predation or human disturbances, respectively. Therefore, provision of artificial nest boxes could offer nesting opportunities for a range of cavity-nesting birds if designs and constructions take into consideration all possible factors that might hinder their occupation by cavity-nesting birds. In this manner, application of cavity nest boxes could be a vital alternative tool for conservation of cavity-nesting birds beyond boundaries of protected areas.

Managing Basin Interdependencies in a Heterogeneous, Highly Utilized and Data Scarce River Basin in Semi-Arid Africa: The case of the Pangani River Basin, Eastern Africa

Book

Full-text available

Apr 2020

Jeremiah Kiptala

Land use/cover spatiotemporal dynamics, driving forces and implications at the Beshillo catchment of the Blue Nile Basin, North Eastern Highlands of Ethiopia

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2019

Background Land use/cover (LULC) change is a dynamic and complex process that can be caused by many interacting processes ranging from various natural factors to socioeconomic dynamics . It exerts a strong influence on the structure, functions and dynamics of most landscapes. Monitoring and mapping of LULC dynamics are crucial as changes observed reflect the status of the environment and provide input parameters for optimum natural resources management and utilization. The objective of this study was to quantify the spatio-temporal LULC dynamics using satellite image coupled with local perceptions in the Gedalas watershed of the Blue Nile Basin, North Eastern Ethiopia. Maximum likelihood supervised image classification technique were employed to classify LULC categories. After ensuring acceptable accuracy value for each classified image, image differencing approach was used to detect and quantify LULC transitions of the area. Classification results were validated with the aid of field work, topographic maps, and high resolution Google earth images supplemented with other available thematic data sets. The results The result demonstrated seven major LULC classes and the overall scenario presented by the study reveals that the watershed has experienced quite visible LULC transitions that seem to be continued in the future due to eternal anthropogenic activities and natural factors. The study ascertain that though there was change in all land use types, the major change detected was a consistent expansion of farmland/settlements area mainly at the expense of Afro/sub Afro alpine vegetation areas. On the contrary, Afro/sub Afro alpine vegetation showed a consistent net loss of over the study of periods. The findings also highlighted that transitions were ultimately driven by the interplay of biophysical, socioeconomic and institutional factors. Perceptions of the local communities on the LULC change substantially agree with data from satellite images. This implies that the ongoing rural land administration and natural resource conservation and management strategies could not effectively address the expansion of agricultural land towards fragile and marginal lands in the study area. Conclusion The study concludes that if these trends of crop lands expansion allowed continuing, sooner or later there will be no Afro/sub Afro alpine vegetation will remain. Therefore, local governments should strive to expand SLM activities on such mountain ecosystems and other marginal lands focusing on community livelihood diversification and sustainable intensification strategies.

Linking hydrology of traditional irrigation canals and socio-economic aspects of agricultural water use around Mt. Kilimanjaro

Poster

Full-text available

Apr 2017

Traditional irrigation canals play important role in stabilizing agricultural production and other biogeochemical ecosystem processes around Mt. Kilimanjaro. However, number of factors have been reported to affect its discharge and we are currently lacking a clear understanding of the actual causes and extent of the problem We suspect that socio-economic aspect of agricultural water use is likely to contribute to this problem. This forms a basis of this study.

Environment and development in Kenya: Flying the Kite in Kajiado District

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1991

Dynamics of Land-use and land-cover change in tropical regions

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2003
ANNU REV ENV RESOUR

We highlight the complexity of land-use/cover change and propose a framework for a more general understanding of the issue, with emphasis on tropical regions. The review summarizes recent estimates on changes in cropland, agricul-tural intensification, tropical deforestation, pasture expansion, and urbanization and identifies the still unmeasured land-cover changes. Climate-driven land-cover mod-ifications interact with land-use changes. Land-use change is driven by synergetic factor combinations of resource scarcity leading to an increase in the pressure of production on resources, changing opportunities created by markets, outside policy intervention, loss of adaptive capacity, and changes in social organization and atti-tudes. The changes in ecosystem goods and services that result from land-use change feed back on the drivers of land-use change. A restricted set of dominant pathways of land-use change is identified. Land-use change can be understood using the con-cepts of complex adaptive systems and transitions. Integrated, place-based research on land-use/land-cover change requires a combination of the agent-based systems and nar-rative perspectives of understanding. We argue in this paper that a systematic analysis of local-scale land-use change studies, conducted over a range of timescales, helps to uncover general principles that provide an explanation and prediction of new land-use changes.

