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Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps
Keith L. McDougall1 and Neville G. Walsh2
1NSW Department of Environment and Conservation, PO Box 2115, Queanbeyan, NSW 2620, AUSTRALIA;
2National Herbarium of Victoria, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, Vic. 3141, AUSTRALIA
Abstract: Based on 1222 oristic quadrat samples, 56 plant communities were identied in treeless vegetation in the
Australian Alps of south-eastern Australia. (c. 35º 30´–38ºS, 146°–149°E). The study encompassed vegetation from
above the upper limit of trees on mountain tops (i.e. the truly alpine environment) and below the inverted treeline
in subalpine valleys. Generally, grasslands develop on deep humus soils, heathlands occur on shallower or rocky
soils, and wetland communities are found in places of permanent or intermittent wetness. Duration of snow cover,
lithology, altitude and exposure are also important determinants of the spatial arrangement of communities. Broadly,
communities within a geographic region are more closely related to each other than to communities of similar structure
or dominants from other geographic areas. Many communities are either very localised or are widespread with a small
area of occupancy. Fourteen communities are probably eligible for listing as threatened, either alone or as aggregates
with associated communities.
A total of 710 native taxa from 82 families has been recorded. There is a high level of endemism – 30% of taxa are ±
restricted to treeless vegetation in the Australia Alps and a further 14% are ± restricted to treeless vegetation but occur
in mountain areas outside the Australian mainland (e.g. Tasmania and New Zealand). Thirteen taxa are listed in the
Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 as threatened and a further 18 taxa are identied that
may be eligible for listing as threatened nationally. 131 non-native taxa have been recorded in natural vegetation.
Treeless vegetation has been intensively utilised since European settlement, initially as summer pastures for cattle and
sheep but more recently as water catchments for electricity production and as tourist attractions both in winter and
summer. Many communities are slowly recovering from past pressures and from the res of 2003, which burnt most of
the area for the rst time since 1939. The treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps faces an uncertain future because
of increased pressure from tourism and the unknown impacts of global warming.
Cunninghamia (2007) 10(1): 1–57
Introduction
The Australian Alps can be loosely dened as the mountains
and plateaux of the Great Dividing Range and surrounds
that receive persistent winter snowfall. In this sense, the
Alps extend from Lake Mountain in Victoria to Namadgi
National Park in the Australian Capital Territory, and include
the highest summits of mainland Australia (c. 35º 30´–38ºS,
146°–149°E). A feature of the Australian Alps is the absence
of trees on many mountain tops at the highest elevations and
in some lower valleys and plains.
The treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps is oristically
outstanding – almost 60% of taxa in some parts are restricted
to high mountain areas (McDougall 1997). The distinctness of
the ora has long attracted botanical interest. Noted botanists
and naturalists such as Baron Ferdinand von Mueller,
Richard Helms, Joseph Maiden, James Stirling and Alfred
Tadgell had made numerous collections of the high mountain
ora by the early 20th Century, well in advance of many other
ecosystems of south-eastern Australia (Willis 1989, Gillbank
1990, Willis & Cohn 1993, Costin et al. 2000). The treeless
vegetation of the Australian Alps also has a long history of
ecological studies on plant–disturbance interactions (e.g.
Carr & Turner 1959b, Wimbush & Costin 1979, Williams
& Ashton 1987), and possesses some of the longest running
ecological monitoring experiments in Australia (e.g. Wahren
et al. 1994, Scherrer 2004). Treeless communities in the
Alps were the subject of some of the earliest community
classication in Australia (e.g. Costin 1954, McVean 1969,
McDougall 1982, Walsh et al. 1984, Helman & Gilmour
1985) and large-scale vegetation mapping based on such
classications (Victoria Conservation Trust 1982–85, Walsh
et al. 1984).
Despite the level of botanical interest and the various oristic
classications produced, a single classication of treeless
vegetation in the Australian Alps has been hamstrung by State
boundaries and regional differences in classication systems.
Kirkpatrick (1989) attempted to synthesise available data
(including that from Tasmania) but did not have oristic data
from most treeless areas in Kosciuszko National Park, and
some data were missing from Victorian data sets. Keith (2004)
provided a synopsis of alpine and subalpine communities in
New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory but
that work was very broad-scale. In this paper we present a
classication of treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps,
based on available data from Victoria (McDougall 1982,
2 Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps
Walsh et al. 1984), the Australian Capital Territory (Gilmour
et al. 1987, Helman et al. 1988), New South Wales (Ecology
Australia 2003), and 361 new oristic quadrats sampled by
us in and around Kosciuszko National Park.
Study area
The study area was dened by the extent of treeless vegetation
in the high mountains of south-eastern Australia. It extends
from Lake Mountain in Victoria to Namadgi National Park
in the Australian Capital Territory (Fig. 1), a distance of
about 350 km, and ranges in elevation from about 1000 m
on Mt Whitelaw (Baw Baw National Park) to 2229 m on
Mt Kosciuszko (Kosciuszko National Park). Based on
available vegetation mapping, there are about 160,000 ha
of treeless vegetation in the Australian Alps, c. 70,000 ha
in Victoria (McDougall 1982, Walsh et al. 1984, Mueck and
McCormick 2002) and c. 90,000 ha in NSW and the ACT
(Thomas et al. 2000).
The study encompasses vegetation from above the upper
limit of trees on mountain tops (i.e. the truly alpine
environment) and below the inverted treeline in subalpine
valleys. Generally, the elevation of treelines increases with
decreasing latitude, and so, for example, the upper treeline at
Mt Howitt in Victoria (latitude 37° 10’) is about 1600 m a.s.l.
whilst the upper treeline at Mt Jagungal in NSW (36° 08’) is
about 1900 m a.s.l. Alpine vegetation is effectively absent
from the ACT, which has a maximum elevation of 1911 m on
Mt Bimberi. In many places, the upper treeline is continuous
with the lower treeline. The lower elevational boundary of
treeless vegetation is often indistinct, extending in narrow
strips down valleys and onto isolated rocky outcrops. No
attempt was made to constrain the study area altitudinally.
However, the majority of samples are from the larger
patches of treeless vegetation rather than linear valley strips.
Naturally treeless vegetation also occurs to the east of the
Great Dividing Range in NSW, on the Monaro and coastal
escarpment. Whilst some of this may have oristic afnities
to the vegetation described in this paper and be treeless for
similar ecological reasons, no survey was done by us outside
the Australian Alps and available data from these areas were
not used.
Most treeless vegetation is within National Park, although
small portions are in other tenures, including privately owned
land. Ski resorts in NSW are within Kosciuszko National
Park while in Victoria, six of the skiing areas are within
specially designated alpine resorts surrounded by the Alpine
and Baw Baw National Parks. The Mt Buffalo skields are
incorporated into the Mt Buffalo National Park.
Environmental determinants
The Australian Alps are a series of elevated plateaux, ridges
and isolated mountain tops of uncertain origin (Ollier 1987).
Much of the Alps lie along the Great Dividing Range, which
separates the Murray and coastal watersheds, but there are
numerous peaks and landforms such as Mt Bogong, Mt
Buffalo, Mt Baw Baw and all of the mountains of the Australian
Capital Territory that are offset. The Alps are characterised
by low temperature. Sub-zero temperatures of the past have
helped shape the landscape (through localised glaciation and
the fracturing of rock) and continue to inuence the patterns
of vegetation today (e.g. by limiting tree establishment and
thus creating treelines). Glaciation in the last Ice Age was
conned to a small area in the vicinity of Mt Kosciuszko,
although periglacial forces were responsible for many of
the notable rock features elsewhere, such as block streams
(Peterson 1971). The Australian Alps are geologically diverse
(Ollier & Wyborn 1989). The Kosciuszko Main Range area
is predominantly granitic whereas much of the Bogong High
Plains in Victoria are underlain with metamorphic material
(gneiss and schist). Limestone, basalt, other igneous and
various sedimentary rocks are locally exposed. Soils tend to
be highly organic and acidic.
The topography of the Australian Alps – often a combination
of steep slopes and broad, at valleys – has a profound
effect on local weather conditions. When coupled with
spatial variation in drainage, soil depth and rock type, it is
not surprising that the corresponding vegetation patterns are
extremely complex. Some of the major factors inuencing
patterns of vegetation are described below.
Frost. Sub-zero temperatures may occur at any time of the
year and are common during plant growing seasons. Frost
may also be localised. Cold air tends to accumulate in valleys
at night producing a large differential in air temperature
between valley bottom and ridge top (Williams 1987). In
such situations, plants growing in valleys encounter more
frosts than those growing upslope. The relative tolerance of
high mountain plants to a high frequency of frost is unknown
but it is clear that snow gums (Eucalyptus pauciora sens.
lat.) and some shrubs are intolerant, at least in their juvenile
stages. It is this that creates the inverted treelines in the
Australian Alps, with the trees and tall, closed heathland on
the upper slopes and ridges and the grasslands and low heaths
occurring in the valley bottoms, the opposite of the pattern on
the high peaks (Harwood 1980, Slatyer 1989). Frost is also
probably responsible for inhibiting the establishment of the
many non-native species that are inadvertently brought to the
Alps (Mallen-Cooper 1990). The development of needle ice
in moist, bare soils (Fig. 2) limits the establishment of many
alpine species and may inuence the balance between shrubs
and herbs in some plant communities (Williams 1992).
Snow. Snow in itself has little bearing on mountain plants.
Differences in the duration of snow cover, however, have
a profound effect on plant distribution and vegetation
pattern. At the lowest elevations, a persistent cover of snow
is rare, and plants experience much longer periods of frost
exposure in winter than those at higher elevations. Many
of the species from these lower elevation areas also occur
Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps 3
Fig. 1. Key sites mentioned in the text: Lake Mountain; Baw Baw National Park (includes Erica, Mt Whitelaw), Mt McDonald (The
Bluff), Mt Buller (Mt Stirling), Mt Cobbler, Mt Wellington (Bennison Plains), Mt Howitt (Crosscut Saw, Howitt Plains, Mt Speculation),
Snowy Range, The Viking, Mt Buffalo National Park (Hospice Plain, Mt Buffalo), Bogong High Plains (Basalt Hill, Cope Creek,
Falls Creek, Mt Cope, Mt Fainter, Mt Feathertop, Mt Jim, Mt McKay, Mt Nelse, Pretty Valley, Spion Kopje), Mt Bogong, Dargo High
Plains (Gow Plain, Lankeys Plain), Mt Hotham (Dinner Plain, Mt Loch), Davies Plain, Cobberas (Mt Cobberas), Nunniong Plateau
(Brumby Point), Kosciuszko Main Range (Blue Lake, Charlottes Pass, Carruthers Peak, Guthega, Guthrie Creek, Hedley Tarn, Lake Albina,
Mt Blue Cow, Mt Kosciuszko, Mt Lee, Mt Townsend, Mt Twynam, Perisher, Ramshead Range, Rawsons Pass, Spencers Creek, Upper
Snowy River), Mt Wombargo, Thredbo (Dead Horse Gap), Snowy Plain (Botherum Plain), Mt Jagungal (Bogong Plain), Broadway Plain
(Emu Plain, Ogilvies Creek, Pretty Plain, Toolong Plain), Currango Plain (Blue Waterholes, Cave Creek, Cooleman Plain, Seventeen Flat),
Kiandra (Mt Selwyn, Yarrangobilly Caves), McPhersons Plain (Sparkes Plain, Tomneys Plain), Long Plain, Nungar Plain (Boggy Plain,
Gulf Plain, Tantangara Dam), Mt Scabby (Mt Kelly, Mt Murray, Scabby Ranges), Namadgi National Park (Grassy Creek, Mt Bimberi,
Mt Gingera, Sheep Station Creek), Dicky Cooper Bogong (Munyang Creek), Happy Jacks Plain. The shaded area is National Park tenure.
4 Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps
at the highest elevations so it seems likely that they are
not reliant on snow cover. At higher elevations, however,
snow tends to accumulate in drifts on south and east facing
slopes, blown there by the prevailing west to north-west
winds and protected from melting in spring by the reduced
solar irradiation of those aspects. On the Kosciuszko Main
Range and the Bogong High Plains, snow in these sites
commonly endures until mid-summer. These snowpatches
have produced a distinct array of plant communities and
contain several species conned to this environment, which
is characterised by a shortened growing season, abundant
water while the snow is melting, and dry conditions once
snow has melted.
Wind. The high ridges and summits of the Australian Alps are
often subjected to strong wind, which comes predominantly
from a westerly direction. The effect of this can be seen in
wind-pruned trees and shrubs and the sorting of gravel and
nes on the eastern side of bare patches of soil. On exposed
ridges of shattered sedimentary rock, where the snow is
commonly blown off into snowpatches, an open dwarf
heathland forms. This community is best developed in the
Kosciuszko area (where it is called windswept feldmark) but
vegetation of similar structure and plant form can be found
in the highest mountains of Victoria. The dominant shrubs of
this community are pruned by the wind on their windward
side and layer on the protected leeward side, gradually
moving across the ridge at a rate calculated to be about
1 cm / year (Barrow et al. 1968).
Water. The perenniality of a water supply is a major
determinant of plant distribution in the Australian Alps.
Apart from the direct supply from rain, water may come
from springs, snowmelt or from capillary movement of water
across absorbent peaty substrates. Some springs are perennial
but others dry during summer or autumn, the timing perhaps
depending on rainfall and snow cover in previous years. All
soils are sodden at the time of snowmelt but most dry quickly
after. Within a given area, snow melts at different rates
depending on snow depth, altitude and aspect. That deposited
on lee slopes of the highest mountains may provide a supply
of water to plants at the base of the snow pack well into
summer. All of these factors mean that the treeless country is
a mosaic of wet and dry habitats (and everything between).
Many plants and communities have a specic hydrological
niche. Patch death of plants has been observed in times of
drought (Wimbush and Costin 1979). The long-term impact
of periodic drought is, however, unclear.
Geomorphology. Although landforms of the treeless high
country are a fundamental determinant of vegetation
(through their effect on snow longevity, protection from
wind and availability of water), two landforms peculiar to
the high country contain specic plant communities. 1) Sub-
zero temperature and water have combined over long periods
to shatter rock, which has accumulated in streams on slopes
or in piles at the base of outcrops. These block streams and
boulder elds are common in areas with basaltic or granitic
rock. They support a low, closed heathland dominated by
Podocarpus lawrencei, which is the primary habitat of the
Mountain Pygmy Possum (Burramys parvus). 2) On some
slopes of low gradient, the soil appears to have ‘stretched’,
creating linear depressions of up to 30 cm depth. The cause of
these features (called contour trenches by McElroy (1952)) is
unclear. However, they ll with water periodically, following
snow melt and heavy rain, and contain a distinctive ora,
different to the adjoining vegetation only centimetres away.
Geology. The differences in ora and vegetation between
different substrata are often subtle and there appear to be few
species completely restricted to a single rock type. Geology
does inuence soil composition, however, thus indirectly
determining species distribution in some cases. Limestone-
derived soils are less acidic and basalt-derived soils are more
fertile than typical alpine humus soils (Rowe 1972). For these
reasons, weed diversity and abundance are usually greater
in areas underlain by basalt and limestone. In grasslands of
basalt areas, the dominant Poa species often appear to have
more vigorous growth and forbs are less abundant.
Soils. High mountain soils are important in determining the
range of species that may grow at any site, and consequently
the plant communities that develop. Shallow soils tend to
support only shrub-dominated communities. The deeper,
better-developed soils are often grass-dominated. The
prevention of erosion in high mountain areas is therefore of
great importance for the protection of many herb-dominated
communities. Signicant soil loss may lead to changes from
grassland to heathland. The exposure of soil will facilitate this
process because shrubs are much more likely to establish on
bare patches than herbs (Williams 1992). Peat soils typically
support hydrophilic communities dominated by mosses
but they do not preclude the growth of species found in the
humic soil types. There are many examples of grassland
and heathland on humied peat, which has presumably
become too dry to support bog communities. Kirkpatrick
& Bridle (1999) found that soil nutrients (pH, extractable
P, Zn and Mg) were important environmental determinants
of broad alpine vegetation formations in Australia (including
Tasmania), extractable P being the most signicant property
of the many variables (including non-edaphic) tested.
Wildre. Based on growth ring data of Snow Gum in various
parts of the NSW and ACT high country (Banks 1986) and of
Podocarpus lawrencei at Blue Cow (McDougall unpublished
data). broadscale res have occurred in the high subalpine
zone on average 2–3 times per century for the past 300 years.
The major res of January 2003 were consistent with that
frequency, being the rst through most of the study area since
1939. Despite its intensity, the 2003 re was locally patchy,
missing small areas within scorched landscapes and failing to
burn the majority of the alpine zone in Kosciuszko National
Park. The frequency of wildre above the treeline is probably
less frequent, perhaps once per century. Regeneration in
treeless communities following the 2003 re was rapid and
plants of most species had re-appeared by the following
Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps 5
summer. Only the wet communities (especially those
dominated by Sphagnum cristatum), herbelds dominated by
Celmisia costiniana and Podocarpus-dominated heathland
appear to be slow to recover (Walsh & McDougall 2005).
