Article

Salt Reduction in Foods Using Naturally Brewed Soy Sauce

Wiley
Journal of Food Science
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Abstract

In recent years, health concerns related to salt/sodium chloride consumption have caused an increased demand for salt-reduced foods. Consequently, sodium chloride (NaCl) reduction in foods has become an important challenge. The more so, since a decrease in NaCl content is often reported to be associated with a decrease in consumer acceptance. The objective of the present study was to investigate whether or not it would be possible to reduce the NaCl content in standard Western European foods by replacing it with naturally brewed soy sauce. Three types of foods were investigated: salad dressing (n = 56), soup (n = 52), and stir-fried pork (n = 57). In the 1st step, an exchange rate (ER) by which NaCl can be replaced with soy sauce without a significant change in the overall taste intensity was established per product type, by means of alternative forced choice tests. In the 2nd step, the same consumers evaluated 5 samples per product type with varying NaCl and/or soy sauce content on pleasantness and several sensory attributes. The results showed that it was possible to achieve a NaCl reduction in the tested foods of, respectively, 50%, 17%, and 29% without leading to significant losses in either overall taste intensity or product pleasantness. These results suggest that it is possible to replace NaCl in foods with naturally brewed soy sauce without lowering the overall taste intensity and to reduce the total NaCl content in these foods without decreasing their consumer acceptance. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Health concerns related to salt consumption cause an increased demand for salt-reduced foods. Consequently, the development of foods with reduced salt content without decreasing the consumer acceptance is an important challenge for the food industry. A new possible salt reduction approach is described in the present article: The replacement of salt with naturally brewed soy sauce.

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... An ingredient comparable to SS, fermented flavor enhancer (NFE) is a product derived from a process similar to that used for the production of soy sauce but manufactured to possess less soy flavor and a lighter color while providing umami flavor amplification (McGough et al., 2012a;McGough et al., 2012b). Of particular interest for this research, SS and NFE are both ingredients that contain high levels of umami substances generated through a fermentation process, from identified contributing amino acids and peptides (Kremer et al., 2009;Wei Goh et al., 2011;Jiménez-Maroto et al., 2013;Kremer et al., 2013a;Kremer et al., 2013b;Shimojo et al., 2014), which have been demonstrated to enhance saltiness in foods (Mojet et al., 2004). ...
... Perceived saltiness increased (P < 0.05) in 50FS/50SS and 50FS/50NFE as compared to 100FS while no differences (P > 0.05) existed between any other treatments, although all were numerically higher than the 100FS (Table 4). These results are consistent with those found by Kremer et al. (2009) as they discovered the inclusion of SS in salad dressings, tomato soup, and stir-fried pork could lead to an increase in perceived salty taste. McGough et al. (2012aMcGough et al. ( , 2012b reported similar findings where an increased saltiness perception existed with inclusion of SS and NFE in frankfurters. ...
... The lack of change in saltiness perception was not expected and could be a result of the relatively high salt content found in beef jerky and a diminishing effect created as a threshold of salt detection and saltiness perception may have been approached. Observed increases in saltiness perception shown by previous research studies (McGough et al., 2012a(McGough et al., , 2012bKremer et al., 2009) were based on meat products with lower salt concentrations. As a result, the salt enhancing effect of SS and NFE may not have been amplified in meat products with relatively high salt contents. ...