Global Land-Cover Change: Recent Progress, Remaining Challenges

Chapter

Full-text available

Jan 2006

Since time immemorial, humankind has changed landscapes in attempts to improve the amount, quality, and security of natural resources critical to its well being, such as food, freshwater, fiber, and medicinal products. Through the increased use of innovation, human populations have, slowly at first, and at increasingly rapid pace later on, increased its ability to derive resources from the environment, and expand its territory. Several authors have identified three different phases - the control of fire, domestication of biota, and fossil-fuel use - as being pivotal in enabling increased appropriation of natural resources (Goudsblom and De Vries 2004; Turner II and McCandless 2004).

Chagga farm systems, strengths and stumbling blocks

Article

Jan 2006

François Bart

(voir l'ouvrage édité en langue française en 2003 Kilimandjaro : montagne, mémoire, modernité. Pessac (France) : Presses Universitaires de Bordeaux, 2003. 366 p.ISBN 2-906621-31-5)

Agricultural Land Management under Population Pressure: The Kilimanjaro Experience, Tanzania

Article

Nov 1988

Paul S. Maro

Mount Kilimanjaro (5,896 m) in northeastern Tanzania is a huge volcanic cone the slopes of which are well endowed with fertile volcanic soils and abundant rainfall. They have supported an unusually dense population which increased from 128,000 in 1921 to 694,000 in 1978, and most of the people are concentrated in the wet highlands above 900 m. This created a land shortage and the average farm size decreased to one-tenth of that in 1921. The farmers were forced to diversify crops and intensify land use, and the carrying capacity of the land was more than doubled. Resource management techniques included terracing, irrigation, application of manure and fertilizer, and maintenance of shade trees to reduce soil erosion. Labour input per unit doubled between the 1930s and 1970; grazing lands and river valleys in the highlands were planted with coffee and bananas; and people settled in the dry lowlands to grow maize and cotton and to raise livestock. Further intensification by the introduction of dairying and cardamom growing may raise the carrying capacity, and the government has introduced new policies (irrigation, small-scale rural industries, outmigration) to try to maintain some stability and to correct the growing imbalance between resources and population in Kilimanjaro. /// Le Mont Kilimanjaro (5.896 m) dans le nord-est de la Tanzanie est un immense cône volcanique dont les versants sont recouverts de riches sols volcaniques recevant des pluies abondantes. En conséquence, la population a rapidement augmenté, de 128.000 habitants en 1921 à 694.000 en 1978, les plus hautes concentrations se trouvant dans les hautes terres humides au-dessus de 900 m. Un manque de terres disponibles s'est manifesté, si bien que la taille moyenne des fermes est maintenant un dixième de ce qu'elle était en 1921. Les agriculteurs ont été obligés de diversifier leurs cultures et d'intensifier l'exploitation du sol; la charge globale a plus que doublé. Des techniques de gestion des ressources ont été appliquées pour réduire l'érosion du sol, y compris la construction de terrasses, l'irrigation, l'application de fumier et d'engrais, ansi que la plantation d'essences d'ombre. La main d'oeuvre disponible par unité de surface a doublé entre 1930 et 1970, les pâturages et les vallées des hautes terres ont été plantées avec des caféiers et des bananiers, et la population s'est étabile dans les basses terres sèches pour cultiver du maïs et du coton et élever du bétail. Une plus grande intensification par l'introduction de l'élevage laitier et de la culture du cardamome pourrait encore augmenter la charge globale, et le gouvernement a pris de nouvelles mesures (irrigation, industries rurales à petite échelle, migration en dehors de la région) pour essayer de maintenir une certaine stabilité et de rectifier le déséquilibre croissant entre les ressources et la population du Kilimanjaro. /// Der Kilimanscharo (5.896 m) in Nordost Tansania ist ein riesiger vulkanischer Kegelberg, dessen fruchtbare Hänge ausreichend Niederschläge erhalten. Dieses Ackerland versorgte eine ungewöhnlich große Bevölkerung, die von 128.000 im Jahre 1921 auf 694.000 im Jahre 1978 anwuchs. Die Besiedelung konzentrierte sich auf die feuchten Hochländer oberhalb 900 m, was zu Landverknappung führte. Die durchschnittliche Größe eines landwirtschaftlichen Betriebes verringerte sich auf 1/10 der Größe von 1921. Die Bauern waren gezwungen, Mischkulturen anzubauen, und die Landnutzung zu intensivieren, wodurch sich die Ertragsfähigkeit verdoppelte. Ressource-Managementmethoden wie Terrassierung, Bewässerung, Anwendung von Natur-und Kunstdünger und Erhaltung von Schattenbäumen zur Reduzierung der Bodenerosion wurden angewendet. Zwischen 1930 und 1970 verdoppelte sich der Arbeitsaufwand pro Fläche; Weideflächen und Talgründe in den Hochländern wurden mit Kaffee und Bananen bepflanzt; Menschen siedelten in den trockenen Tieflanden, um Mais und Baumwolle anzubauen und Viehzucht zu betreiben. Eine weitere Intensivierung durch Einfuhr von Milchkühen und Kardamomanbau könnte die Ertragsfähigkeit erhöhen; daneben hat Regierungspolitik (z.B. Bewässerung, kleinbäuerliche Industrien, Abwanderung) dazu beigetragen, eine gewisse Stabilität aufrechtzuerhalten und das wachsende Ungleichgewicht zwischen Ressourcen und der Bevölkerungsdichte am Kilimanscharo auszugleichen.