Biotic determinants
Deaths of individuals or patches of plants are common in the
treeless plains of the Australian Alps but rarely extensive. So
little is known about the pathogens, parasites and herbivores
of this area that the occasional death of a plant is ignored.
Extensive patch death of Poa species in tussock grasslands
is sometimes evident, however, and the cause is known and
attributable to the larvae of one of two species of native
moth (Alpine Case Moth Lomera caespitosae, Alpine Grass
Grub Oncopera alpina) (Fig. 3) (Carr & Turner 1959a).
Infestations appear to be sporadic – common and widespread
in some years and then extremely rare for many years. Within
dead patches, grass tillers are killed but forbs appear to be
Fig. 2. Needle ice develops in moist, bare soils when the soil
surface temperature falls below freezing point. Soil particles are
lifted above the needles and are susceptible to erosion once the ice
melts. In the example shown, the needles have not melted during
the day and have been lifted further by the development of needles
beneath.
Fig. 3. Native moths are capable of killing large areas of Poa species. The example shown on Mt Twynam (of Poa fawcettiae) measured
about 1 ha. Forbs seem to be unaffected. The dead mat of grass is stable and will provide protection for the establishment of seedlings,
including new Poa plants.
6 Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps
unaffected. Minor resprouting of grasses has been observed
but the disturbance will usually lead to local changes in
plant abundance – the recruitment of grasses and other herbs
where a protective cover of dead grass litter persists and
the recruitment of shrubs where litter is lost to expose bare
ground (Williams 1992).
Macropods are only present in the subalpine part of the
study area and even there appear to be uncommon in treeless
areas. Wombats are also found in subalpine plains and cause
substantial disturbance to plants and soil in the vicinity of
their burrows. The effect of native herbivores on the plants
and vegetation of treeless vegetation in the Australian Alps
is unknown but worthy of investigation. Increases in native
herbivore population size, for instance as a result of higher
temperatures from global warming, could have a detrimental
impact on treeless vegetation, especially where there are also
populations of introduced herbivores.
Introduced herbivores undoubtedly have an impact on the
ora and vegetation of the treeless plains but the magnitude
and consequence of the impact is, in most cases, unknown.
The best documented impact of an introduced herbivore
comes from long-term monitoring studies of cattle grazing
on the Bogong High Plains and Kosciuszko areas (Carr &
Turner 1959b, Wimbush & Costin 1979, van Rees 1984,
Williams & Ashton 1987, Wahren et al. 1994). Cattle are
selective grazers. They prefer inter-tussock herbs (such as
Craspedia spp., Celmisia spp. and Leptorhynchos squamatus
subsp. alpinus) but make up bulk in their diet with tussock
grasses (Poa spp.). Very little of their diet comprises shrubs
and few shrub species (e.g. Asterolasia trymalioides and
Grevillea australis) are apparently palatable. For this reason,
cattle spend most of their time in grasslands (including
snowpatch communities) (van Rees 1984). Much of their
impact in damp areas (such as wetlands and snowpatches)
occurs through trampling. Rabbits are rare at the highest
altitudes but are apparently slowly moving to higher
elevations. They have colonised the Blue Cow ski area (1800
m a.s.l.) in the past decade. Rabbits are known to eat many
species and have been found to greatly reduce vegetative
cover after re (Leigh et al. 1987). Hares are a less obvious
herbivore – they don’t dig burrows and are largely nocturnal
– but are surprisingly abundant. Their impact on ora and
vegetation has not received the attention it deserves. Pigs,
although also rarely seen, leave obvious signs of damage.
They dig to detect roots and tubers, and in the process
create patches of bare soil – patches of up to 100 m2 have
been observed in Kosciuszko National Park (McDougall &
Walsh 2002). Pigs are only present in some subalpine areas
of Kosciuszko National Park, the Cobberas and the ACT
portions of the study area but could presumably extend their
range in the future. They are a signicant threat to many plant
species and communities. Feral horses are present throughout
the study area in variable density. In places where they are
common (e.g. the Tantangara area of Kosciuszko National
Park and Mt Cobberas area in Victoria), localised trampling
damage is easy to nd near watering points. Horses are
presumably selective grazers. The long-term impact of their
grazing in the Australian Alps is undocumented.
Land use and disturbance
For such a small area, the treeless portions of the Australian
Alps have been intensively used by people, and the pressures
on the plants and vegetation from this use are often obvious.
The degree of use by native peoples prior to European
inhabitation is uncertain. The Bogong Moth, which aestivates
in the high country, was apparently an important food
resource during summer (Flood 1980). The abundant water
and numerous plants with tubers and eshy fruits might have
made the area an attractive place for short periods.
Cattle, sheep and horses were brought to the Australian Alps
in the mid 19th Century soon after the mountains were rst
explored by Europeans. Thereafter, the mountains commonly
provided feed for stock in times of drought. In the drought
of 1902/03 there are thought to have been 100,000 sheep
in the Victorian high country alone (Carr & Turner 1959a).
Grazing in the high mountains was regulated in the early
20th Century through the allocation of grazing leases. By
the mid-20th Century, it was clear that stock were causing
considerable damage to plant communities and, more
importantly, erosion of soils, which could affect the capacity
of the areas to support the dams required for the production
of hydro-electricity. Stock grazing was gradually phased
out in many parts of the Australian Alps between 1950 and
1970. Small areas of privately-owned treeless country in
NSW are still grazed but stock grazing is no longer permitted
in Kosciuszko National Park and has not been a feature of
the ACT high country. Cattle grazing has recently (mid-
2005) been legislated to cease in the Alpine National Park
in Victoria, but grazing is still permitted in adjacent areas
of State Forest, some of which include treeless subalpine
vegetation (e.g the Nunniong Plateau).
Graziers are known to have lit res in treeless country in late
autumn to improve the pick for stock in the following snow-
free season (Downes 1961). The frequency and severity of
these res was not documented. Given that conditions at that
time of the year would rarely be favourable to the spread
of re it is likely that any res lit by graziers would have
been very localised and cool. If they had been frequent and
widespread, obligate seeders such as Grevillea australis,
Epacris gunnii and Asterolasia trymaliodes could not have
survived to be as abundant and widespread as they are now.
In addition, frequent res do not show up in the growth ring
data of high subalpine Snow Gum (Banks 1986). There is
no evidence that aborigines burnt the high country and if
macropods were as scarce then as they are now in the higher
parts, it is hard to see why they would have used broadscale
re to improve hunting conditions by promoting green pick.
It is plausible, however, that some of the res lit in lower
country may have occasionally burnt into alpine areas.
Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps 7
Prospecting for gold at Kiandra (in Kosciuszko National
Park) in the 19th Century must have caused great damage
to vegetation and soils because large, unvegetated scars
from erosion and soil removal are still visible. Gold was
discovered there in late 1859 and by February the next year
there were 1500 miners living in the treeless Kiandra plains
area (Mitchell 1985).
The production of hydro-electricity in the Kosciuszko
area and Bogong High Plains in the 1950s required the
construction of dams, aqueducts, powerlines and a network
of service roads, and caused the destruction or disturbance
of thousands of hectares of treeless vegetation. Changes
to wetland vegetation may also have occurred through the
diversion of water. Many weeds were probably introduced
at this time both inadvertently and through the use of
exotic species for soil stabilisation. A seed mix of exotic
species containing cultivars of Agrostis capillaris, Avena
sativa, Dactylis glomerata, Festuca rubra, Lolium perenne,
Poa pratensis, Secale cereale and Trifolium repens was
developed specically to treat disturbed areas (Clothier &
Condon 1968).
The high country environment now attracts many visitors
both in summer, for the scenery, and in winter, for snow
sports. About 100,000 people visit the alpine area of
Kosciuszko National Park during the snow-free season
(Johnston & Growcock 2005) – many of these walk to Mt
Kosciuszko, the highest point in Australia. Most forms of
tourism have required the construction of infrastructure,
such as walking tracks, accommodation and ski runs. The
damage to vegetation and soils on the track from the top
of the Thredbo chairlift to Mt Kosciuszko necessitated the
construction of a raised metal walkway.
A consequence of a long and varied use of treeless high
mountain country by people is the presence of many feral
animals (see above) and weeds. The highest parts of the
Australian Alps contain relatively few weeds (compared
with many plant communities at lower elevations) (Mallen
1986). The high mountain climate is not a barrier to weeds,
however. Extremely invasive plants such as Hieracium spp.
have been discovered at the treeline in Victoria and New
South Wales only in the last decade (Morgan 2000), mostly
in or near ski villages. Treeless vegetation is likely to face
increasing pressure from plant invasions because of global
warming and the continued use of non-native plants in some
ski resort gardens and in revegetation (McDougall et al. 2005).
Methods
Data collection
Floristic data were obtained from previous surveys of
treeless vegetation. Additional quadrats were sampled by us
to ll in the spatial gap in data in Kosciuszko National Park
and nearby areas. Quadrats containing isolated trees, tree
patches (e.g. Eucalyptus lacrimans) or mallee eucalypts (e.g.
E. debeuzevillei) within a treeless landscape were included.
The data were collected randomly using a range of quadrat
sizes (Table 1). Using a nested quadrat technique McDougall
(1978) found that a quadrat size of 8 m2 was sufcient to
capture 95% of species in a diverse open heathland on the
Bogong High Plains in the Victorian high country. In all of
the surveys, quadrats were placed in what was perceived to
be homogeneous vegetation. Any differences in quadrat size
should therefore not greatly affect the composition of the
resulting quadrats. The Braun-Blanquet cover – abundance
scale or slightly modied versions were used in each of the
surveys.
Data analysis
Because of taxonomic changes since the surveys of the
1980s, it was necessary to aggregate some taxa prior to
analysis: Agrostis hiemalis sp. agg. (includes A. bettyae,
A. joyceae, A. propinqua, A. thompsoniae), Gentianella
Table 1. Floristic data used in the classification
Survey Location Quadrat No. quadrats No. quadrats
dimensions (m) available used
Ecology Australia (2003) NSW ski resorts 5 x 5, 10 x 10a 176 102
Gilmour et al. (1987), A.C.T. 25 x 20 28 26
Helman et al. (1988)b
McDougall (1982) Bogong High Plains, 4 x 5 363 343
Victoria
This paper Other areas, NSW 5 x 5 361 329
Walsh et al. (1984) Other areas, Victoria 4 x 5 464 422
TOTAL 1392 1222
a the larger quadrat size was used in heathy vegetation
b full quadrat data from Helman & Gilmour (1985) could not be located and were therefore not used
8 Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps
spp. (except for G. muelleriana subsp. alpestris and subsp.
willisiana), Craspedia spp. (except those endemic to
Kosciuszko National Park and Craspedia alba, which was
not recorded in quadrats by McDougall (1982)), Celmisia
spp. (except C. sericophylla), Geranium potentilloides
sens. lat., Leucopogon spp. (including only L. hookeri and
L. montanus, which were aggregated by McDougall (1982)
because of difculties with identication when not in ower),
Prasophyllum spp., Solenogyne spp. (includes S. dominii and
S. gunnii), Stylidium spp. (includes S. armeria and S. montanum).
Introduced taxa were not used in the classication. Species
nomenclature follows Ross & Walsh (2003) and Harden
(1991–1995) except where recent taxonomic changes have
been published.
A total of 1392 quadrats was analysed using the software
package Primer v5. Cover scale values were square-root
transformed prior to the calculation of similarities using a
Bray Curtis coefcient. The cover values of R, + and 1, each
indicating cover values of less than 5% , were amalgamated
and assigned a value of 1. The routine CLUSTER was
used with the similarity matrix to create a classication of
quadrats using the group average cluster mode. Because of
the large size of the data set, it was not possible to generate a
dendrogram of quadrats. Quadrat clusters were instead sorted
by hand using the output of the CLUSTER analysis.
Diagnostic taxa for each community were determined using a
G-test of independence, comparing the frequency of a species
within a community with its frequency in all quadrats (Sokal
& Rohlf 1981). Taxa were listed as diagnostic for signicant
differences in frequency with P < 0.01. Taxa with a frequency
of greater than 40% that were not signicantly different from
their expected frequency are listed in the descriptions below
as Other Common Taxa.
Inter-relationships between the identied communities
were assessed by running CLUSTER on frequency
data for diagnostic species in each community without
transformation.
Results
Floristic composition
Based on the quadrat data presented in this paper, previously
published lists (Thompson & Gray 1981, Helman & Gilmour
1985, Helman et al. 1988) and our personal observations,
710 native taxa from 82 families have been recorded in the
treeless high mountain plains and peaks of the Australian Alps
(Appendix 1). The best represented families are Asteraceae
(16.3% of the ora), Poaceae (10.6%), Cyperaceae (7.0%),
Orchidaceae (4.4%), Fabaceae (4.1%), Apiaceae (3.7%),
Ericaceae (3.7%), Scrophulariaceae (3.7%), Myrtaceae
(3.4%), Juncaceae (3.0%), Ranunculaceae (3.0%), Rubiaceae
(2.5%), and Caryophyllaceae (2.0%).
Of the 710 native taxa recorded, 217 (30.6%) are largely
restricted to the treeless vegetation of the Australian
Alps (although some extend for a short distance into the
surrounding woodland vegetation). A further 101 taxa
(14.2%) are restricted to treeless vegetation in the Australian
Alps but also occur beyond the Australian mainland – 91 taxa
are also found in the Tasmanian high country (Kirkpatrick
1997) and 26 are part of the New Zealand mountain ora
(Mark & Adams 1995).
The ora has strong afnities with the high mountain oras
of Tasmania, New Zealand and South America. Several
of the genera that are common to these oras are more
or less restricted to alpine and subalpine environments
(e.g. Aciphylla, Argyrotegium, Celmisia, Chionohebe,
Colobanthus, Gentianella, Kelleria, Uncinia).
One hundred and thirty-one non-native taxa have been
recorded in natural vegetation in the study area (Appendix 1).
Most of these were recorded rarely or not at all in the quadrat
surveys. Only sixteen taxa were recorded in more than 1%
of quadrats (Acetosella vulgaris 42.9%, Hypochaeris radicata
26.5%, Trifolium repens 14.9%, Taraxacum ofcinale 8.7%,
Cerastium glomeratum 7.8%, Cerastium vulgare 7.4%, Poa
pratensis 2.5%, Aphanes arvensis 2.4%, Holcus lanatus 1.8%,
Anthoxanthum odoratum 1.4%, Trifolium dubium 1.4%, Vulpia
bromoides 1.3%, Aira caryophyllea 1.1%, Agrostis capillaris
1.0%, Myosotis caespitosa 1.0%).
Significant plant taxa
Thirteen taxa occurring in treeless vegetation are listed in the
Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act
1999 (EPBC Act) as threatened. Fourteen taxa are listed as
threatened under State legislation but not in the EPBC Act:
Carex archeri, C. raleighii, Euphrasia scabra, Prasophyllum
bagoensis, P. retroexum (Threatened Species Conservation
Act 1995), Brachyscome sp. 3, Carex cephalotes, Celmisia
sericophylla, Deyeuxia afnis, Epilobium willisii, Euphrasia
scabra, Juncus antarcticus, Poa saxicola, Utricularia
monanthos, Wahlenbergia densifolia (Flora and Fauna
Guarantee Act 1988). Under IUCN criteria for the evaluation
of threatened status (IUCN 2001), a further 17 taxa may be
eligible for listing as threatened nationally. These and listed
taxa are described below. The status under the EPBC Act is
shown after the Family name; the IUCN status for species
that may be eligible is underlined (E = endangered; V =
vulnerable).
Argyrotegium nitidulum (Asteraceae; V), like many other
alpine species, is rare throughout its range but is not
uncommon where it is found. Apart from occasional damage
to leaves by an unknown moth (NSW National Parks and
Wildlife Service 2000), there appears to be little immediate
threat to this species. It has been recorded close to one ski
resort but is not currently threatened by development there.
Its conservation status possibly should be reviewed.
Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps 9
Bossiaea riparia (Gulf Plain) (Fabaceae; V). The greyish,
prostrate, ne-branched form of treeless vegetation appears
quite distinct from the taller riparian form found at lower
altitudes, and warrants recognition at species level (Jim Ross,
National Herbarium of Victoria, pers. comm.). It is largely
restricted to the Murrumbidgee River valley between the
ACT and Kosciuszko National Park. Although it is locally
abundant, most populations are small and on private land.
There are a few pre-1900 records of this species for Victoria
but it appears now to be extinct in that State.
Bulbine aff. glauca (Nungar Plain) (Asphodelaceae; E) has
only been recorded at two sites (Nungar Plain and Snowy
Plain) and is threatened at both by pig rooting and at one by
cattle grazing.
Calotis glandulosa (Asteraceae; V) occurs in Kosciuszko
National Park and the Monaro Plains near Cooma. In
Kosciuszko National Park it is locally abundant in the
Tantangara area and seems to favour disturbed sites.