Article
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Sodium chloride (NaCl) serves as a key ingredient in processed meats contributing to both quality and food safety. Continued interest exists in identifying NaCl replacement ingredients with saltiness potentiation while still preserving important functional properties. An approach to identify ingredients with sodium reduction potential is to first critically evaluate their efficacy in replacement studies followed by reduction investigation. The use of traditionally brewed soy sauce (SS) and fermented flavor enhancer (NFE) has previously shown potential as effective sodium replacement and reduction ingredients for frankfurters; however, their efficacy in other meat products having different sodium chloride needs is not well understood. In this study, 7 treatments [100% flake salt (FS) and 25, 50, and 75% SS or NFE replacement of the NaCl provided by FS] were investigated in bacon, beef jerky, summer sausage, and boneless ham to understand what impact SS or NFE had on sensory properties including salty taste, and product qualities such as color, purge, and texture profiles. Replacement levels of FS with either SS or NFE for bacon (50 and 75% SS or NFE), beef jerky (50 and 75% SS or NFE), and summer sausage (50% SS and 50% NFE) were identified that provided increases (P < 0.05) for saltiness sensory responses without negatively impacting sensory or quality attributes. For boneless ham, a replacement level that provided an increase for saltiness was not identified (P > 0.05). These results indicated that SS and NFE may be suitable ingredients to utilize in processed meat products to replace flake salt for sodium reduction strategies offering minimal negative impacts of quality and sensory attributes.
... Một trong những yếu tố quyết định đến chất lượng của sản phẩm nước tương là quá trình ủ tạo moromi. Trong quá trình này, những biến đổi về vi sinh vật và sinh hóa ảnh hưởng đến chất lượng của sản phẩm lên men cuối cùng [17]. Các quá trình thủy phân protein, chất béo và carbohydrate thành acid amin, acid béo và monosaccharide được diễn ra. ...
... Mục đích của dung dịch nước muối cho vào giúp cải thiện giá trị cảm quan và ức chế sự hoạt động của các vi sinh vật đặc biệt là nhóm vi sinh vật gây chua, thối [17]. Su và cộng sự [18] báo cáo rằng sự kết hợp giữa nhiệt độ cao (45°C) và hàm lượng muối thấp (5%) là cách tốt nhất để thúc đẩy sự hoạt động của enzyme trong quá trình lên men moromi. ...
Article
Nước tương là một gia vị truyền thống của nhiều nước châu Á được sản xuất từ quá trình lên men đậu nành bởi Aspergillus oryzae. Trong nghiên cứu này, hạt sen (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn) được sử dụng để thay thế một phần đậu nành nhằm đa dạng hóa hương vị của loại sản phẩm truyền thống này. Hai giai đoạn chính trong quy trình sản xuất tương được tập trung nghiên cứu là giai đoạn tạo koji từ quá trình lên men bởi mốc A. oryzae và quá trình tạo moromi từ việc ủ koji với dung dịch muối 10%. Kết quả cho thấy tỉ lệ hạt sen:đậu nành (Glycine max) phù hợp cho quá trình sản xuất tương là 7:3 (w/w). Nhiệt độ và thời gian lên men tạo koji tương ứng ở 30°C trong 72 giờ cho hoạt độ protease 1279,46 ±13,22 (U/g). Koji sau đó được phối trộn với 35% (v/w) dung dịch muối 10% và ủ ở nhiệt độ 50oC trong thời gian 72 giờ. Hàm lượng đạm formol trong moromi được xác định trong khoảng 6,01 ± 0,10 (g/L). Các kết quả nghiên cứu cho thấy hạt sen là một nguyên liệu bổ sung tiềm năng để sản xuất nước tương; đồng thời bước đầu cung cấp một số thông tin cơ bản trong sản xuất nước tương hạt sen từ đó hỗ trợ cho các nghiên cứu tiếp theo giúp nâng cao chất lượng sản phẩm.
... Partial replacement of salt with fish sauce, a natural source of glutamate and 5′-ribonucleotides, was demonstrated to successfully maintain overall taste intensity and deliciousness in chicken broth, tomato sauce, and coconut curry, at rates of 25%, 16%, and 10% NaCl reduction, respectively (Huynh et al., 2016). Soy sauce, despite contributing some sodium, has been found to allow for salt reductions of up to 50% in salad dressing and between 17% and 33% in tomato soup without significant reductions in overall taste intensity or pleasantness (Goh et al., 2011;Kremer et al., 2009). Other research has also demonstrated the potential for salt replacement by soy sauce for sodium reduction in tomato soup, with results suggesting levels of 24-33% to be feasible (Kremer et al., 2013b). ...