Global Land-Use/Land-Cover Change: Towards an Integrated Study

Article

Jan 1994

Human actions are altering the terrestrial environment at unprecedented rates, magnitudes, and spatial scales. Land-cover change stemming from human and uses represents a major source and a major element of global environmental change. An international and interdisciplinary agenda is currently being developed to address these issues, through several closely-connected foci of study. A division of the world according to common situations of environment, human driving forces, and land-cover dynamics will be followed by detailed study of the processes at work within each situation. The results will form the basis for a concurrent effort to develop a global land model that can offer projections of patterns of land transformation. -from Authors

Introduction: The International Year of Mountains Challenge and Opportunity for Mountain Research

Article

Jan 2005

Thomas Hofer

Mountains are complex and fragile ecosystems characterised by vertically, highly differentiated climatic conditions and often by an abundance of water and rich biodiversity. Mountains are high-risk environments: avalanches, glacial lake outbursts, landslides and earthquakes threaten life in mountain areas. Remoteness and difficult access hamper development in mountain regions. Therefore, mountain areas are often marginalized. Despite these constraints, mountains offer significant opportunities. Mountain dwellers have adapted to life in steep and harsh conditions and have developed sophisticated techniques for farming, water use, forestry and communication. The agro-biodiversity as a function of altitude, exposition and farmers’ crop selection is huge. Mountain inhabitants have also developed a rich cultural diversity. Therefore, people living in lowland areas or in big cities increasingly prefer mountains for recreation.

Livelihoods on the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania: Challenges and opportunities in the Chagga homegarden system

Article

Eija Soini

Introduction: Local Processes with Global Impacts

Chapter

Aug 2008

Concerns about land-use/cover change emerged in the research agenda on global environmental change several decades ago with the realization that land-surface processes influence climate. In the mid-1970s, it was recognized that land-cover change modifies surface albedo and thus surfaceatmosphere energy exchanges, which have an impact on regional climate (Otterman 1974; Charney and Stone 1975; Sagan et al. 1979). In the early 1980s, terrestrial ecosystems as sources and sinks of carbon were highlighted; this underscored the impact of land-use/cover change on global climate via carbon cycle (Woodwell et al. 1983; Houghton et al. 1985). Decreasing the uncertainty of these terrestrial sources and sinks of carbon remains a serious challenge today. Subsequently, the important contribution of local evapotranspiration to the water cycle – that is, precipitation recycling – as a function of land cover highlighted yet another considerable impact of land-use/cover change on climate, at a local to regional scale in this case (Eltahir and Bras 1996).