Calotis pubescens (Asteraceae; E) is only known to occur at
Nungar Plain in Kosciuszko National Park (apparently only
in Community 31, described below), although there are two
old records from other sites, which have not been relocated
during recent searches. The extant population is threatened
by pig rooting.
Carex paupera (Cyperaceae; V) is endemic in Victoria and
known from a few populations on the Dargo High Plains,
Bogong High Plains near Mt Jim, and plains near Mt Hotham.
Some populations are reasonably extensive, but they occur in
areas prone to disturbance. There is some evidence that the
species is actually a coloniser of disturbed ground and may
be at least partly disturbance-dependent. There is uncertainty
about the distinctness of this species from the widespread,
variable C. inversa.
Deyeuxia afnis (Poaceae; V) is known from only two sites
on the Bogong High Plains but is commoner on the Main
Range of Kosciuszko National Park. It is no longer subjected
to cattle grazing pressures but the small population size
would justify its threatened status.
Deyeuxia talariata (Poaceae; V) is largely conned to the
Cobberas Mountains and the Nunniong Plateau where known
from only 4 populations. It is threatened by disturbance of
bogs through the activities of feral horses. Two of the known
sites were burnt in the 2003 bushres.
Dillwynia palustris (Fabaceae; E) is a prostrate pea known
from ve sites (two in Kosciuszko National Park, two on
non-reserve tenures nearby and one in State Forest). The
populations in Kosciuszko National Park seem to be small
and are threatened by grazing and trampling by pigs and
feral horses. Both Kosciuszko National Park populations
were burnt in 2003; one had regenerated 12 months later
(Walsh & McDougall 2005).
Discaria nitida (Rhamnaceae; V) occurs in about 20
populations, mostly in Kosciuszko National Park. Most
populations are at or below the lower treeline. Some
Kosciuszko National Park populations are threatened by
weeds.
Diuris pedunculata (Orchidaceae; E) has a large range in
NSW. It was found recently at Snowy Plain, freehold land
on the eastern side of Kosciuszko National Park, and may
also have been recorded from the Kiandra area. It may have
been overlooked elsewhere in the study area because of its
supercial similarity to the more common D. monticola.
Eucalyptus lacrimans (Myrtaceae; V) is locally dominant
in the Kiandra – Tantangara – Long Plain area and to the
east of Adaminaby (and is the dominant of Community
34, described below). The species would probably meet
the criteria for listing as Vulnerable as most stands near
Adaminaby are on private, grazing land where there is little
or no recruitment evident and much death of isolated trees in
paddocks. Many stands in Kosciuszko National Park appear
to be in poor health and most contain a mix of live and dead
trunks with little recruitment. The reasons for the deaths and
poor recruitment are worthy of investigation. Some examples
were burnt in the 2003 res.
Euphrasia crassiuscula subsp. glandulifera (Scrophulariaceae;
V) is conned to a few known populations on the higher
parts of the Victorian Alpine National Park (Mt Bogong and
Bogong High Plains). All populations are now protected from
cattle grazing. Some were extensively burnt in the 2003 res
but recruitment from seed has been recorded since.
Euphrasia eichleri (Scrophulariaceae; V) is conned to a
few known populations on the higher parts of the Victorian
Alpine National Park (Mt Bogong and Bogong High Plains).
All populations are now protected from cattle grazing. It is
closely related to E. alsa, similarly a localised endemic on
the Kosciuszko Main Range. Several populations were burnt
in the 2003 res but new plants have been recorded since.
Euphrasia sp. 3 (Ramshead Range) (Scrophulariaceae; E) is
a tiny annual, which appears to be restricted to the Ramshead
Range between Charlottes Pass and South Ramshead in
Kosciuszko National Park, where it is extremely rare. Whilst
there are few apparent threats (feral horse grazing and
trampling by horses and tourists), its small population size
may make it especially vulnerable to impacts from global
warming.
Galium roddii (Rubiaceae; E) is relatively common on the
slopes of Cave Creek in Kosciuszko National Park and
occurs in smaller populations elsewhere, at Currango and
Long Plains. The main population however is threatened by
weed competition, especially Sedum acre.
Genoplesium turfosum (Orchidaceae; E) is only known
from two sites (in northern Kosciuszko NP and in Namadgi
National Park). Despite our recent surveys, new populations
were not located, although the species is somewhat cryptic.
10 Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps
Kelleria laxa (Thymelaeaceae; V) occurs only in the vicinity
of Mt Jim on the Bogong High Plains (Victorian Alpine
National Park). About 20 small populations are known in
an area of about 2 km2, varying from a few cm2 to a few
m2. All populations were subject to summer grazing prior
to 2005. The species is also known from New Zealand, but
morphological and DNA evidence suggests the Australian
plants may constitute a distinct taxon.
Lobelia gelida (syn. Pratia gelida; Campanulaceae; V)
is conned to a few small populations in Victoria, on Mt
Buffalo and near Mt Howitt. At these sites it may be locally
abundant in shallow seasonal pools. All populations are now
protected from cattle grazing and most are in areas unlikely
to be otherwise damaged.
Prasophyllum bagoensis (Orchidaceae; E) This orchid is
only known from McPhersons Plain (on freehold land and
NSW State Forest lease), where it is threatened by pigs and
feral horses.
Prasophyllum niphopedium (Orchidaceae; E) is conned to
a few small populations near the Cobberas Mountains in the
Alpine National Park and on the nearby Nunniong Plateau.
It is subject to grazing and damage by feral horses which
are abundant in these areas. Prasophyllum niphopedium
has been recently segregated from P. morganii. The latter
species (listed as Vulnerable under the EPBC Act) is now
regarded as extinct, being known from subalpine vegetation
at Cobungra, Victoria, and last collected in 1933.
Prasophyllum retroexum (Orchidaceae; V) is rare and
restricted to the plains in and around Kiandra but has
probably been overlooked because of its similarity to the
more common species there (e.g. P. sphacelatum), and its
short owering period.
Prasophyllum sp. aff. canaliculatum (Orchidaceae; E), is
an undescribed orchid that is only known from McPhersons
Plain (on freehold land and NSW State Forest lease) (David
Jones, CSIRO, pers. comm.) where it is threatened by pigs
and feral horses.
Ranunculus anemoneus (Ranunculaceae; V) was apparently
close to extinction when the Kosciuszko area was grazed
by domestic stock. It is now locally common in a range of
communities on the Main Range between Mt Kosciuszko
and Mt Jagungal.
Rutidosis leiolepis (Asteraceae; V) is known from only a few
sites in the Monaro Plains area south of Canberra and was
recorded during the current survey from several grassland/
open heath sites near Kiandra (e.g. Long Plain and Happy
Jacks Plain). Feral horses and pigs are abundant in these
areas and cause signicant local damage to the vegetation
containing this daisy.
Rytidosperma pumilum (Poaceae; V), whilst occurring
in alpine areas of New Zealand, is known from a single
population in Australia, on the Kosciuszko Main Range. The
Australian population numbers thousands of plants in an area
of only a few ha. In the long term it is indirectly threatened
by trampling by bushwalkers (McDougall & Wright 2004)
and by loss of habitat through climate change.
Rytidosperma vickeryae (Poaceae; E) occurs in Sphagnum-
dominated communities of a few subalpine tributaries of the
upper Snowy River (e.g. Betts Creek, Perisher Creek) but
has been recorded only once beyond that area (Happy Jacks
Plain). Some populations may be threatened by future ski
development.
Thesium australe (Santalaceae; V) has been recorded from
limestone-derived soils near Cave Creek (Kosciuszko
National Park) and soils of volcanic origin near the Cobberas
mountains in Victoria. Population numbers appear to
uctuate widely from year to year. This species was once
a widespread component of grasslands in Queensland, New
South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania but is now largely
conned to a few highland sites and coastal headlands on
the mainland.
Viola improcera (Violaceae; V) has been recorded in the
ACT (in the Mt Scabby / Mt Kelly area) and in Victoria
on the Nunniong Plateau and Mt Useful. Although not yet
recorded in NSW, it probably occurs there, the ACT records
being close to the border. In the ACT, this small stoloniferous
herb grows in heathland (Helman et al. 1988) and mallee
shrubland.
Wahlenbergia densifolia (Campanulaceae; V), in Victoria,
is only known from a few subalpine sites (e.g. Cobberas,
Nunniong Plateau). Although more widespread in NSW it
may be eligible for listing. Three populations were found in
the current study in Kosciuszko National Park. Two of these
sites (Happy Jacks Plain and Nungar Plain) are frequently
damaged by pigs, which preferentially dig in the community
containing this species (Community 31, described below).
In NSW, this species has also been recorded at Mt Gingera,
the Guthega area and the Tinderry Range.
Xerochrysum palustre (Asteraceae; V) is mostly found in
lowland and mid-elevation wetlands in Tasmania, Victoria
and New South Wales but was recorded during the current
study at several sites in the Tantangara – Kiandra area of
Kosciuszko National Park.
Two taxa of treeless vegetation (Actinotus moorei and
Epilobium willisii) are now extinct on the mainland but
persist in alpine vegetation in Tasmania.
Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps 11
Group Community Distribution Habitat Native taxa/ Weeds / Altitude (m) Usual dominants of
(lineal extent (km)) quadrat quadrat upper stratum
I – wet heathlands 1: Baw Baw – Lake Mountain wet BB (65) Valley - wet 22.8 0.1 1270 – 1570 Epacris paludosa,
(bogs), wetland heathland Richea continentis
margins & valley
grassland 2: Richea continentis – Carpha nivicola W (230) Valley - wet 17.4 0.1 1320 – 2100 Baeckea gunniana,
– Sphagnum cristatum wet heathland Richea continentis
3: Baeckea gunniana – W (280) Valley - wet 25.0 1.3 1160 – 1840 Baeckea gunniana,
Callistemon pityoides - Epacris paludosa
Sphagnum cristatum wet heathland
4: Epacris moist heathland BHP, KMR (125) Valley - moist 19.2 0.3 1650 – 2150 Epacris glacialis,
E. gunnii, E. petrophila
5: Alpine valley grassland ACT, KSUB (25) Valley - moist 16.8 0.6 1740 – 2010 Poa costiniana
II – damp herbfields, 6: Lobelia surrepens – W (275) Valley – wet & dry 12.9 0.6 1090 – 1770 Lobelia surrepens,
fens & waterways Ranunculus millanii herbfield Ranunculus millanii
7: Hypericum japonicum – W (200) Valley - wet 21.8 4.6 1180 – 1740 Hypericum japonicum,
Ranunculus pimpinellifolius herbfield Ranunculus pimpinellifolius
8: Fen W (210) Valley - wet 13.6 0 1300 – 1920 Carex gaudichaudiana
9: Aquatic W (270) Valley - wet 1000 – 1600 Nil
III – gravelly pavement 10: Short alpine herbfield BHP, KMR (120) Valley - wet 17.0 0.0 1600 – 2200 Caltha introloba,
herbfields Oreobolus pumilio
11: Celmisia sericophylla herbfield BHP (25) Snowpatch - wet 13.0 0.6 1560 – 1820 Celmisia sericophylla
IV – snowpatch 12: Coprosma niphophila – KMR (7) Snowpatch - dry 15.0 0.5 2050 – 2200 Colobanthus nivicola,
herbfields Colobanthus nivicola Coprosma niphophila
snowpatch feldmark
13: Neopaxia australasica – KMR (35) Snowpatch - wet 14.0 0.4 1920 – 2170 Neopaxia australasica,
Ranunculus niphophilus Plantago muelleri
snowpatch herbfield
Table 2. Summary of Communities. Distribution: ACT = Australian Capital Territory (and adjacent parts of Kosciuszko NP); BB = Baw Baw – Lake Montain area; BHP = Bogong
High Plains; KMR = Kosciuszko Main Range and adjoining subalpine plains; KSUB = other subalpine plains of Kosciuszko National Park and surrounds; VICO = Victorian sites
other than BHP and BB (e.g. Mt Buller, Mt Buffalo, Cobberas, Wellington Plains); W = widespread (i.e. throughout most of study area)
12 Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps
V – subalpine valley & 14: Subalpine valley grassland W (220) Valley - moist 25.9 2.1 1020 – 1680 Poa costiniana
fertile grasslands
15: Snowy Range Grassland VICO (90) Plains 27.7 2.1 1260 – 1760 Poa costiniana
16: Victorian subalpine basalt grassland VICO (145) Plains 25.3 4.9 1200 – 1620 Poa hiemata
VI – closed alpine 17: Poa fawcettiae – BHP, KMR (115) Snowpatch 11.4 0.8 1710 – 2160 Celmisia costiniana,
grasslands Celmisia costiniana Poa fawcettiae
snowpatch grassland
18: Poa fawcettiae - KMR (35) High slopes 11.3 0.1 1970 – 2200 Poa fawcettiae,
Uncinia sulcata grassland Uncinia sulcata
19: Chionochloa frigida grassland KMR (25) Sheltered slopes 16.8 0.6 1780 – 2110 Chionochloa frigida,
Poa fawcettiae
VII – high altitude 20: Short turf snowpatch grassland BHP (25) Snowpatch 17.4 2.1 1670 – 1850 Carex hebes,
grasslands & open Rytidosperma nudiflorum
heathlands
21: Bogong High Plains BHP (25) Sheltered slopes 21.4 1.8 1680 – 1840 Hovea montana
Hovea montana heathland
22: Poa fawcettiae – KMR (40) Valleys & saddles 20.1 0.9 1740 – 2190 Poa fawcettiae
Euphrasia collina grassland
23: Grevillea australis – KMR (45) Slopes 22.8 0.8 1600 – 2030 Grevillea australis,
Nematolepis ovatifolia open heathland Nematolepis ovatifolia
24: Bogong High Plains BHP (15) Plains 21.2 2.7 1570 – 1840 Poa costiniana
Poa costiniana grassland
25: Bogong High Plains BHP (30) Plains 20.7 1.6 1380 – 1930 Poa hiemata
Poa hiemata grassland
26: Bogong High Plains BHP (35) Slopes 23.4 1.5 1560 – 1960 Grevillea australis
Grevillea australis –
Phebalium squamulosum open heathland
27: Bogong High Plains Kunzea muelleri BHP (35) Slopes 19.9 0.6 1630 – 1900 Kunzea muelleri
open heathland
28: Snowy Range open heathland VICO (100) Plains 23.4 2.2 1340 – 1680 Hovea montana
29: Victorian shale Hovea montana VICO (55) Slopes 20.2 1.3 1460 – 1740 Hovea montana
heathland
Group Community Distribution Habitat Native taxa/ Weeds / Altitude (m) Usual dominants of
(lineal extent (km)) quadrat quadrat upper stratum
Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps 13
VIII – subalpine 30: Poa hiemata – Poa clivicola ACT, KSUB (120) Plains 29.9 2.1 1250 – 1810 Poa hiemata,
heathland grassland Poa clivicola
31: Poa hookeri grassland KSUB (75) Plains 27.4 2.4 1200 – 1420 Poa hookeri
32: Hovea montana - Poa phillipsiana VICO (125) Plains 21.0 1.2 1160 – 1700 Poa phillipsiana
open heathland
33: Northern Alps Hovea montana ACT, KSUB (80) Slopes 24.0 1.3 1330 – 1800 Hovea montana
open heathland
34: Eucalyptus lacrimans low open KSUB (35) Slopes 26.2 2.2 1270 – 1470 Eucalyptus lacrimans
woodland
35: Bossiaea foliosa – Epacris petrophila KSUB (10) Plains 17.8 1.5 1320 – 1360 Bossiaea foliosa,
heathland Epacris petrophila
36: Broadway Bossiaea foliosa KSUB (10) Slopes 36.6 1.8 1250 – 1350 Bossiaea foliosa
closed heathland
37: Northern Alps Epacris - Kunzea KSUB (90) Slopes 25.9 0.7 1250 – 1620 Epacris gunnii,
open heathland E. petrophila,
Kunzea muelleri
IX – limestone 38: Themeda triandra – KSUB (1) Slopes 16.2 6.2 1200 – 1220 Themeda triandra,
grassland Leucochrysum albicans grassland Leucocrysum albicans
X – short alpine 39: Kosciuszko alpine Epacris - KMR (40) Slopes 15.2 0.4 1860 – 2220 Epacris gunnii,
heathlands Kunzea open heathland Kunzea muelleri
40: Epacris gunnii – KMR (8) High ridges 14.8 0.5 2010 – 2150 Epacris gunnii
Chionohebe pulvinatus feldmark
41: Bogong High Plains Epacris - BHP (20) High ridges 14.3 0.1 1630 – 1880 Epacris gunnii
Kunzea open heathland
XI – western subalpine 42: Epacris celata – Poa clivicola KSUB (1) Plains 26.0 2.0 1100 Epacris celata,
open heathland open heathland Epacris gunnii
XII – upper 43: Bossiaea riparia dwarf heathland KSUB (15) Slopes 24.3 3.5 1220 – 1280 Bossiaea riparia
Murrumbidgee dwarf
heathland
XIII – Baw Baw open 44: Pultenaea muelleri open heathland BB (15) Rocky slopes 21.6 2.6 1320 – 1540 Pultenaea muelleri
heathlands
45: Epacris petrophila open heathland BB (5) Slopes 21.5 0.3 1310 – 1480 Epacris petrophila
14 Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps
XIV – high altitude 46: Nematolepis ovatifolia – KMR (75) Slopes 18.0 0.8 1420 – 2040 Nematolepis ovatifolia,
closed heathlands Prostanthera cuneata closed heathland Prostanthera cuneata
47: Bogong High Plains BHP (25) Slopes 16.5 0.9 1610 – 1830 Bossiaea foliosa,
Phebalium squamulosum – Prostanthera cuneata
Bossiaea foliosa closed heathland
XV – central Victorian 48: Podolobium alpestre - VICO (30) Rocky peaks 14.6 0.7 1380 – 1800 Euryomyrtus ramosissima,
Alps rocky open Euryomyrtus ramosissima and cliffs Podolobium alpestre
heathlands open heathland
49: Snowy Range – Mt Buffalo VICO (90) Rocky slopes 17.4 0.6 1380 – 1740 Kunzea muelleri
Kunzea muelleri heathland
50: Olearia phlogopappa – VICO (160) Rocky outcrops 18.5 1.3 1660 – 1760 Podolobium alpestre,
Podolobium alpestre closed heathland Olearia phlogopappa
XVI – rocky outcrop 51: Austrodanthonia alpicola – BHP, KMR (190) Rocky outcrops 21.2 1.5 1420 – 2180 Austrodanthonia alpicola,
open heathland Grevillea australis open heathland – dry Brachyscome rigidula
XVII – ACT rocky 52: Eucalyptus debeuzevillei ACT (6) Rocky slopes 19.8 1.0 1720 – 1810 Eucalyptus debeuzevillei
outcrop mallee mallee shrubland
shrubland
XVIII – boulder 53: Podocarpus lawrencei – W (180) Valley - moist 22.2 0.8 1280 – 1950 Epacris paludosa,
heathlands Epacris paludosa closed heathland Podocarpus lawrencei
54: Podocarpus lawrencei closed W (200) Block stream - dry 8.8 0.5 1400 – 2080 Podocarpus lawrencei
heathland
XIX – boulder 55: Carex appressa sedgeland BHP (7) Block stream - moist 12.5 2.6 1710 – 1800 Carex appressa
herbaceous
communities 56: Poa helmsii grassland BHP (7) Block stream - dry 12.4 2.0 1730 – 1800 Poa helmsii
Group Community Distribution Habitat Native taxa/ Weeds / Altitude (m) Usual dominants of
(lineal extent (km)) quadrat quadrat upper stratum
Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps 15
Plant community descriptions
The Cluster analysis identied 56 communities at the 29.3%
similarity level (Table 2). Below this level of similarity,
some groups regarded as representing communities of well-
dened habitat were combined with quadrats of other habitat.