... Over an exposure period of 15 days, liking of reducedsodium bread with soy sauce did not decrease, whereas liking of the full-sodium control bread decreased; however, no differences were found in perceived saltiness intensity (Kremer et al., 2013a, b). In stir-fried pork with soy sauce, a 29% reduction in sodium content was feasible without significant losses in ratings of product pleasantness or overall taste intensity (Goh et al., 2011;Kremer et al., 2009). Frankfurters have also benefited from soy sauce, allowing for a 20% reduction in salt content without reduced ratings for quality or sensory characteristics; when treatments included KCl in addition to the soy sauce, a 35% reduction was feasible (McGough et al., 2012a, b). ...
Chapter
Full-text available
Sodium chloride, or salt, has long been added to foods for a variety of purposes. Despite the value it contributes to food in both functionality and sensory aspects, overconsumption increases the risk of many chronic diseases. A great deal of strategies has been used in attempts to maintain the functionality and sensory quality of foods with a reduced-sodium content to assist in reducing the incidence of sodium overconsumption. While strategies focusing on stealth reduction of sodium and modifying the physical structure of the food or salt crystal itself are potential options to food manufacturers hoping to reduce sodium content, strategies that modify the flavor profile of the food may provide viable solutions that do not necessitate lengthy timeframes to implement or costly equipment. Replacement of portions of salt with potassium chloride is arguably the most popular flavor modification strategy to reduce sodium content, although it is not without drawbacks including an often reduced salty taste and a high likelihood of conferring an off-taste. Incorporating umami as a flavor enhancer into reduced-sodium foods takes advantage of the saltiness-enhancing effect typically associated with the umami taste and can be utilized through a variety of different substances. Although monosodium glutamate is a well-known umami-conferring substance with ample investigation into its use in sodium reduced products, incorporation of ribonucleotides, certain amino acids, and umami-heavy ingredients such as tomatoes or mushrooms has also been investigated.
... Partial replacement of salt with fish sauce, a natural source of glutamate and 5′-ribonucleotides, was demonstrated to successfully maintain overall taste intensity and deliciousness in chicken broth, tomato sauce, and coconut curry, at rates of 25%, 16%, and 10% NaCl reduction, respectively (Huynh et al., 2016). Soy sauce, despite contributing some sodium, has been found to allow for salt reductions of up to 50% in salad dressing and between 17% and 33% in tomato soup without significant reductions in overall taste intensity or pleasantness (Goh et al., 2011;Kremer et al., 2009). Other research has also demonstrated the potential for salt replacement by soy sauce for sodium reduction in tomato soup, with results suggesting levels of 24-33% to be feasible (Kremer et al., 2013b). ...
... Over an exposure period of 15 days, liking of reducedsodium bread with soy sauce did not decrease, whereas liking of the full-sodium control bread decreased; however, no differences were found in perceived saltiness intensity (Kremer et al., 2013a, b). In stir-fried pork with soy sauce, a 29% reduction in sodium content was feasible without significant losses in ratings of product pleasantness or overall taste intensity (Goh et al., 2011;Kremer et al., 2009). Frankfurters have also benefited from soy sauce, allowing for a 20% reduction in salt content without reduced ratings for quality or sensory characteristics; when treatments included KCl in addition to the soy sauce, a 35% reduction was feasible (McGough et al., 2012a, b). ...
Chapter
Full-text available
From an early age, humans can detect the umami taste sensation of the free amino acid glutamate, as evidenced by the facial expressions of pleasure displayed by newborns. This chapter briefly reviews the biology of umami flavor and summarizes the earliest routes of exposure to free amino acids in amniotic fluid, human milk, and infant formula, highlighting how exposure to free glutamate, and umami tastes, varies from gestation to postnatal feedings and from infant to infant. It then summarizes scientific evidence revealing that during infancy, the amount of free glutamate ingested impacts satiation and growth during milk feedings, as well as the development of preferences for similarly flavored foods. The study of umami as a basic taste during infancy and childhood has been neglected compared to other basic tastes, and gaps in knowledge are highlighted.