Causes and Trajectories of Land-Use/Cover Change

Chapter

Jan 2006

One of the key activities of the Land-Use/Cover Change (LUCC) project has been to stimulate the syntheses of knowledge of land-use/cover change processes, and in particular to advance understanding of the causes of land change (see Chap. 1). Such efforts have generally followed one of two approaches: broad scale cross-sectional analyses (cross-national statistical comparisons, mainly); and detailed case studies at the local scale. The LUCC project applied a middle path that combines the richness of indepth case studies with the power of generalization gained from larger samples, thus drawing upon the strengths of both approaches. In particular, systematic comparative analyses of published case studies on landuse dynamics have helped to improve our knowledge about causes of land-use change. Principally, two methods exist for comparative analyses of case studies. These methods are sufficiently broad geographically to support generalization, but at a scale fine enough to capture complexity and variability across space and time.

The Chagga homegardens: A multistoried agroforestry cropping system on Mt. Kilimanjaro (Northern Tanzania)

Article

Jan 1985

The homegardens are characterised by an intensive integration of numerous multipurpose trees and shrubs with food crops and animals, simultaneously on the same unit of land. The Chagga are skilled farmers with an intimate knowledge of the crops and their ecological requirements. They have a good idea of functions/uses of the plant species on their farms. The large species diversity provides both subsistence and cash crops. It enables the farmer to keep his management options open and provides insurance against drought, pest and economic risks.

Land use change patterns and livelihood dynamics on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania

Article

Sep 2005
AGR SYST

Eija Soini

This study is about changes in land use and interactions of land use change and livelihoods in the Chagga farming system on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. An aerial photo interpretation and fragmentation analysis of the years 1961, 1982 and 2000 was conducted covering approximately the Kirua Vunjo Division, a transect of 152 km2 from the forest reserve edge to the plains. Earlier changes were traced from literature review. The results show the expansion of cultivation to more marginal land down the slope, the disappearance and extreme fragmentation of bush land and appearance and expansion of settlements. The home garden area has experienced some specific internal change, but has not expanded down the slope. In the 1960s there were small open fields and patches of grazing lands amongst home gardens. In the 1980s the area was more uniformly covered by homegardens. Since then it has become patchy again as new homesteads have been built on subdivided farms and more food is produced on the higher slopes. Population pressure and the ensuing expansion of agriculture to more marginal land, intensification of the homegarden system, together with climate changes affecting the water supplies, have caused changes in farmers’ livelihoods. As land scarcity now hinders expansion of agriculture, farm size has seriously decreased, common resources have become scarce, and prices of coffee in the world market remain low, farmers are trying to intensify and diversify their farm production. Local initiative is leading to change, but the locally conceived alternatives are too few and lack integrated approaches of technical agricultural research, economic analysis, and policy studies and reforms. Non-agricultural activities and paid employment are becoming increasingly important. However, due to considerable entry barriers to remunerable off-farm jobs, not all households enjoy equal access to attractive non-farm opportunities. The future welfare of the area will depend on increasing the marketable knowledge and skills of the population that will enable it to become integrated in the economy of the region and the country.

Two types of global environmental change

Article

Dec 1990
GLOBAL ENVIRON CHANG

Clarification of several issues in the human dimensions of global environmental change is essential to the creation of a balanced research agenda. Global environmental change includes both systemic changes that operate globally through the major systems of the geosphere-biosphere, and cumulative changes that represent the global accumulation of localized changes. An understanding of the human dimen sions of change requires attention to both types through research that integrates findings from spatial scales ranging from the global to the local. A regional or meso-scale focus represents a particularly promising avenue of approach.