Above this level of similarity, there was a greatly increased
number of communities that we felt would be difcult to
identify in the eld. The 170 quadrats that did not t within
groups at this similarity were not used in the classication.
Some perhaps represent under-sampled communities. Others
may have been inadvertently sampled across community
boundaries. When the frequencies of the diagnostic species
in the 56 communities were re-analysed using Primer,
19 Vegetation Classes (in the sense of Keith (2004) were
identied at the 20% similarity level (Fig. 4). At a lower
similarity level, disparate communities were amalgamated,
often because of low species richness (e.g. alpine grasslands
of Kosciuszko National Park (Communities 17, 18 and 19)
with rocky open heathlands of the central Victorian Alps
(Communities 48, 49 and 50)).
In the descriptions of the communities below, the community
names were developed using a system of priorities. A
vernacular name was used if this was unambiguous. The
name ‘tall alpine herbeld’, used by Costin (1954) for herb-
rich communities of dry alpine sites in Kosciuszko National
Park, was not used by us because it contained several of our
identied communities. Where there was no unambiguous
vernacular name, a name was constructed using features
that were unique to the community (e.g. usual dominants,
location, habitat, diagnostic species) and a structural base
name (e.g. heathland, grassland).
In the descriptions below, diagnostic taxa are grouped by life
form (shrub or herb) and listed in decreasing order of frequency
(with % frequency in parentheses). Other common, but not
diagnostic taxa are listed where the frequency is greater than
40%. Signicant taxa are those listed and described above.
All weeds occurring within a community are listed (with %
frequency in parentheses).
The altitudinal range of each community is presented as
Lowest – Mean – Highest. Management issues are discussed
under the assumption that cattle grazing will no longer be
permitted in the Alpine National Park.
Group I – wet heathlands (bogs), wetland margins
& valley grassland
Community 1: Baw Baw – Lake Mountain wet heathland
Equivalent communities: Wet alpine heathland, sub-communities 9.1,
9.2, 9.3 (Walsh et al. 1984).
Baw Baw – Lake Mountain wet heathland is restricted to the Baw Baw
Plateau and Lake Mountain areas, occurring in broad valley floors and
lower slopes of relatively low relief. Permanent water is a feature, either
as pools or as slow-flowing streams. Topographically lower sites support
dense heath to c. 1 m high, composed mainly of Richea continentis,
R. victoriana, Baeckea gunniana, B. utilis, Epacris paludosa,
E. petrophila in a complex with abundant Sphagnum cristatum forming
hummocks and hollows associated with a variety of herbs such as
Astelia alpina, Blechnum penna-marina, Brachyscome obovata,
Drosera arcturi, Nertera granadensis, Erigeron paludicola, Euphrasia
gibbsiae subsp. subglabrifolia, and Isolepis spp. This complex is
typically surrounded upslope by a drier heath dominated by Olearia
algida, Ozothamnus sp.1, Tasmannia vickeriana, Trochocarpa clarkei,
Pultenaea muelleri, Leionema phylicifolium (Lake Mountain only).
These mountains are disjunct from the Alps of the main Dividing Range
and consequently contain a relatively high percentage of locally endemic
or restricted taxa. This community is localised but well protected and
under minimal threat. Both plateaux contain areas used for nordic
skiing on groomed trails, and some cleared and groomed downhill ski
slopes exist on Mt Baw Baw. There is a low level of weed intrusion as
a consequence of the latter. Both areas are used for bushwalking and
there are local effects associated with this around popular campsites
(particularly on the Baw Baw plateau). Grazing has not been permitted
at either area since 1975 but a few wild cattle persisted at least until
recently near Mt Baw Baw.
Fig. 4. Dendrogram showing relationships between communities.
The 20% line of similarity is shown, at which 20 broad community
groups were identified.
16 Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps
No. quadrats 53; Native taxa / quadrat 22.8 ± 0.8; Total native taxa 127;
Weeds /quadrat 0.1 ± 0.0; Total weed taxa 3
Altitude: 1270 – 1410 – 1570 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Epacris paludosa (84), Richea continentis
(82), Olearia algida (80), Baeckea gunniana (49), Callistemon pityoides
(38), Baeckea utilis (29), Epacris petrophila (27), Orites lancifolia
(25), Wittsteinia vacciniacea (22), Ozothamnus sp. 1 (18), Pultenaea
muelleri (16), Tasmannia vickeriana (16), Coprosma perpusilla
(13), Trochocarpa clarkei (9), Coprosma nitida (7), Leptospermum
grandifolium (7); Herbs Astelia alpina (89), Gentianella spp. (82),
Empodisma minus (75), Celmisia spp. (62), Sphagnum cristatum (62),
Thelymitra cyanea (56), Nertera granadensis (53), Euphrasia gibbsiae
subsp. subglabrifolia (49), Oreobolus distichus (47), Carpha nivicola
(45), Isolepis aucklandica (44), Lycopodium fastigiatum (42), Plantago
alpestris (36), Blechnum penna-marina (33), Gonocarpus micranthus
(33), Hydrocotyle algida (33), Erigeron paludicola (31), Epilobium
gunnianum (29), Brachyscome obovata (27), Herpolirion novae-
zelandiae (27), Ranunculus collinus (27), Carex appressa (25), Drosera
arcturi (24), Caltha introloba (20), Ranunculus gunnianus (20), Juncus
sandwithii (18), Schoenus calyptratus (18), Euchiton collinus (16),
Huperzia australiana (16), Senecio pectinatus var. major (16), Carex
canescens (13), Carex jackiana (13), Hierochloe redolens (11), Isolepis
subtilissima (11), Lycopodium scariosum (9), Montia fontana (7),
Oxalis magellanica (7)
Other Common Taxa: Asperula gunnii (62)
Significant Taxa: Actinotus moorei (one record 1940)
Weeds: Hypochaeris radicata (9), Cerastium vulgare (2), Taraxacum
officinale (2)
Community 2: Richea continentis – Carpha nivicola –
Sphagnum cristatum wet heathland
Equivalent communities: Epacris paludosa – Sphagnum cymbifolium
alliance & Carex gaudichaudiana – Sphagnum cymbifolium alliance
(Costin 1954); Sphagnum – Richea – Astelia association (McVean 1969);
Bog, Unit 7A (McDougall 1982); Wet alpine heathland, subcommunity
9.4 (Walsh et al. 1984); Type 4a (Helman & Gilmour 1985); Group 12
(Helman et al. 1988), Raised and valley bog (Costin et al. 2000).
Community 2 is widespread through the northern Alps and higher
subalps, occurring almost continuously along the Dividing Range
from the Brindabella Ranges in the ACT, through Kosciuszko
National Park in NSW, and in Victoria from The Cobberas, across
the Bogong High Plains with outlying examples on the Mt Buffalo
plateau. Occurs mainly in broad valleys, but also in seepage zones
on slopes of low relief and along margins of smaller watercourses.
Free water, either as pools or as slow-flowing streams, may or may
not be present. The community is often a low closed heath dominated
by Baeckea gunniana, Epacris paludosa (and at higher altitudes,
E. glacialis) and Richea continentis with intervening areas dominated
by Sphagnum cristatum (S. novo-zelandicum in pools) and obligately
associated herbs (e.g. Astelia alpina, A. psychrocharis, Baloskion
australe, Carex gaudichaudiana, Carpha nivicola, Celmisia spp.
Diplaspis nivis, Empodisma minus, Erigeron paludicola, Oreobolus
distichus, Oschatzia cuneifolia, Poa costiniana). The distinction
between valley bogs and raised bogs made by Costin et al. (2000)
is not evident in our classification. Whilst vegetation containing
Sphagnum cristatum in valleys of the Kosciuszko Main Range may
appear different from bogs of hillsides, often having fewer, shorter
shrubs, they are inseparable floristically. Some of the valley bogs of
Costin et al. (2000) may also fall within Community 5 in cases where
only small, isolated patches of Sphagnum cristatum are present.
Community 2 is widespread and locally abundant but has suffered
greatly from grazing, trampling and wildfire in recent times. Grazing
ceased through most of Kosciuszko National Park in 1958, and on
the northern parts of the Bogong High Plains in 1992 and recovery
(indicated by dense Sphagnum cristatum cover and less entrenched
watercourses) has occurred to varying extents through these areas.
Where grazing persisted until 2003 (e.g. parts of the Bogong High
Plains, Davies Plain and the Nunniong Plateau), degraded bogs
are characterised by a less dense Sphagnum cristatum cover and
entrenched, more rapidly flowering watercourses. Downhill ski
developments occur through much of the range of the community
and associated impacts such as clearing and modification of local
hydrology are apparent in many of these areas.
No. quadrats 68; Native taxa / quadrat 17.4 ± 0.6; Total native taxa 161;
Weeds /quadrat 0.1 ± 0.1; Total weed taxa 4
Altitude: 1320 – 1690 – 2100 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Richea continentis (100), Baeckea gunniana
(82), Epacris paludosa (68), Epacris glacialis (59); Herbs Empodisma
minus (100), Sphagnum cristatum (94), Poa costiniana (87), Celmisia
spp. (pugioniformis, sp. aff. pugioniformis, tomentella) (79), Carex
gaudichaudiana (75), Oreobolus distichus (60), Astelia alpina (59),
Carpha nivicola (53), Erigeron paludicola (49), Diplaspis nivis
(34), Baloskion australe (29), Rytidosperma nivicola (29), Aciphylla
simplicifolia (22), Astelia psychrocharis (22), Gentianella muelleriana
(subsp. muelleriana, subsp. alpestris) (22), Oschatzia cuneifolia (22),
Ranunculus gunnianus (21), Isolepis aucklandica (19), Argyrotegium
poliochlorum (16), Hydrocotyle algida (16), Thelymitra cyanea (13),
Carex echinata (6)
Significant Taxa: Rytidosperma vickeryae
Weeds: Acetosella vulgaris (9), Festuca rubra (1), Holcus lanatus (1),
Hypochaeris radicata (1)
Community 3: Baeckea gunniana – Callistemon pityoides
- Sphagnum cristatum wet heathland
Equivalent communities: Epacris breviflora – Blindia robusta alliance
(Costin 1954); Wet alpine heathland, subcommunity 9.6 (Walsh et
al. 1984); Vegetation Type 4b (Helman & Gilmour 1985); Group 11
(Helman et al. 1988).
Widespread, mostly subalpine, extending from the Brindabella Ranges
in the ACT, at scattered localities through Kosciuszko National Park,
mostly in the catchments of the Murrumbidgee and Eucumbene Rivers,
and in Victoria on the Nunniong Plateau, Dargo High Plains, Baw
Baw Plateau, The Cobberas, Mt Buffalo and the Snowy Range south
from Mt Howitt, rare on the Bogong High Plains (where generally at
low elevations such as Wild Horse Plain). Typically a community of
boggy margins of slow-flowing streams, often ± linear and adjacent to
Eucalyptus pauciflora and/or E. stellulata woodlands. Usually at lower
elevations than Community 2 but sometimes occurring with and merging
into Communities 1 or 2. Examples are usually quite dense heaths and
sometimes relatively tall (to c. 1.6 m high), dominated by shrubs such as
Baeckea gunniana, Epacris paludosa, Richea continentis, Callistemon
pityoides and Epacris breviflora. Herbs are usually rather scant beneath
shrubs, but gaps may be herb-rich with species such as Oreomyrrhis
ciliata, Poa costiniana, Ranunculus pimpinellifolius, Celmisia spp.,
Cotula alpina, Empodisma minus, Gonocarpus micranthus, Hypericum
japonicum and Juncus falcatus. Sphagnum cristatum is usually present
in wetter areas. A relatively rich weed flora is evidence of less exposed
environments than Communities 1 and 2, and probably indicative
of greater utilisation (in the recent past) by cattle, particularly when
seeking water later in the grazing season as surrounding vegetation
becomes drier.
No. quadrats 86; Native taxa / quadrat 25.0 ± 0.9; Total native taxa 264;
Weeds /quadrat 1.3 ± 0.2; Total weed taxa 21
Altitude: 1160 – 1465 – 1840 m.
Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps 17
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Baeckea gunniana (90), Epacris paludosa
(73), Richea continentis (47), Callistemon pityoides (40), Epacris
breviflora (35), Epacris gunnii (28), Pultenaea tenella (26), Hakea
microcarpa (23), Epacris celata (7), Pimelea bracteata (6); Herbs
Empodisma minus (92), Carex gaudichaudiana (77), Asperula gunnii
(71), Sphagnum cristatum (70), Poa costiniana (65), Gonocarpus
micranthus (57), Luzula modesta (55), Celmisia spp. (pugioniformis,
sp. aff. pugioniformis, tomentella) (51), Ranunculus pimpinellifolius
(47), Baloskion australe (44), Oreomyrrhis ciliata (43), Epilobium
gunnianum (35), Oreobolus distichus (35), Hypericum japonicum (31),
Cotula alpina (30), Hydrocotyle algida (29), Isolepis crassiuscula
(28), Erigeron paludicola (27), Nertera granadensis (27), Juncus
falcatus (24), Myriophyllum pedunculatum (24), Caltha introloba (22),
Comesperma retusum (19), Isolepis aucklandica (19), Carex appressa
(17), Wahlenbergia ceracea (17), Carex blakei (16), Thelymitra cyanea
(16), Juncus sandwithii (14), Brachyscome obovata (13), Drosera peltata
(13), Isolepis subtilissima (13), Carex jackiana (12), Chiloglottis spp.
(10), Oreobolus oxycarpus (10), Utricularia monanthos (8), Veronica
serpyllifolia (8), Hierochloe redolens (7), Coprosma moorei (6)
Significant Taxa: Deyeuxia talariata, Dillwynia palustris, Genoplesium
turfosum
Weeds: Trifolium repens (26), Acetosella vulgaris (16), Cerastium
glomeratum (14), Hypochaeris radicata (14), Taraxacum officinale
(10), Cerastium vulgare (9), Poa pratensis (8), Mimulus moschatus (6),
Cirsium vulgare (5), Prunella vulgaris (3), Anthoxanthum odoratum
(2), Veronica arvensis (2), Agrostis capillaris (1), Agrostis stolonifera
(1), Aphanes arvensis (1), Bromus hordeaceus (1), Conyza bonariensis
(1), Juncus bufonius (1), Phleum pratense (1), Trifolium dubium (1),
Vulpia bromoides (1)
Community 4: Epacris moist heathland
Equivalent communities: Epacris glacialis heathland, Unit 7B
(McDougall 1982); Epacris glacialis heath (Costin et al. 2000).