... Partial replacement of salt with fish sauce, a natural source of glutamate and 5′-ribonucleotides, was demonstrated to successfully maintain overall taste intensity and deliciousness in chicken broth, tomato sauce, and coconut curry, at rates of 25%, 16%, and 10% NaCl reduction, respectively (Huynh et al., 2016). Soy sauce, despite contributing some sodium, has been found to allow for salt reductions of up to 50% in salad dressing and between 17% and 33% in tomato soup without significant reductions in overall taste intensity or pleasantness (Goh et al., 2011;Kremer et al., 2009). Other research has also demonstrated the potential for salt replacement by soy sauce for sodium reduction in tomato soup, with results suggesting levels of 24-33% to be feasible (Kremer et al., 2013b). ...
... Over an exposure period of 15 days, liking of reducedsodium bread with soy sauce did not decrease, whereas liking of the full-sodium control bread decreased; however, no differences were found in perceived saltiness intensity (Kremer et al., 2013a, b). In stir-fried pork with soy sauce, a 29% reduction in sodium content was feasible without significant losses in ratings of product pleasantness or overall taste intensity (Goh et al., 2011;Kremer et al., 2009). Frankfurters have also benefited from soy sauce, allowing for a 20% reduction in salt content without reduced ratings for quality or sensory characteristics; when treatments included KCl in addition to the soy sauce, a 35% reduction was feasible (McGough et al., 2012a, b). ...
Chapter
Full-text available
Umami is the meaty or savory taste elicited by monosodium glutamate and other amino acids. The presence of these amino acids in foods and beverages can alter dietary intake and nutritional balance and thus the health of human and nonhuman animals. Umami has been a major culinary influence in Eastern cultures for over a century and has gradually become an important factor in Western diets. Throughout its history, research on umami, especially the unique taste elicited by monosodium glutamate and its synergistic interaction with ribonucleotides such as inosine 5′-monophosphate, has played an important role in discovering peripheral taste receptors, cellular and molecular transduction mechanisms, and the neuroanatomy of the gustatory system. Umami taste has also been a focus of study to identify brain stem and cortical structures involved in sensory processing and generating food-directed behavior. This chapter provides a brief history of umami taste, a description of the molecular receptors and cellular transduction mechanisms for umami taste stimuli in chemosensory cells in the oral cavity and gut, and an overview of the brain systems involved in umami taste perception. An understanding of these aspects of umami taste is of fundamental importance for basic science and for healthcare professions working with patient populations with dietary challenges.
... Food ingredients that have umami taste can also be used to mask the bitter flavour of low sodium products and to increase the perception of saltiness (Mojet et al., 2004) [80] . These compounds contain high amount of glutamates like soy sauce, yeast extracts, monosodium glutamate (MSG) and hydrolyzed vegetable protein (Brandsma, 2006;Dotsch et al., 2009;Kremer et al., 2009) [19,32,61] . Similarly, Khetra et al. (2018) [58] use hydrolysed vegetable protein and adenosine-50monophosphate as bitterness inhibitors of low sodium cheddar cheese in which 75% of NaCl is replaced with KCl. ...
... Food ingredients that have umami taste can also be used to mask the bitter flavour of low sodium products and to increase the perception of saltiness (Mojet et al., 2004) [80] . These compounds contain high amount of glutamates like soy sauce, yeast extracts, monosodium glutamate (MSG) and hydrolyzed vegetable protein (Brandsma, 2006;Dotsch et al., 2009;Kremer et al., 2009) [19,32,61] . Similarly, Khetra et al. (2018) [58] use hydrolysed vegetable protein and adenosine-50monophosphate as bitterness inhibitors of low sodium cheddar cheese in which 75% of NaCl is replaced with KCl. ...
... However, KCl has negative sensory characteristics, such as strong bitterness, weak saltiness, and metallic properties (Desmond, 2006) and is not suitable for nephritic patients, who have to control potassium intake strictly (Geleijnse, Kok, & Grobbee, 2003). Therefore, some researchers have turned to non-mineral salt replacers, such as monosodium glutamate, and naturally brewed soy sauce (Kremer, Mojet, & Shimojo, 2009;McGough, Sato, Rankin, & Sindelar, 2012). Moreover, other methods could help to reduce sodium intake, such as size and distribution of the salt (Moncada, Astete, Sabliov, Olson, Boeneke, & Aryana, 2015). ...