Dynamic Causal Patterns of Desertification

Article

Sep 2004

Using a meta-analytical research design, we analyzed subnational case studies (n = 132) on the causes of dryland degradation, also referred to as desertification, to determine whether the proximate causes and underlying driving forces fall into any pattern and to identify mediating factors, feedback mechanisms, cross-scalar dynamics, and typical pathways of dryland ecosystem change. Our results show that desertification is driven by a limited suite of recurrent core variables, of which the most prominent at the underlying level are climatic factors, economic factors, institutions, national policies, population growth, and remote influences. At the proximate level, these factors drive cropland expansion, overgrazing, and infrastructure extension. Identifiable regional patterns of synergies among causal factors, in combination with feedback mechanisms and regional land-use and environmental histories, make up specific pathways of land change for each region and time period. Understanding these pathways is crucial for appropriate policy interventions, which have to be fine-tuned to the region-specific dynamic patterns associated with desertification.

RECENT CHANGES IN CROP PATTERNS IN THE KILIMANJARO REGION OF TANZANIA: THE DECLINE OF COFFEE AND THE RISE OF MAIZE AND RICE

Article

Sam MAGHIMBI

Peasant households in Tanzania have a variety of income sources. However, establishing a crop in the peasant farming culture requires much investment, and the decline of a crop that is a source of livelihood can cause much misery. Widespread social and economic changes in the peasant society and in the regional society as a whole have led to a decline in coffee crops in Kilimanjaro since the 1970s, despite the fact that coffee is its principal cash crop. This paper explores the decline of coffee and the ascendancy of rice and maize as major crops in the Kilimanjaro region. The driving forces behind these changes in crop culture are considered. The argument is made that wider institutional changes, in addition to internal changes in peasant households, have contributed to the decline of coffee and the rise of maize and rice as the principal crops.

Structural Adjustment and Sustainable Development in Tanzania

Jan 1995
64-65

Msd Bagachwa
F Shechambo
H Sosovele
K Kulindwa
A Naho
E Cromwell

Bagachwa MSD, Shechambo F, Sosovele H, Kulindwa K, Naho A, Cromwell E (1995). Structural Adjustment and Sustainable Development in Tanzania, Dar es Salaam University Press, Dares Salaam. pp. 64-65.

The Political Economy of Soil Erosion in Developing Countries

Jan 1985

P Blackie

Blackie P (1985). The Political Economy of Soil Erosion in Developing Countries. Longman Group Limited, Essex.

The age of improvement and differentiation

Jan 1969
123-160

J Iliffe

Iliffe J (1969). The age of improvement and differentiation. In Kimambo IN and Temu AJ (Eds). A History of Tanzania. East African Publishing House, Nairobi, pp. 123-160.

The history of the half-mile strip on Mount Kilimanjaro

Jan 1991
81-86

C O Kivumbi
W D Newmark

Kivumbi CO, Newmark WD (1991).The history of the half-mile strip on Mount Kilimanjaro. In Newmark WD (Ed). The Conservation of Mount Kilimanjaro. IUCN, Gland. pp. 81-86.

Land Use Change Patterns and Root Causes on the Southern Slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro. Land Use Change, Impacts and Dynamics (LUCID) Project Working Paper 25. International Livestock Research Institute

Jan 2003
9

M J Mbonile
S B Misana
C Sokoni

Mbonile MJ, Misana SB, Sokoni C (2003). Land Use Change Patterns and Root Causes on the Southern Slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro. Land Use Change, Impacts and Dynamics (LUCID) Project Working Paper 25. International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, p. 17, 29. Mbonile MJ (2003). Absentee Farmers and Change of Land Management on Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Land Use Change, Impacts and Dynamics (LUCID) Project Working paper 24 International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, p. 9.

Population dynamics on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro. in Mount Kilimanjaro: Land and Environmental Management

Jan 1999
18-23

M J Mbonile

Mbonile MJ (1999). Population dynamics on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro. in Mount Kilimanjaro: Land and Environmental Management. French Institute for Research in Africa, Nairobi, pp. 18-23.

Empowering local communities to manage resources

Jan 2001
3

S B Misana

Misana SB (2001). Empowering local communities to manage resources. Proceedings of the WMS 2001 International Symposium on Mountains of the World in preparation for the International Year of Mountains (IYM 2002). Interlaken. CD ROM. p. 3.