Many bogs, fens, streams and lakes in the higher parts of the Australian
Alps are bordered by a low heathland on mineralised peat soil (Fig. 5).
On the Bogong High Plains in Victoria this is invariably dominated by
Epacris glacialis. On the Main Range of Kosciuszko National Park in
NSW the community may be dominated by Epacris glacialis, E. gunnii
or rarely (mostly at lower elevations) E. petrophila. Mat forming plants
such as Stackhousia pulvinaris, Pentachondra pumila, Argyrotegium
spp. and Oreobolus distichus are common. Tussock grasses are not
abundant although Poa costiniana is usually present. Localised
trampling damage is evident in examples on the Bogong High Plains,
which, up until summer 2004–2005 were accessible to cattle. The
community is well-protected and not requiring management action.
No. quadrats 16; Native taxa / quadrat 19.2 ± 1.5; Total native taxa 96;
Weeds /quadrat 0.3 ± 0.3; Total weed taxa 4
Altitude: 1650 – 1825 – 2150 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Pentachondra pumila (63), Epacris glacialis
(56), Pimelea alpina (56), Epacris gunnii (44), Epacris petrophila (25);
Herbs Poa costiniana (88), Celmisia spp. (costiniana, pugioniformis,
tomentella) (81), Empodisma minus (81), Oreobolus distichus (56),
Ranunculus gunnianus (56), Stackhousia pulvinaris (56), Erigeron
nitidus (50), Argyrotegium fordianum (38), Gentianella muelleriana
subsp. alpestris (25), Argyrotegium poliochlorum (25), Ranunculus
muelleri (25), Rytidosperma nivicola (25)
Other Common Taxa: Carex breviculmis (56), Craspedia spp.
(aurantia, maxgrayi) (56), Rytidosperma nudiflorum (50)
Fig. 5. Epacris glacialis moist heathland (Community 4) beside Pretty Valley Creek on the Bogong High Plains. There is usually a sharp
boundary between this community, which is found on humified peat, and those of dry sites on alpine humus soil (in this case, Community
24 in the background). The creek itself is typical of the habitat of Community 9. However, Myriophyllum pedunculatum seems to be the
only species of that disparate community to occur here.
18 Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps
Significant Taxa: Euphrasia sp. 3
Weeds: Hypochaeris radicata (13), Acetosella vulgaris (6), Taraxacum
officinale (6), Trifolium repens (6)
Community 5: Alpine valley grassland
Equivalent communities: part of Poa caespitosa – Danthonia nudiflora
alliance (Costin 1954); Sod tussock grassland (Costin et al. 2000).
This community is similar in appearance, habitat and usual dominant
(Poa costiniana) to Community 14 yet is distinct floristically, having
much lower species diversity and containing many species commonly
found in wetland vegetation only at higher elevation. It is restricted
to Kosciuszko National Park and is especially common beside low-
velocity waterways in the high subalpine zone (e.g. Spencers Creek,
Guthrie Creek, upper Snowy River).
No. quadrats 9; Native taxa / quadrat 16.8 ± 0.9; Total native taxa 65;
Weeds /quadrat 0.6 ± 0.4; Total weed taxa 5
Altitude: 1740 – 1830 – 2010 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Epacris glacialis (56); Herbs Poa costiniana
(100), Craspedia spp. (jamesii) (89), Empodisma minus (89), Aciphylla
simplicifolia (78), Carex gaudichaudiana (67), Gentianella muelleriana
subsp. alpestris (67), Ranunculus gunnianus (44), Deyeuxia carinata
(33), Ranunculus millanii (33)
Other Common Taxa: Asperula gunnii (78), Celmisia spp. (56),
Oreomyrrhis eriopoda (56), Microseris sp. 2 (44)
Weeds: Acetosella vulgaris (11), Agrostis capillaris (11), Cerastium
vulgare (11), Festuca rubra (11), Taraxacum officinale (11)
Group II – Damp herbfields, fens & waterways
Community 6: Lobelia surrepens – Ranunculus millanii
herbfield
Equivalent communities: Pratia depression, Unit 8A & Fen (Bog pool),
Unit 8B (McDougall 1982); Damp alpine heathland, subcommunity
10.1 (Walsh et al. 1984); Vegetation Type 9 (Helman & Gilmour
1985).
Lobelia surrepens – Ranunculus millanii herbfield occurs on the
Bimberi Range (ACT), northern Kosciuszko National Park and
surrounds (e.g. Kiandra, Seventeen Flat, Broadway Plain, McPhersons
Plain, Cooleman Plain) and a number of sites of suitable topography in
Victoria where locally common (e.g. Bogong High Plains, Mt Buffalo,
Dargo High Plains, Snowy Range) but is absent from the Baw Baw
Plateau and Lake Mountain. It is a low herbfield that is confined to,
and highly characteristic of, seasonally inundated depressions of alpine
and high subalpine areas (Fig. 6). There appears to be no convincing
explanation for the genesis of these formations. The depressions may be
more or less linear and oriented across slopes (i.e. the ‘contour trenches’
of McElroy (1952)), or they may be nearly circular on almost flat
ground. They are underlain by water-retentive soils, often derived from
igneous parent material, and filled with water following snow-melt. By
early summer they are usually empty of surface water but soils remain
moist through the season (sometimes filling again during heavy rains).
Representative species include the virtually prostrate species Lobelia
surrepens, Ranunculus millanii, Gonocarpus micranthus, Isolepis
montivaga, Myriophyllum pedunculatum, Stackhousia pulvinaris,
Lachnagrostis meionectes. The taller sedge, Carex gaudichaudiana is
usually present, particularly in deeper sections of the depressions where
water tends to persist for longer periods. The very rare species Lobelia
gelida (Mt Buffalo, Snowy Range) is confined to this community, and
Kelleria laxa (Bogong High Plains) occurs in this community and
adjacent grassland.
No. quadrats 16; Native taxa / quadrat 12.9 ± 1.1; Total native taxa 94;
Weeds /quadrat 0.6 ± 0.4; Total weed taxa 10
Altitude: 1090 – 1410 – 1770 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Herbs Carex gaudichaudiana (94), Ranunculus
millanii (94), Lobelia surrepens (88), Gonocarpus micranthus (63),
Dichondra repens (50), Isolepis montivaga (44), Myriophyllum
pedunculatum (38), Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides (31), Lachnagrostis
aemula (19)
Significant Taxa: Lobelia gelida, Kelleria laxa
Weeds: Trifolium repens (15), Acetosella vulgaris (10), Agrostis capillaris
(5), Agrostis stolonifera (5), Cirsium vulgare (5), Juncus bufonius (5),
Poa pratensis (5), Rorippa palustris (5), Rumex conglomeratus (5),
Taraxacum officinale (5)
Community 7: Hypericum japonicum – Ranunculus
pimpinellifolius herbfield
Equivalent communities: Nil
Fig. 6. Small depression containing Lobelia surrepens – Ranunculus
millanii herbfield (Community 6) within Poa costiniana dominated
grassland (Community 24) at head of Cope Creek on the Bogong
High Plains.
Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps 19
In Victoria, Community 7 has been recorded from the Dargo High
Plains, Nunniong Plateau and plains south of Mt Hotham, with
isolated occurrences near Mt Stirling and The Bluff. In New South
Wales recorded from Boggy Plain near Tantangara, Long Plain and
Bogong Plain near Mt Jagungal but undoubtedly commonly occurring
elsewhere within the subalpine area. It occurs in broad valleys or around
seepage zones on flat ground anywhere where soils are relatively
deep and permanently sodden (but not inundated), often on sites with
basaltic parent material (Fig. 7). Forbs such as Hypericum japonicum,
Ranunculus pimpinellifolius, Gonocarpus micranthus and Epilobium
curtisiae are the usual dominants and form a dense mat of overlapping
leaves. Examples are often small (a few m2). A relatively high weed
percentage (particularly Acetosella vulgaris, Cerastium glomeratum,
Holcus lanatus, Trifolium repens) is indicative of disturbance and
relatively benign growing conditions. Many of the sites (at least in
Victoria) are still subject to cattle grazing. Sites in New South Wales
may be affected by pigs.
No. quadrats 14; Native taxa / quadrat 21.8 ± 2.0; Total native taxa 108;
Weeds /quadrat 4.6 ± 0.7; Total weed taxa 18
Altitude: 1180 – 1435 – 1740 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Herbs Carex gaudichaudiana (93), Hypericum
japonicum (86), Ranunculus pimpinellifolius (86), Cotula alpina (71),
Juncus falcatus (71), Epilobium curtisiae (57), Euchiton collinus (57),
Gonocarpus micranthus (57), Brachyscome scapigera (50), Hydrocotyle
sibthorpioides (50), Oreomyrrhis ciliata (50), Veronica serpyllifolia (43),
Dichondra repens (36), Isolepis montivaga (36), Isolepis subtilissima
(29), Schoenus calyptratus (29), Carex inversa (21)
Other Common Taxa: Luzula modesta (50)
Significant Taxa: Epilobium willisii, Wahlenbergia densifolia
Weeds: Trifolium repens (100), Taraxacum officinale (50), Acetosella
vulgaris (43), Cerastium glomeratum (43), Holcus lanatus (36), Cerastium
vulgare (29), Poa pratensis (29), Aphanes arvensis (21), Hypochaeris
radicata (21), Prunella vulgaris (14), Vulpia bromoides (14), Agrostis
capillaris (7), Medicago spp. (7), Myosotis discolor (7), Phleum pratense
(7), Poa annua (7), Trifolium dubium (7), Veronica peregrina (7),
Community 8: Fen
Equivalent communities: Carex gaudichaudiana alliance (Costin
1954); Carex – Drepanocladus association (McVean 1969); Vegetation
Type 6a (Helman & Gilmour 1985); Fen (Costin et al. 2000).
Fens are widespread in valleys and low saddles in Kosciuszko National
Park (where extending into the alpine zone) and subalpine valleys of
the ACT. In Victoria, where less common, they have been recorded
from only the Snowy Range, Mt Buffalo, the Bogong High Plains and
Nunniong Plateau. The sedge Carex gaudichaudiana is ubiquitous
within this community and makes it one of the most immediately
recognisable of alpine/subalpine vegetation types. Typically, sites are
inundated through most, if not all, summer with water depths up to
c. 15 cm. Relatively few other species occur within the closed sedgeland,
but in some areas Brachyscome obovata, Carex echinata, Deschampsia
caespitosa, Epilobium gunnianum, Isolepis crassiuscula, Myriophyllum
pedunculatum etc. may be reasonably common. Sphagnum cristatum
often occupies any ground raised slightly above the bed of the fen.
The weed Myosotis caespitosa, although not recorded in quadrats, is
abundant at a few sites in Kosciuszko National Park (e.g. Boggy Plain,
Ogilvies Plain) and may threaten the integrity of this community.
No. quadrats 16; Native taxa / quadrat 13.6 ± 1.9; Total native taxa 87;
Weeds /quadrat 0; Total weed taxa 0
Altitude: 1300 – 1700 – 1920 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Herbs Carex gaudichaudiana (100), Sphagnum
cristatum (81), Carpha nivicola (56), Oreomyrrhis ciliata (50),
Epilobium gunnianum (44), Isolepis crassiuscula (38), Myriophyllum
pedunculatum (38), Brachyscome obovata (31), Carex echinata (31),
Deschampsia caespitosa (31), Juncus falcatus (25)
Other Common Taxa: Poa costiniana (63), Empodisma minus (50)
Community 9: Aquatic
Equivalent communities: Vegetation Type 6b (Helman & Gilmour
1985).
Occurs in and beside permanent creeks and in deeper pools along
intermittent streams (e.g. Nungar Creek and McPhersons Plain in NSW,
Sheep Station Ck and Grassy Creek in the ACT, Baw Baw and Nunniong
Plateaus and Bogong High Plains in Victoria) but probably more
widespread. It includes both true aquatics with fully submerged (e.g.
Myriophyllum alpinum), floating (Nymphoides montana) or emergent
foliage (e.g. Carex gaudichaudiana), as well as semi-aquatics capable of
growing as submergents for extended periods (e.g. Lilaeopsis polyantha,
Neopaxia australasica, Ranunculus pimpinellifolius). Plant cover
is sporadic and sometimes only one or a few species will be present.
Some trampling of creek edges by horses and, on Nunniong Plateau,
degradation by cattle was observed in the vicinity of this community. It
is possible however that some sites formerly supporting this community
have been degraded to the extent that they are no longer floristically
analogous. The weed Myosotis caespitosa is locally abundant at the
margins of some examples (e.g. Cooleman Plain in Kosciuszko
National Park).
No. quadrats: 1 (this community appears to have been sampled in the
ACT by Helman & Gilmour (1985), based on the two-way table in that
report, but the full quadrat data were unavailable to us).
Altitude: 1000 – c.1600 m.
Common Taxa: Herbs Brachyscome radicans, Carex gaudichaudiana,
Eleocharis acuta, Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides, Hydrocotyle tripartita,
Lilaeopsis polyantha, Myriophyllum pedunculatum, Neopaxia
australasica, Nymphoides montana, Ranunculus amphitrichus,
Ranunculus pimpinellifolius
Weeds: Juncus articulatus, Myosotis caespitosa, Taraxacum officinale,
Trifolium repens
Fig. 7. An example of Community 7 at Long Plain (Kosciuszko
National Park). The forb-dominated vegetation bordering the creek
contrasts with the tussock-dominated vegetation (Community 30)
in the background.
20 Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps
Group III – gravelly pavement herbfields
Community 10: Short alpine herbfield
Equivalent communities: part of Plantago muelleri – Montia
australasica alliance (Costin 1954); Oreobolus pumilio association
(McVean 1969); Caltha herbland, Unit 10 (McDougall 1982); Short
alpine herbfield (Costin et al. 2000).
Short alpine herbfield is common above 1700 m in Kosciuszko National
Park (between Ramshead Range and Mt Jagungal) but individual stands
are rarely more than 100 m2. It is extremely rare in Victoria being confined
to a few creeks and snowpatches on the Bogong High Plains. A species-
depauperate example of this community occurs on the eastern end of
the Baw Baw Plateau. Short alpine herbfield is a sparsely-vegetated,
semi-aquatic community of shallow, low-gradient streams (and
sometimes shallow lake margins), usually with considerable amounts
of exposed rock and coarse gravel (Fig. 8). It is often associated with
snowpatches and/or bogs. The small, tough-leaved sedge Oreobolus
pumilio forms dense low cushions and performs an important function
by disrupting water flow which allows more tender herbs (some of
very restricted occurrence e.g. Abrotanella nubigena, Deyeuxia affinis,
Drosera arcturi, Parantennaria uniceps) to take root. Sphagnum
cristatum (and sometimes S. novo-zelandicum) usually occurs at the
peripheries. Mat-forming species (Dichosciadium ranunculaceum,
Oreomyrrhis pulvinifica, Plantago glacialis, Plantago muelleri) may
be locally dominant. Some Victorian stands are dominated by Caltha
introloba. The community appears to be dependent on maintenance
of exposed gravelly sites and continuous irrigation. Any disruption to
local hydrology may permit the expansion of adjacent communities or
incursion of aquatic communities. Because of its frequent proximity
to late-melting snow, trampling of this community by sightseers may
occur during snowmelt. Although this is rare, we have observed damage
to Oreobolus pumilio cushions from trampling and it is possible that
disruption of rock and gravel by tramping limits opportunities for further
establishment by short alpine herbfield species. Whilst monitoring of
stands of this community subject to trampling would be worthwhile, the
removal of trampling pressure from stands of this very rare community
wherever possible would be good management. The relatively high
number of species of restricted occurrence in this community makes it
a high priority for protection.
No. quadrats 31; Taxa / quadrat 17.0 ± 0.8; Total native taxa 84; Weeds
/quadrat 0.0 ± 0.0; Total weed taxa 1
Altitude: 1600 – 1900 – 2200 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Epacris glacialis (52); Herbs Oreobolus
pumilio (81), Caltha introloba (74), Carex gaudichaudiana (74),
Drosera arcturi (74), Brachyscome stolonifera (65), Poa costiniana
(61), Rytidosperma nivicola (61), Oreomyrrhis pulvinifica (55),
Diplaspis nivis (48), Luzula atrata (48), Carpha nivicola (45), Schoenus
calyptratus (38), Myriophyllum pedunculatum (35), Oreobolus distichus
(35), Plantago muelleri (35), Deyeuxia affinis (32), Carpha alpina (29),
Parantennaria uniceps (29), Plantago glacialis (29), Deschampsia
caespitosa (26), Gentianella muelleriana subsp. alpestris (23), Isolepis
crassiuscula (23), Carex hypandra (19), Euphrasia collina subsp.
glacialis (19), Craspedia alba (16), Dichosciadium ranunculaceum
(13), Rytidosperma australe (6)
Significant Taxa: Deyeuxia affinis
Weeds: Agrostis capillaris (3)
Community 11: Celmisia sericophylla herbfield
Equivalent communities: Celmisia sericophylla herbland, Unit 11
(McDougall 1982).
Community 11 occurs in spring-fed drainage lines of steep east to south
facing slopes within Community 17, around waterfalls and beside
creeks. It is restricted to the area between Mt Hotham and Mt Bogong,
where it is most commonly found on slopes of the higher peaks (e.g.
Mt Hotham, Mt McKay, Mt Nelse, Spion Kopje and Mt Bogong). A
single occurrence of C. sericophylla on the Snowy Range (some 60 km
distant from the nearest population and unsampled in this study) is in
similar habitat and represents a depauperate isolated example. Celmisia
sericophylla commonly forms dense stands amongst rock in flowing
water. Caltha introloba may also be abundant but other species tend to
be scattered and rare. Other frequent species are generally interlopers
from adjacent heaths, grasslands or bogs (e.g. Acaena novae-zelandiae,
Carex gaudichaudiana, Isolepis aucklandica, Poa costiniana, Richea
continentis). Many examples of this community were severely burnt
during the fires of early 2003 and recovery of these has been patchy.
It will be several years before it is known if they regenerate to the
original community. If they do not, it is possible that up to 50% of
the known area of this very restricted community will have been lost
or severely modified by these fires. Some of the few examples of the
community near Mt Hotham were damaged by ski slope developments
in the 1980s. Generally though, owing to the often steep and rocky
terrain in which the community occurs, examples are relatively intact.
Localised trampling damage may occur from sightseers visiting the last
snow, although the threat is probably small at present. Some patches
are within the ski resorts of Falls Creek and Mt Hotham and may face
future pressures from skiing development.
No. quadrats 5; Native taxa / quadrat 13.0 ± 2.4; Total native taxa 34;
Weeds /quadrat 0.6 ± 0.3; Total weed taxa 2
Altitude: 1560 – 1735 – 1820 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Richea continentis (80); Herbs Celmisia
sericophylla (100), Isolepis aucklandica (100), Acaena novae-zelandiae
(80), Agrostis parviflora (80), Carex gaudichaudiana (80), Caltha
introloba (60), Luzula acutifolia subsp. acutifolia (60), Deyeuxia affinis
(40)
Other Common Taxa: Poa costiniana (60)
Significant Taxa: Deyeuxia affinis
Weeds: Acetosella vulgaris (40), Hypochaeris radicata (20)
Group IV – snowpatch herbfields
Community 12: Coprosma niphophila – Colobanthus nivi-
cola snowpatch feldmark
Equivalent communities: Coprosma pumila – Colobanthus benthamianus
alliance (Costin 1954); Coprosma pumila association (McVean 1969);
Coprosma-Colobanthus Feldmark (Costin et al. 2000).
This community is confined to the Kosciuszko Main Range. It occupies
the upper parts of east- to south-facing slopes with the longest lasting
snow (Fig. 9). Soils are shallow and largely bare. Coprosma niphophila
may be locally dominant. Plant cover is sparse and diversity low. Plants
have low stature and many have a mat or cushion habit. Snowpatch
feldmark is extremely rare, occupying a total area of only a few ha in
about 10 stands. There are few immediate threats although a decrease
in winter snowfall because of global warming may ultimately allow the
invasion of species from adjoining communities. Because of the steep,
unstable habitat, people are only likely to walk in this community during
snow-melt, and then mostly on Mt Kosciuszko where the walking track
skirts the snowpatch. However, this is when the community is probably
most vulnerable to trampling. An assessment of the impact of trampling
in this community (especially on Mt Kosciuszko) would be useful. If
tramping were significant, temporary barriers might be erected during
snowmelt.
Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps 21
No. quadrats 6; Native taxa / quadrat 15.0 ± 0.7; Total native taxa 29;
Weeds /quadrat 0.5 ± 0.3; Total weed taxa 2
Altitude: 2050 – 2100 – 2200.
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Coprosma niphophila (100); Herbs
Colobanthus nivicola (100), Epilobium tasmanicum (100), Neopaxia
australasica (100), Poa fawcettiae (100), Agrostis muelleriana (83),
Luzula acutifolia subsp. nana (83), Luzula australasica subsp. dura
(83), Senecio pinnatifolius var. alpinus (83), Euphrasia collina subsp.
diversicolor (67), Ewartia nubigena (67), Ranunculus muelleri (67),
Carex cephalotes (50), Argyrotegium mackayi (50), Isolepis montivaga
(50), Ranunculus anemoneus (50), Erigeron setosus (33)
Significant Taxa: Ranunculus anemoneus
Weeds: Acetosella vulgaris (33), Hypochaeris radicata (17)
Community 13: Neopaxia australasica – Ranunculus ni-
phophilus snowpatch herbfield
Equivalent communities: part of Plantago muelleri – Montia
australasica alliance (Costin 1954); Plantago muelleri – Conostomum
curvirostre association (McVean 1969).
This is a variable community occurring at the base of high elevation
snowpatches (usually adjoining Community 17) (Fig. 10), and copiously
irrigated during the extended period of snowmelt. It is apparently
confined to Kosciuszko National Park, although there are small areas
at the base of the Mt Nelse snowpatch on the Bogong High Plains with
floristic affinities. The community is often dominated by Neopaxia
australasica but Poa costiniana, Carex hypandra, Plantago muelleri
and Ranunculus niphophilus may be locally abundant. Trampling of
this community by sightseers might occur during snowmelt but we saw
no significant damage of this nature during our survey.
No. quadrats 8; Native taxa / quadrat 14.0 ± 1.9; Total native taxa 54;
Weeds /quadrat 0.4 ± 0.3; Total weed taxa 2
Altitude: 1920 – 2070 – 2170 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Herbs Poa costiniana (100), Carex cephalotes (63),
Neopaxia australasica (63), Carex hypandra (50), Plantago muelleri
(50), Polystichum proliferum (50), Ranunculus anemoneus (50),
Ranunculus niphophilus (50), Agrostis muelleriana (38), Blechnum
penna-marina subsp. alpina (38), Brachyscome nivalis (38), Epilobium
tasmanicum (38), Luzula acutifolia subsp. nana (38), Oreomyrrhis
pulvinifica (38), Plantago glacialis (38), Cardamine robusta (25),
Carex canescens (25)
Fig. 8. Short alpine herbfield (Community 10) in Cope Creek, Bogong High Plains. The community occupies wet, gravelly pavements,
often at the base of snowpatches. The dominant in the photo is Oreobolus pumilio. The low heathland in the background is Epacris moist
heathland (Community 4).
22 Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps
Significant Taxa: Ranunculus anemoneus
Weeds: Acetosella vulgaris (25), Hypochaeris radicata (13)
Group V – subalpine valley & fertile grasslands
Community 14: Subalpine valley grassland
Equivalent communities: part of Poa caespitosa – Danthonia nudiflora
alliance (Costin 1954); Damp alpine heathland, subcommunity 10.3
(Walsh et al. 1984); Group 10 (Helman et al. 1988).
This community is common from Bimberi, Brindabella and Scabby
Ranges (ACT) through lower altitude plains within Kosciuszko National
Park (Kiandra and Tantangara areas, Mt Selwyn, Tooma/Tumut Divide,
Cooleman Plain, Happy Jacks Plain, Currango Plain), but is confined
to the more easterly ranges in Victoria (e.g. Mt Wombargo-Cobberas
area, Nunniong Plateau, Davies Plain, Dinner Plain). It is a grassland
or occasionally open heathland confined to broad valley floors and
seepage areas on gentle slopes (Fig. 11). Dominant species vary
between localities, but common components include the shrubs Epacris
breviflora, E. gunnii, Hakea microcarpa and herbaceous species such as
Austrofestuca hookeriana, Baloskion australe, Carex gaudichaudiana,
Empodisma minus, Poa costiniana (the usual dominant) and Stylidium
montanum. Soils are typically sodden humified peats. Some sites in
NSW (Kiandra area) and Victoria (near Mt Wombargo) are subject to
excavation by feral pigs, causing these sites to dry and making them
vulnerable to weed invasion. Cattle grazing occurred until recently on
most sites supporting this community on the Nunniong Plateau and
Davies Plain in Victoria. Both these factors are reflected in the relatively
high weed diversity.
No. quadrats 70; Native taxa / quadrat 25.9 ± 1.1; Total native taxa 251;
Weeds /quadrat 2.1 ± 0.2; Total weed taxa 20
Altitude: 1020 – 1355 – 1680 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Epacris gunnii (43), Epacris breviflora (40),
Hakea microcarpa (39), Baeckea utilis (20), Leptospermum myrtifolium
(7), Leucopogon pilifer (7); Herbs Poa costiniana (76), Empodisma
minus (66), Baloskion australe (64), Luzula modesta (61), Carex
gaudichaudiana (59), Austrofestuca hookeriana (56), Gonocarpus
micranthus (51), Hypericum japonicum (51), Oreomyrrhis ciliata
(50), Craspedia spp. (crocata, aurantia) (49), Stylidium spp. (46),
Brachyscome scapigera (39), Epilobium gunnianum (37), Cotula alpina
(36), Epilobium billardierianum (34), Ranunculus pimpinellifolius
(34), Stellaria angustifolia (31), Hydrocotyle algida (30), Hypoxis
hygrometrica (30), Schoenus apogon (26), Wahlenbergia ceracea
(26), Arthropodium milleflorum (23), Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides (23),
Senecio gunnii (23), Velleia montana (23), Brachyscome obovata
(20), Ranunculus collinus (20), Juncus falcatus (19), Poa clivicola
Fig. 9. The steep east-facing slope between Mt Lee and Northcote Pass (Kosciuszko Main Range) supports Community 12 (the upper, bare,
rocky portions) and Community 17 (dominated by Celmisia costiniana in the upper portions and Poa fawcettiae below).
Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps 23
(19), Carex blakei (17), Austrodanthonia laevis (16), Cardamine
astoniae (14), Dichelachne micrantha (14), Isolepis crassiuscula (14),
Neopaxia australasica (14), Plantago varia (14), Ranunculus millanii
(14), Utricularia monanthos (14), Agrostis hiemalis sens. lat. (13),
Carex jackiana (13), Comesperma retusum (13), Asperula pusilla
(11), Deyeuxia gunniana (11), Euchiton involucratus (11), Oreobolus
oxycarpus (11), Oschatzia cuneifolia (11), Poa labillardierei (11), Viola
fuscoviolacea (11), Lachnagrostis aemula (10), Ranunculus lappaceus
(10), Euphrasia caudata (9), Deyeuxia innominata (7), Juncus
brevibracteus (7), Juncus phaeanthus (7),
Other Common Taxa: Asperula gunnii (63)
Significant Taxa: Dillwynia palustris, Xerochrysum palustre
Weeds: Trifolium repens (36), Hypochaeris radicata (31), Taraxacum
officinale (23), Acetosella vulgaris (19), Holcus lanatus (17),
Anthoxanthum odoratum (9), Myosotis caespitosa (9), Cerastium
vulgare (7), Trifolium dubium (6), Cerastium glomeratum (3), Crepis
capillaris (3), Achillea millefolium (1), Agrostis capillaris (1),
Centaurium erythraea (1), Cirsium vulgare (1), Mimulus moschatus (1),
Prunella vulgaris (1), Salix cinerea (1), Salix x rubens (1), Verbascum
thapsus (1)
Community 15: Snowy Range Grassland
Equivalent communities: Alpine grassland, subcommunities 7.1 & 7.2
(Walsh et al. 1984).
This community is characteristic of plains on the Snowy Range
between Mt Wellington and Mt Howitt, with isolated occurrences on
Mt Stirling, Mt Buffalo and near The Bluff. It is a tussock grassland
to open heathland of broad concave plains, usually surrounded by
Eucalyptus pauciflora woodlands and presumably treeless from the
frost hollow effect. Topographically higher examples tend to contain
a larger proportion of shrubby species indicating the ecological link
of this community between dry heaths (typically dominated by Hovea
montana and/or Leucopogon hookeri) and wet heaths (with Epacris
breviflora, E. celata dominant) or bogs along the valley floor. Dominant
grasses are Poa costiniana, Poa fawcettiae, with sedges Carex
gaudichaudiana and Carex breviculmis and rushes Empodisma minus
and Luzula modesta usually present. A variety of forbs is common
(e.g. Ranunculus spp., Brachyscome decipiens, Hypericum japonicum,
Gonocarpus micranthus). Many sites supporting this community on the
southern part of the Snowy Range were severely burnt by wildfire in
1998. Prior to then cattle grazing had occurred through most of the area.
Recovery of these sites has proceeded well to the extent that vegetated
Fig. 10. Community 13 (Neopaxia australasica – Ranunculus niphophilus snowpatch herbfield) is found at the bases of persistent snowpacks
– this example on the east face of Mt Townsend. Plants receive abundant water from snowmelt for most of the growing season.
24 Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps
cover, structure and composition of at least dominant species now
approaches that of pre-fire condition. The Mt Buffalo site at Hospice
Plain was burnt in the 2003 wildfires and recovery of this nearly pure
grassland is proceeding well with most species recorded pre-fire having
reappeared by February 2005.
No. quadrats 32; Native taxa / quadrat 27.7 ± 1.0; Total native taxa 136;
Weeds /quadrat 2.1 ± 0.3; Total weed taxa 11
Altitude: 1260 – 1525 – 1760 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Hovea montana (47), Pultenaea tenella
(34), Epacris breviflora (28); Herbs Ranunculus graniticola (97),
Asperula gunnii (88), Carex breviculmis (84), Brachyscome decipiens
(81), Viola betonicifolia (78), Cotula alpina (72), Poa fawcettiae (72),
Microseris sp. 2 (69), Scleranthus biflorus (66), Empodisma minus (63),
Luzula modesta (59), Carex gaudichaudiana (56), Celmisia spp. (56),
Leptorhynchos squamatus subsp. alpinus (56), Ajuga australis (53),
Plantago antarctica (47), Brachyscome scapigera (44), Ranunculus
gunnianus (44), Gonocarpus micranthus (41), Stackhousia pulvinaris
(38), Hypericum japonicum (34), Prasophyllum spp. (34), Trachymene
humilis (34), Agrostis hiemalis sens. lat. (31), Agrostis venusta (31),
Gentianella muelleriana subsp. willisiana (28), Schoenus calyptratus
(28), Luzula flaccida (25), Velleia montana (25), Caesia alpina (22),
Argyrotegium mackayi (22), Euchiton traversii (22), Viola fuscoviolacea
(22), Ophioglossum lusitanicum (13)
Other Common Taxa: Craspedia spp. (66), Poa costiniana (53),
Oreomyrrhis eriopoda (41), Pimelea alpina (41), Rytidosperma
nudiflorum (41)
Weeds: Acetosella vulgaris (50), Trifolium repens (44), Cerastium
vulgare (28), Hypochaeris radicata (25), Taraxacum officinale (19),
Aphanes arvensis (16), Poa pratensis (9), Trifolium dubium (6), Veronica
arvensis (6), Achillea millefolium (3), Cerastium glomeratum (1)
Community 16: Victorian subalpine basalt grassland
Equivalent communities: Subalpine grassland, Unit 9 (McDougall
1982); Alpine grassland, subcommunity 7.3 (Walsh et al. 1984).
A grassland usually on soils derived from basalt which imparts to
the soil high water retention properties indicated by the presence
of a number of species characteristic of bogs and bog margins not
usually encountered in grasslands (e.g. Hypericum japonicum, Carex
gaudichaudiana, Epilobium curtisiae, Velleia montana). Examples
of this community may be extensive, occupying many continuous
hectares (e.g. Dargo High Plains, Nunniong Plataeu, Bennison High
Plains, Dinner Plains). Virtually all sites were grazed by stock prior to
cessation of licensed grazing in 2005. Some are on enclaves of private
land within the Alpine National Park and will continue to be grazed.
The grazing history is probably responsible for the relatively high weed
diversity. Local severe trampling damage is evident at Lankeys Plain
and there is considerable vehicle-based recreational use around Gow
Plain where some of the most extensive stands of the threatened sedge
Carex paupera occur. The weeds Viola arvensis and Potentilla recta
are largely confined to this community in the Victorian high country,
probably escaped from gardens in adjacent freehold land. A program to
halt their progress in Victoria is warranted.
No. quadrats 36; Native taxa / quadrat 25.3 ± 1.1; Total native taxa 149;
Weeds /quadrat 4.9 ± 0.3; Total weed taxa 21
Altitude: 1200 – 1465 – 1620 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Herbs Poa hiemata (86), Epilobium billardierianum
(69), Luzula modesta (69), Oreomyrrhis eriopoda (64), Hypericum
japonicum (61), Brachyscome scapigera (58), Cotula alpina (58),
Scleranthus biflorus (58), Brachyscome decipiens (56), Geranium
antrorsum (53), Austrodanthonia pilosa (50), Carex gaudichaudiana
(50), Craspedia spp. (50), Carex hebes (44), Ajuga australis (42),
Dichondra repens (42), Diuris monticola (42), Ophioglossum lusitanicum
(42), Oxalis exilis (42), Argyrotegium mackayi (39), Ranunculus
eichlerianus (39), Gonocarpus micranthus (33), Prasophyllum spp.