Before coffee, pre-colonial agricultural glossary

Jan 2006
59-69

M L Montlahuc
G Philippson

Montlahuc ML, Philippson G (2006). Before coffee, pre-colonial agricultural glossary (Translated by Martin T). In Bart F, Mbonile MJ (Ed) Kilimanjaro: Mountain, Memory, Modernity. Mkuki na Nyota Publishers, Dares Salaam, pp. 59-69.

Tanzania Census 2002: Analytical Report Volume X. Ministry of Planning, Economy and Empowerment

Jan 2006
15

National Bureau of Statistics (2006). Tanzania Census 2002: Analytical Report Volume X. Ministry of Planning, Economy and Empowerment, Dar es Salaam, p. 15. National Bureau of Statistics (2011). Tanzania in Figures 2010. www.nbs.go.tz/pdf/Tanzania_in_Figures 2010.Pdf.

The Spatial Patterns and Root Causes of Land Use Change in East Africa. Land Use Change, Impacts and Dynamics (LUCID) Project Working Paper 47

Jan 2004
3-14

J M Olson
S Misana
D J Campbell
M Mbonile
S Mugisha

Olson JM, Misana S, Campbell DJ, Mbonile M, Mugisha S (2004). The Spatial Patterns and Root Causes of Land Use Change in East Africa. Land Use Change, Impacts and Dynamics (LUCID) Project Working Paper 47. Int. Livest. Res. Inst., Nairobi, p. 3-14.

Background and concepts for collaborative work: global change research in Mountain Biosphere Reserves

Jan 2004
11-18

M Reasoner
H Bugmann
T Schaaf

Reasoner M, Bugmann H, Schaaf T (2004). Background and concepts for collaborative work: global change research in Mountain Biosphere Reserves. In Lee C and Schaaf T (Ed). Global Change Research in Mountain Biosphere Reserves. Proceedings of the international launching Workshop. UNESCO, Paris, pp. 11-18

Competing Interests and Growing Demand for Water. Irrigation in the Lowlands of Kilimanjaro: The Case of Makuyuni Ward

Jan 1997

K Sevaldsen

Sevaldsen K (1997). Competing Interests and Growing Demand for Water. Irrigation in the Lowlands of Kilimanjaro: The Case of Makuyuni Ward. Msc Thesis, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim.

Changing landscapes on the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania: an aerial photo interpretation between

Jan 1961
1-3

E Soini

Soini E (2002a). Changing landscapes on the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania: an aerial photo interpretation between 1961 and 2000. Working Paper 2002-1. World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Nairobi. p. 1-3.

Two types of global environmental change: definitional and spatial-scale issues in their human dimensions

Jan 1990
14-22

I I Turner
Bl
R E Kasperson
W B Meyer
K Dow
D Golding
J X Kasperson
R C Mitchell
S J Ratick

Turner II BL, Kasperson RE, Meyer WB, Dow K, Golding D, Kasperson JX, Mitchell RC, Ratick SJ (1990). Two types of global environmental change: definitional and spatial-scale issues in their human dimensions. Global Environmental Change: Human. Policy Dimensions, 1(1): 14-22.

The Implications of Changes in Land Use on Forests and biodiversity: A case of Half Mile strip on Mount Kilimanjaro

Jan 2002
23

Cmp William

William CMP (2002). The Implications of Changes in Land Use on Forests and biodiversity: A case of Half Mile strip on Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. MA Dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam, p. 23.

Forestry conservation and resource utilisation on the southern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro: Trends, conflicts and resolutions

Jan 2001
104-117

P Z Yanda
E K Shishira

Yanda PZ, Shishira EK (2001). Forestry conservation and resource utilisation on the southern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro: Trends, conflicts and resolutions. In Ngana JO (Ed). Water Resources Management in the Pangani River Basin: Challenges and Opportunities. Dar es Salaam University Press, Dares Salaam, pp. 104-117.

Land-use/cover changes and their drivers on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania

Abstract

No full-text available

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