(33), Acaena ovina (28), Carex appressa (28), Velleia montana (28),
Ranunculus lappaceus (25), Euchiton collinus (22), Plantago antarctica
(22), Solenogyne spp. (22), Asperula scoparia (17), Caesia alpina
(17), Deyeuxia crassiuscula (17), Epilobium curtisiae (17), Juncus
australis (17), Plantago varia (17), Agrostis australiensis (14), Agrostis
muelleriana (14), Carex inversa (13), Agrostis aemula (11), Epilobium
hirtigerum (11), Myosotis australis (11)
Other Common Taxa: Carex breviculmis (69), Asperula gunnii (50), Poa
costiniana (44), Viola betonicifolia (42), Ranunculus graniticola (40)
Significant Taxa: Carex paupera, Wahlenbergia densifolia
Weeds: Trifolium repens (97), Acetosella vulgaris (69), Cerastium
glomeratum (44), Hypochaeris radicata (42), Taraxacum officinale
(42), Aphanes arvensis (25), Cerastium vulgare (25), Poa pratensis
(22), Phleum pratense (14), Trifolium dubium (8), Veronica peregrina
(8), Viola arvensis (8), Vulpia bromoides (8), Cirsium vulgare (6),
Veronica arvensis (6), Myosotis discolor (4), Agrostis capillaris
(3), Holcus lanatus (3), Lotus corniculatus (3), Medicago spp. (3),
Potentilla recta (3)
Group VI – closed alpine grasslands
Community 17: Poa fawcettiae – Celmisia costiniana
snowpatch grassland
Equivalent communities: part of Celmisia longifolia – Poa caespitosa
alliance (Costin 1954); Celmisia longifolia association (McVean 1969);
Diuturnal snowpatch, Unit 6 (McDougall 1982).
In New South Wales this community is largely restricted to the
Kosciuszko Main Range and a few of the higher peaks elsewhere in
Kosciuszko National Park (e.g. Mt Jagungal, Dicky Cooper Bogong). In
Victoria, it is confined to the higher parts of the Bogong High Plains (Mt
Bogong, Mt Nelse, Spion Kopje), Mt Hotham and Mt Feathertop. This
grassland or open-herbfield community is characteristic of sheltered
sites that accumulate snow during winter and retain snow often until mid
or late summer. Typically sites are steep, often ± concave and of south-
easterly aspect (Fig. 9). The growing season is short due to the relatively
brief exposure to sun, and the number of species able to flourish in these
conditions is relatively low. Plants in this community require adaptations
to survive the potentially erosive forces of melting snow on steep slopes
and to best utilise the shortened period of insolation – consequently
rhizomatous and rosetted perennials dominate (e.g. Carex hebes,
C. breviculmis, Celmisia costiniana, Argyrotegium spp.). The tough-
leaved grasses Poa fawcettiae and Rytidosperma nudiflorum are
particularly abundant. The steepness of these sites, and the volume
of water irrigating them during thaw of the snow pack renders them
susceptible to soil loss following disruption of the vegetated cover.
The evidence of damage from cattle tramping is still obvious in many
stands on the Bogong High Plains. Localised, minor trampling damage
probably still occurs as a result of people visiting snowpatches in
summer as the last snow melts. At this time, the soils are still saturated
and vulnerable to trampling.
No. quadrats 28; Native taxa / quadrat 11.4 ± 1.0; Total native taxa 85;
Weeds /quadrat 0.8 ± 0.1; Total weed taxa 2
Altitude: 1710 – 1880 – 2160 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Herbs Poa fawcettiae (100), Carex hebes (93),
Celmisia costiniana (75), Rytidosperma nudiflorum (57), Erigeron
nitidus (32), Argyrotegium mackayi (32), Euphrasia collina subsp.
diversicolor (21), Ewartia nubigena (21)
Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps 25
Other Common Taxa: Carex breviculmis (43)
Significant Taxa: Argyrotegium nitidulum, Ranunculus anemoneus
Weeds: Acetosella vulgaris (64), Hypochaeris radicata (11)
Community 18: Poa fawcettiae – Uncinia sulcata grassland
Equivalent communities: part of Celmisia longifolia – Poa caespitosa
alliance (Costin 1954); Part of the Tall Alpine Herbfield of Costin et
al. (2000).
Community 18 is a dense grassland with low species diversity, which
occurs on shallow soil interspersed with large granite tors. It is locally
common on mountain tops of the Main Range between Mt Townsend
and Mt Twynam, and further north on Mt Jagungal. The community
is dominated by Poa fawcettiae, which often has a cover close to
100% but species such as Uncinia sulcata and Poa saxicola may be
locally abundant. It is floristically similar to Community 17 and often
intergrades with it on the eastern side of ridges and summits. It can
be distinguished by its position in the landscape (not occurring under
late-lying snowpacks) and less cover of common snowpatch species
such as Carex hebes and Rytidosperma nudiflorum. Small examples of
Community 22, often dominated by Pentachondra pumila, may occur
within Community 18.
No. quadrats 7; Native taxa / quadrat 11.3 ± 1.5; Total native taxa 31;
Weeds /quadrat 0.1; Total weed taxa 1
Altitude: 1970 – 2090 – 2200 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Herbs Carex hebes (100), Poa fawcettiae (100),
Rytidosperma nudiflorum (86), Craspedia costiniana (71), Senecio
pinnatifolius var. alpinus (71), Uncinia sulcata (71), Poa saxicola (57)
Other Common Taxa: Carex breviculmis (86), Microseris sp. 2 (57),
Lycopodium fastigiatum (43)
Weeds: Acetosella vulgaris (14)
Community 19: Chionochloa frigida grassland
Equivalent communities: part of Celmisia longifolia – Poa caespitosa
alliance (Costin 1954); Danthonia frigida association (McVean 1969);
part of the Tall Alpine Herbfield of Costin et al. (2000).
Community 19 is a grassland with a sparse to dense cover of the tall grass
Chionochloa frigida. Poa fawcettiae may be locally dominant. This
community is found on steep slopes with shallow soil at high altitudes
on the Main Range of Kosciuszko National Park, from Ramshead
Range to Dicky Cooper Bogong. It is especially well-developed on the
south- to west-facing slopes of Lake Albina and Carruthers Peak. The
community is well protected and under no obvious threat at present.
The usual dominant, Chionochloa frigida, has apparently expanded
its range greatly since the cessation of grazing by domestic animals
(Costin et al. 2000).
No. quadrats 12; Native taxa / quadrat 16.8 ± 1.3; Total native taxa 88;
Weeds /quadrat 0.6 ± 0.1; Total weed taxa 3
Altitude: 1780 – 1940 – 2110 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Pimelea alpina (67); Herbs Chionochloa
frigida (83), Poa fawcettiae (83), Aciphylla glacialis (58), Lycopodium
fastigiatum (58), Carex hebes (50), Celmisia costiniana (50), Ranunculus
anemoneus (50), Gonocarpus montanus (42), Helichrysum scorpioides
(42), Polystichum proliferum (42), Schizeilema fragoseum (25)
Other Common Taxa: Viola betonicifolia (58), Carex breviculmis
(50), Microseris sp. 2 (42), Oreomyrrhis eriopoda (42), Rytidosperma
nudiflorum (42)
Significant Taxa: Ranunculus anemoneus
Weeds: Acetosella vulgaris (42), Hypochaeris radicata (8), Taraxacum
officinale (8)
Group VII – high altitude grasslands & open
heathlands
Community 20: Short turf snowpatch grassland
Equivalent communities: Short turf snowpatch, Unit 5D (McDougall
1982).
Short turf snowpatch grassland is restricted to the Bogong High Plains,
where it occurs on sheltered, east to south-facing slopes where snow
usually persists until late spring. Although mostly found below the upper
treeline, small patches may be found in alpine areas within Community
17 (e.g. Mt Nelse). Short turf snowpatch grassland is characterised
by the scarcity of tussocks grasses and shrubs, the low stature of the
dominant herbs present (usually Carex hebes, Poa hothamensis and
Rytidosperma nudiflorum) and a carpet of mosses (mostly Polytrichum
spp.) in the gaps between the herbs (Fig. 12). Trachymene humilis
subsp. brevicaule and Argyrotegium spp. (A. fordianum, A. mackayi,
A. nitidulum) sometimes form large mats within the turf. Most stands
are small (usually only a few 100 m2). Many contain young plants of
Grevillea australis and Phebalium squamulosum, species favoured by
the occurrence of bare ground (Wahren et al. 2001). A change from
subalpine snowpatch grassland to open heathland (Community 26)
seems to be occurring in some cases, probably initiated by past grazing
by cattle, which was particularly intense in this community. This
transition may also be a consequence of recent elevated temperatures
leading to shorter persistence of the snow pack
No. quadrats 13; Native taxa / quadrat 17.4 ± 1.5; Total native taxa 58;
Weeds /quadrat 2.1 ± 0.2; Total weed taxa 5
Altitude: 1670 – 1755 – 1850 m.
Fig. 11. Community 14. (Subalpine valley grassland) occupies
subalpine valley floors throughout the northern portion of the
Australian Alps. It is often dominated by large tussocks of Poa
costiniana (as in this example at Rocky Plains near Kiandra),
although shrubs such as Epacris breviflora and E. gunnii may be
frequent or co-dominant. The example shown was thoroughly burnt
in the 2003 fires. Twelve months later (as shown) most species had
regenerated and cover of the dominant was approaching pre-fire
levels.
26 Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Olearia frostii (54), Pimelea axiflora subsp.
alpina (54); Herbs Carex hebes (100), Acaena novae–zelandiae (92),
Poa hothamensis (92), Oreomyrrhis eriopoda (85), Rytidosperma
nudiflorum (85), Viola betonicifolia (85), Plantago euryphylla (77),
Scleranthus biflorus (62), Argyrotegium fordianum (46), Leptinella
filicula (38), Trachymene humilis subsp. brevicaule (23)
Other Common Taxa: Celmisia spp. (69), Asperula gunnii (54), Luzula
spp. (54), Microseris sp. 2 (54)
Significant Taxa: Argyrotegium nitidulum
Weeds: Acetosella vulgaris (100), Hypochaeris radicata (77), Trifolium
repens (16), Agrostis capillaris (8), Cerastium vulgare (8)
Community 21: Bogong High Plains Hovea montana
heathland
Equivalent communities: Hovea basaltic heathland, Unit 3B (McDougall
1982).
Low heathland dominated by Hovea montana on the Bogong High
Plains is common on lee slopes on the basalt country west of Pretty
Valley and in the Hotham area. It is also prominent in the vicinity of
Mt Fainter, where it has been dissected by numerous cattle tracks. This
community is characterised by the dominance of Hovea montana and
the rarity of the shrubs and tussock grasses of most dry communities
elsewhere on the Bogong High Plains. Herb cover is variable, perhaps
depending on the cover of Hovea montana. The large stands on Mt
Fainter, which have been severely damaged by trampling of cattle,
occur on lee slopes where snow persists in spring. It seems likely that
these and perhaps other examples were once Community 20.
No. quadrats 10; Native taxa / quadrat 21.4 ± 1.5; Total native taxa 63;
Weeds /quadrat 1.8 ± 0.3; Total weed taxa 4
Altitude: 1680 – 1755 – 1840 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Hovea montana (100), Melicytus sp. aff.
dentatus (50), Olearia brevipedunculata (50), Olearia frostii (40);
Herbs Carex breviculmis (100), Viola betonicifolia (100), Asperula
gunnii (90), Poa hothamensis (90), Acaena novae–zelandiae (70),
Brachyscome decipiens (70), Oreomyrrhis eriopoda (70), Scleranthus
biflorus (70), Carex hebes (60), Ranunculus victoriensis (60), Plantago
euryphylla (50), Poa hiemata (50), Brachyscome rigidula (40),
Asperula pusilla (30)
Other Common Taxa: Microseris sp. 2 (70), Poa costiniana (60),
Rytidosperma nudiflorum (60), Celmisia spp. (50), Leucopogon spp.
(hookeri, montanus) (50)
Weeds: Acetosella vulgaris (70), Hypochaeris radicata (40), Cerastium
glomeratum (10), Taraxacum officinale (10)
Community 22: Poa fawcettiae – Euphrasia collina
grassland
Equivalent communities: part of Celmisia longifolia – Poa caespitosa
alliance (Costin 1954); Part of the Celmisia–Poa tall alpine herbfield
(Costin et al. 2000).
This grassland occurs on sites of low relief with deep soils (e.g.
saddles and stream heads) between the Main Range and Mt Jagungal in
Kosciuszko National Park. It is generally dominated by Poa fawcettiae,
although P. hiemata and Pentachondra pumila may be locally dominant.
Species diversity is usually high (compared with other communities
at similar elevation). The community is distinguished from other
grasslands on the Main Range included in the Celmisia – Poa tall alpine
herbfield of Costin et al. (2000) by inter-tussock spaces, which contain
a large range of herbaceous species. Tall shrubs are rare, although
cycles of shrub and grass dominance (as described by Williams (1992)
for similar communities on the Bogong High Plains) may be occurring
as Community 22 is floristically similar to Community 23 (an open
heathland), with which it occurs. Examples of this community occur
in ski resorts and may be affected by development. The largest patches
can be found in the headwaters of the Snowy River, where they are well
protected and not under threat.
No. quadrats 30; Native taxa / quadrat 20.1 ± 0.8; Total native taxa 95;
Weeds /quadrat 0.9 ± 0.1; Total weed taxa 4
Altitude: 1740 – 1985 – 2190 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Pimelea alpina (60), Leucopogon montanus
(50), Pentachondra pumila (47); Herbs Craspedia spp. (aurantia,
costiniana, maxgrayi) (100), Celmisia spp. (costiniana, pugioniformis)
(97), Carex breviculmis (90), Poa fawcettiae (87), Rytidosperma
nudiflorum (87), Oreomyrrhis eriopoda (70), Microseris sp. 2 (67),
Prasophyllum spp. (67), Euphrasia collina subsp. diversicolor (63),
Senecio pinnatifolius var. alpinus (63), Trisetum spicatum (57),
Viola betonicifolia (50), Gentianella muelleriana subsp. alpestris
(43), Aciphylla glacialis (40), Erigeron nitidus (30), Luzula alpestris
(30), Poa saxicola (30), Argyrotegium fordianum (27), Argyrotegium
mackayi (23), Australopyron velutinum (20), Deyeuxia carinata (17),
Argyrotegium nitidulum (10)
Significant Taxa: Argyrotegium nitidulum
Weeds: Acetosella vulgaris (63), Hypochaeris radicata (17), Agrostis
capillaris (3), Festuca rubra (3)
Community 23: Grevillea australis – Nematolepis ovatifo-
lia open heathland
Equivalent communities: part of Heath Formation (Costin et al. 2000).
This community is scattered and common on the dry slopes of the Main
Range between Dead Horse Gap (near Thredbo) and Mt Jagungal. It
occurs on less exposed sites with deeper soil profiles than Community
46 but may intergrade with it. Floristically, it appears to be intermediate
between Communities 22 and 46. Community 23 is usually dominated
by low shrubs of Grevillea australis and Nematolepis ovatifolia but
other shrubs such as Hovea montana, Kunzea muelleri and Oxylobium
ellipticum may be locally abundant. Shrub cover is often sparse but
even where it is almost complete the cover and diversity of herbs is
high. The ground layer is usually dominated by Poa hiemata but
P. fawcettiae may also be abundant. Some examples are threatened by
skiing development and localised trampling by tourists. The community
overall is, however, perhaps the most common type of vegetation on the
Main Range and is not considered under threat.
No. quadrats 18; Native taxa / quadrat 22.8 ± 1.4; Total native taxa 98;
Weeds /quadrat 0.8 ± 0.1; Total weed taxa 2
Altitude: 1600 – 1835 – 2030 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Grevillea australis (72), Pimelea alpina
(67), Nematolepis ovatifolia (61), Oxylobium ellipticum (33); Herbs
Carex breviculmis (94), Celmisia spp. (costiniana, pugioniformis) (89),
Craspedia spp. (aurantia, jamesii) (89), Poa hiemata (72), Oreomyrrhis
eriopoda (67), Rytidosperma nudiflorum (56), Aciphylla simplicifolia
(44), Lycopodium fastigiatum (39)
Other Common Taxa: Microseris sp. 2 (61), Ranunculus graniticola
(50), Asperula gunnii (44), Scleranthus biflorus (44)
Significant Taxa: Argyrotegium nitidulum
Weeds: Acetosella vulgaris (56), Hypochaeris radicata (22)
Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps 27
Community 24: Bogong High Plains Poa costiniana
grassland
Equivalent communities: Poa costiniana tussock grassland, Unit 5A
(McDougall 1982).
Grassland dominated by Poa costiniana is common in areas underlain
by basalt on the Bogong High Plains (e.g. Basalt Hill, Mt Jim, Mt Loch)
and is occasional on other strata (e.g. on soils overlying gneiss and schist
in the upper Cope Creek catchment). The community is characterised
by the dominance of Poa costiniana and scarcity of other species
(especially shrubs), although diversity is relatively high for grasslands
at this altitude. Weeds are generally more abundant in this grassland than
in others on the Bogong High Plains. Community 24 usually contains
shallow depressions (Community 6: Lobelia surrepens – Ranunculus
millanii herbfield), the pools filling with water during snow melt and
after heavy rain (Fig. 6). This community and Community 6 support
the only Australian occurrences of Kelleria laxa, otherwise confined
to New Zealand.
No. quadrats 23; Native taxa / quadrat 21.2 ± 1.2; Total native taxa 92;
Weeds /quadrat 2.7 ± 0.3; Total weed taxa 8
Altitude: 1570 – 1730 – 1840 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Melicytus sp. aff. dentatus (48), Exocarpos
nanus (26); Herbs Poa costiniana (100), Carex breviculmis (91),
Oreomyrrhis eriopoda (87), Microseris sp. 2 (70), Rytidosperma
nudiflorum (70), Acaena novae–zelandiae (61), Plantago euryphylla
(57), Poa hiemata (57), Brachyscome decipiens (52), Ranunculus
victoriensis (52), Ajuga australis (39), Leptinella filicula (39),
Colobanthus affinis (35), Epilobium billardierianum (35), Erigeron
nitidus (35), Poa hothamensis (35), Cardamine lilacina (30),
Scleranthus singuliflorus (30), Veronica serpyllifolia (30), Asperula
pusilla (26), Isolepis montivaga (26), Ranunculus muelleri (26)
Other Common Taxa: Asperula gunnii (57), Viola betonicifolia (52),
Scleranthus biflorus (48)
Significant Taxa: Kelleria laxa
Weeds: Acetosella vulgaris (87), Trifolium repens (61), Taraxacum
officinale (48), Cerastium glomeratum (30), Hypochaeris radicata (22),
Agrostis stolonifera (9), Veronica arvensis (9), Cerastium vulgare (4)
Community 25: Bogong High Plains Poa hiemata
grassland
Equivalent communities: Poa hiemata tussock grassland, Unit 5B &
Tussock grassland / mat heathland, Unit 5C (McDougall 1982)
This is one of the most common communities on the Bogong High
Plains. It is found from Mt Hotham to Mt Bogong in saddles, low ridges
and valley heads with deep soils, mainly originating from metamorphic
parent material (Fig. 13). The largest example is on the flat floor of
Pretty Valley. Whilst species richness is comparable with Community
24, the abundance of most forbs is much greater in examples of
Community 25 and the cover of Poa species is less. Poa hiemata is
the usual dominant. In a few places (e.g. Pretty Valley and Mt Nelse),
Pentachondra pumila is the dominant and Poa hiemata is rare or absent
(and replaced as the most abundant grass by Poa fawcettiae). Whilst
this variant was recognised as distinct by McDougall (1982), quadrats
of this nature did not aggregate in the current study. Community 25
often occurs in a mosaic with Community 26 (open heathland). Cyclical
changes between these two communities may occur (Williams 1992,
McDougall 2003). The area covered by Community 25 declined in the
Cope Creek area between 1936 and 1980 (McDougall 2003) and in the
Watchbed Creek area between 1961 and 1994 (Bruce et al. 1999).
No. quadrats 77; Native taxa / quadrat 20.7 ± 0.6; Total native taxa 110;
Weeds /quadrat 1.6 ± 0.1; Total weed taxa 7
Fig. 12. The short turf snowpatch grassland (Community 20) occurs on lee slopes of low relief on the Bogong High Plains – the example
shown (in the background) is on Mt Cope. It is easily distinguished from other grasslands (such as Community 25 in the foreground) by
the absence of tussock grass species.
28 Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps
Altitude: 1380 – 1690 – 1930 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Pimelea alpina (55), Asterolasia trymalioides
(43), Melicytus sp. aff. dentatus (38), Pentachondra pumila (17);
Herbs Carex breviculmis (95), Poa hiemata (84), Asperula gunnii (75),
Rytidosperma nudiflorum (75), Oreomyrrhis eriopoda (74), Scleranthus
biflorus (73), Luzula modesta (71), Ranunculus victoriensis (69),
Brachyscome decipiens (66), Senecio pinnatifolius var. alpinus (64),
Craspedia spp. (coolaminica, jamesii) (61), Celmisia spp. (costiniana,
pugioniformis) (60), Plantago euryphylla (60), Trisetum spicatum
(56), Microseris sp. 2 (53), Leptorhynchos squamatus subsp. alpinus
(47), Poa fawcettiae (47), Ajuga australis (42), Cardamine lilacina
(39), Argyrotegium fordianum (38), Carex hebes (36), Scleranthus
singuliflorus (30), Australopyron velutinum (27), Leptinella filicula
(27), Colobanthus affinis (25), Prasophyllum spp. (25), Erigeron
bellidioides (22), Erigeron nitidus (21), Geranium antrorsum (21),
Agrostis venusta (17), Argyrotegium nitidulum (8)
Other Common Taxa: Poa costiniana (40)
Significant Taxa: Argyrotegium nitidulum, Euphrasia eichleri
Weeds: Acetosella vulgaris (78), Hypochaeris radicata (34), Cerastium
glomeratum (23), Trifolium repens (12), Taraxacum officinale (10),
Cerastium vulgare (4), Agrostis capillaris (1)
Community 26: Bogong High Plains Grevillea australis
– Phebalium squamulosum open heathland
Equivalent communities: Heathland/tussock grassland, Unit 3A &
Grevillea scree heathland, Unit 3C (McDougall 1982).
This is the most common plant community on the Bogong High Plains,
occurring on slopes, plains and some summits (e.g. Mt Bogong, Mt
Hotham and Mt Feathertop) generally underlain by metamorphic or
sedimentary material but extending into basaltic areas (Fig. 14). The
community is dominated by Grevillea australis and / or Phebalium
squamulosum subsp. alpinum, although low forms of Orites lancifolia
are occasionally dominant in the northern part of its range (e.g.
Mt Nelse). Grass cover (mostly Poa hiemata between shrubs and
P. hothamensis under shrubs) is usually great and herb diversity is high.
Community 26 intergrades with grassland (Community 25) on sites
with deep soil profiles and with closed heathland (Community 47) on
sites with shallow soil profiles. Cyclic processes of change between
these communities probably occur (Williams 1992, McDougall 2003).
Although some examples in ski resorts and along walking tracks
will sustain damage from trampling or slashing, the community is
widespread, well protected and under minimal threat. The significance
of trampling will be greatest as the seedlings of Grevillea australis, an
obligate seeder, attempt to re-establish after the 2003 fires.
No. quadrats 38; Native taxa / quadrat 23.4 ± 0.8; Total native taxa 100;
Weeds /quadrat 1.5 ± 0.1; Total weed taxa 3
Altitude: 1560 – 1775 – 1960 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Grevillea australis (97), Leucopogon
spp. (hookeri, montanus) (74), Pimelea axiflora subsp. alpina
(53), Asterolasia trymalioides (50), Olearia frostii (50), Phebalium
squamulosum subsp. alpinum (42), Melicytus sp. aff. dentatus (39),
Olearia brevipedunculata (32), Orites lancifolia (24), Exocarpos nanus
(13); Herbs Carex breviculmis (95), Celmisia spp. (89), Craspedia
spp. (coolaminica, jamesii) (84), Poa hothamensis (82), Oreomyrrhis
eriopoda (79), Trisetum spicatum (71), Poa hiemata (63), Microseris sp.
2 (55), Scleranthus biflorus (53), Viola betonicifolia (53), Rytidosperma
nudiflorum (47), Luzula modesta (45), Ranunculus victoriensis
(42), Acaena novae–zelandiae (39), Brachyscome rigidula (39),
Cardamine lilacina (39), Helichrysum rutidolepis (37), Brachyscome
spathulata (34), Stellaria pungens (34), Scleranthus singuliflorus
(29), Xerochrysum subundulatum (26), Euphrasia crassiuscula (21),
Gonocarpus montanus (21), Goodenia hederacea (18), Ranunculus
eichlerianus (18)
Other Common Taxa: Asperula gunnii (71), Leptorhynchos squamatus
subsp. alpinus (42)
Significant Taxa: Euphrasia eichleri
Weeds: Acetosella vulgaris (89), Hypochaeris radicata (47), Cerastium
glomeratum (8)
Community 27: Bogong High Plains Kunzea muelleri open
heathland
Equivalent communities: Kunzea heathland, Unit 4 (McDougall
1982).
This heathland is characterised by the dominance of Kunzea muelleri,
a layering shrub usually less than 0.5 m tall in this community. It is
found throughout the Bogong High Plains, often on sites with shallow
soil. Species richness is generally lower than in other open heathlands
of similar habitat. Poa hiemata is usually the dominant herb although
its cover is variable, depending on the extent of Kunzea muelleri. In
a grazing exclusion plot monitored over some decades (Wahren et
al. 1994), Kunzea muelleri has spread into an area of Community 26
and become dominant. In the absence of disturbance it is possible that
Community 27 expands into other communities. Although Kunzea
muelleri was found to resprout following the 2003 fires, regeneration
has been slow and many plants appear to have been killed. Periodic but
rare fire probably limits the extent of this community. Kunzea muelleri
stems are easily damaged by trampling and the paths of cattle and
walkers are readily seen in many stands. Such damage is insubstantial
because of the layering nature of the species. Protection from trampling
damage will be important however while the species (and community)
are recovering from the 2003 fires.
No. quadrats 29; Native taxa / quadrat 19.9 ± 0.6; Total native taxa 84;
Weeds /quadrat 0.6 ± 0.1; Total weed taxa 4
Altitude: 1650 – 1790 – 1900 m.
Diagnostic taxa: Shrubs Kunzea muelleri (100), Leucopogon spp.
(hookeri, montanus) (90), Grevillea australis (86), Oreomyrrhis
eriopoda (62), Pimelea alpina (62), Asterolasia trymalioides (41),
Olearia frostii (38), Pimelea axiflora subsp. alpina (24), Podolobium
alpestre (21), Ozothamnus alpinus (17); Herbs Asperula gunnii (97),
Carex breviculmis (93), Celmisia spp. (costiniana, pugioniformis) (90),
Craspedia spp. (coolaminica, jamesii) (83), Poa hiemata (79), Luzula
modesta (66), Oreomyrrhis eriopoda (62), Brachyscome spathulata (48),
Poa hothamensis (48), Senecio pinnatifolius var. alpinus (45), Erigeron
nitidus (41), Brachyscome nivalis (34), Ranunculus victoriensis (28),
Euphrasia crassiuscula (17)
Other Common Taxa: Leptorhynchos squamatus subsp. alpinus (45)
Weeds: Hypochaeris radicata (28), Acetosella vulgaris (24), Cerastium
glomeratum (3), Taraxacum officinale (3)
Community 28: Snowy Range open heathland
Equivalent communities: Alpine heathland, subcommunities 6.2 & 6.3
(Walsh et al. 1984).
Snowy Range open heathland is a grassy heathland community of
sites of generally low relief, typically slopes falling gently to small
watercourses. It occurs commonly on the Snowy Range between Mts
Wellington and Howitt, but extends to the more isolated Mts Buller
and Stirling areas. Soils may be basalt-derived, and, as in similar
soils in the high country, of higher apparent fertility and water-
holding capacity. Rock outcrops are common - the prostrate shrubs
Euryomyrtus ramosissima, Leucopogon fraseri and Pimelea alpina
Cunninghamia 10(1): 2007 McDougall & Walsh, Treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps 29
are often associated with shallow soils overlaying rock. These areas
have a history of fairly intensive cattle grazing and the composition and
structure may reflect this use (some examples have relatively high weed
cover), but grazing has been withdrawn from most sites since 1992,
and all sites since 2005. Although this is a locally common community
with many examples in good condition, weed control in previously
disturbed sites (e.g. old cattle holding yards and watering points) and
sites currently used for horse yarding is necessary. Some seriously
invasive species, e.g. Juncus effusus near watercourses or along tracks,
now in manageable numbers, should be eliminated before they become
ubiquitous through the range of the community.
No. quadrats 50; Native taxa / quadrat 23.4 ± 0.8; Total native taxa 142;
Weeds /quadrat 2.2 ± 0.3; Total weed taxa 15
Altitude: 1340 – 1495 – 1680 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Hovea montana (92), Leucopogon hookeri
(56), Pimelea alpina (46), Euryomyrtus ramosissima (34), Bossiaea
foliosa (16), Leucopogon fraseri (16), Bossiaea buxifolia (4); Herbs
Carex breviculmis (94), Poa fawcettiae (92), Microseris sp. 2 (84),
Leptorhynchos squamatus subsp. alpinus (80), Asperula gunnii (78),
Craspedia spp. (72), Ranunculus graniticola (68), Viola betonicifolia
(66), Scleranthus biflorus (60), Oreomyrrhis eriopoda (54), Trisetum
spicatum (52), Celmisia spp. (48), Austrostipa nivicola (40), Rytidosperma
nudiflorum (40), Stellaria pungens (38), Brachyscome scapigera (36),
Erigeron bellidioides (36), Brachyscome spathulata (30), Lomandra
oreophila (28), Euphrasia collina subsp. paludosa (24), Podolepis
jaceoides (18), Agrostis hiemalis sens. lat. (16), Podolepis robusta (16),
Luzula alpestris (14), Chiloglottis valida (12), Euchiton traversii (10),
Austrodanthonia racemosa (8), Eriochilus cucullatus (8)
Other Common Taxa: Grevillea australis (42)
Weeds: Acetosella vulgaris (58), Hypochaeris radicata (40), Trifolium
repens (22), Aphanes arvensis (20), Cerastium vulgare (20), Cerastium
glomeratum (16), Aira caryophyllea (6), Leucanthemum vulgare (6),
Poa pratensis (6), Holcus lanatus (4), Moenchia erecta (4), Taraxacum
officinale (4), Vulpia bromoides (4), Trifolium dubium (2), Veronica
arvensis (2)
Community 29: Victorian shale Hovea montana heathland
Equivalent communities: Alpine heathland, subcommunity 6.1 (Walsh
et al. 1984)
Confined to ridges and slopes of the upper catchments of the Macalister,
Howqua, Delatite, Wonnangatta and King Rivers, this patchy open
to closed heathland is structurally dominated by Hovea montana,
Leucopogon hookeri and Euryomyrtus ramosissima, usually with Poa
fawcettiae in gaps in the shrub canopy. It is established on relatively
shallow soils derived from Palaeozoic mudstones and siltstones and
usually occurs on moderately sloping sites of mainly northerly aspect.
It is often contiguous with Eucalyptus niphophila woodlands and/or
Community 48. Some sites supporting this community are traversed
by the Alpine Walking Track and so receive localised damage, but
generally the community is not particularly prone to disturbance. Even
before the cessation of grazing across all examples of the community,
it was not favoured by stock due to the relatively low proportion of
palatable species
No. quadrats 37; Native taxa / quadrat 20.2 ± 0.8; Total native taxa 128;
Weeds /quadrat 1.3 ± 0.1; Total weed taxa 5
Altitude: 1460 – 1610 – 1740 m.
Diagnostic Taxa: Shrubs Hovea montana (68), Leucopogon hookeri
(65), Euryomyrtus ramosissima (43), Podolobium alpestre (35); Herbs
Poa fawcettiae (89), Carex breviculmis (86), Microseris sp. 2 (78),
Celmisia spp. (65), Stellaria pungens (65), Brachyscome spathulata
(54), Trisetum spicatum (51), Leptorhynchos squamatus subsp. alpinus
(49), Arthropodium milleflorum (46), Stylidium spp. (46), Luzula
novae–cambriae (43), Prasophyllum spp. (41), Bulbine bulbosa
(35), Goodenia hederacea subsp. alpestris (35), Chrysocephalum
semipapposum (32), Euphrasia collina subsp. paludosa (32), Aciphylla
glacialis (30), Agrostis venusta (27), Leucochrysum albicans subsp.
alpinum (27), Brachyscome rigidula (22), Rhodanthe anthemoides
(22), Austrodanthonia eriantha (16), Elymus scaber (16), Lomandra
oreophila (16), Galium gaudichaudii (11)
Other Common Taxa: Craspedia spp. (65), Asperula gunnii (62)
Weeds: Hypochaeris radicata (57), Acetosella vulgaris (54),
Aira caryophyllea (8), Cerastium glomeratum (5), Leucanthemum
vulgare (3)
Group VIII – subalpine grasslands &
open heathlands
Community 30: Poa hiemata – Poa clivicola grassland
Equivalent communities: Vegetation Type 2 (Helman & Gilmour 1985);
Group 16 (Helman et al. 1988); Community 6 (Benson 1994).
This is the most common grassland of the treeless plains in Kosciuszko
National Park, occurring from the upper Thredbo Valley in the south to
Emu Plain in the west, Cooleman Plain in the north and Snowy Plain in
the east (Fig. 7). It also occurs in the ACT at Cheyenne Flat and Bimberi
(and probably <