... On the contrary strawberry aroma associated with sweetness could not enhance the saltiness of NaCl solution (Lawrence et al., 2009;Djordjevic, Zatorre, & Jones-Gotman, 2004). The saltiness-enhancing abilities of soy sauce aroma have been confirmed in NaCl solution and foods (Kremer et al., 2009;Lee et al., 2015). However, it was still unknown which odorant played a role in the saltiness enhancement. ...
Article
Odor-taste interaction has become a popular salt reduction method. In this study, the odorants associated with saltiness in soy sauce were selected by gas chromatography/olfactometry-associated taste (GC/O-AT), and their ability to induce saltiness/umami enhancement was verified by sensory evaluation. A total of 30 taste-associated odorants were perceived, including 5 saltiness-associated and 2 umami-associated odorants. Among them, 3-(methylthio)propanal, 1-octen-3-ol, 3-(methylthio)-1-propanol, and 2,5-dimethylpyrazine could significantly enhance saltiness of 0.3% NaCl solution (p < 0.05). Furthermore, 3-(methylthio)propanal, maltol, 2,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone (HDMF), dimethyl trisulfide, 3-(methylthio)-1-propanol and 1-octen-3-ol could also enhance the umami taste in 0.3% monosodium glutamate solution. Compared with zero or strong-salt-content (0.8%) solution, the saltiness of weak-salt-content (0.3%) was enhanced significantly by adding the odorant. These results suggest that salty food is an efficient source for selecting saltiness-enhancing odorants, which could be used to compensate NaCl reduction in food.
... Natural sources of umamisuch as mushrooms, tomato, onion, soy sauces and cheeseare often used in salt-reduced products (Jinap & Hajeb, 2010;Jinap et al., 2016) due to their saltiness enhancing properties and positive effect on acceptability. Accordingly, research on salt replacement by MSG have found that a substantial decrease in sodium chloride (up to 50% in some cases) can be achieved without leading to significant loss of either taste intensity or acceptability (Kremer, Mojet, & Shimojo, 2009;Roininen, Lähteenmäki, & Tuorila, 1996). ...
... Additionally, the acceptability of formulations where NaCl was replaced with MSG was not dependent on sodium content (in blind, all three MSG samples were liked more than the reference). This finding is consistent with extant literature on taste-taste interactions showing an enhancement effect of umami on saltiness (Kremer et al., 2009;Roininen et al., 1996), and is further supported by Study 2 in which a seasoning high in umami (BBQ) effectively masked up to a 30% NaCl reduction. However, while there were no differences in mean liking ratings in both cases (the 30% MSG sample in Study 1 and the BBQ −30% NaCl in Study 2) more consumers perceived the chips as being not salty enough (about 10%-20% more than the reference), indicating that for a sizeable minority of consumers this level of NaCl reduction would result in a lower acceptability. ...
Article
Lowering dietary intake of sodium is currently an important public health goal, and a major driver of food product development. Reducing the salt content of food while maintaining the same structure and sensory quality is, however, no easy feat. While several strategies for reformulation exist, the available literature indicates that their effectiveness is highly product-dependent. The present research focused on different salt reduction strategies for potato chips (crisps), drawing on two studies focusing on young (18–30) consumers. In Study 1 (N = 200), the effect of simple salt reduction and two salt replacers (KCl and MSG) on consumer perception was investigated, using a reference product as basis for systematic reformulation. Study 1 also addressed the issue of how information labeling affects consumer perception by comparing results in blind and informed conditions (N = 100 each). The results indicated that sodium can be reduced up to 30% while maintaining the same palatability, and that replacement (up to 30%) by either KCl and MSG even increased liking in the blind condition. A strong labelling effect was found, however, whereby consumers significantly preferred the reference product than any of the reformulation when informed of its content, whereas the opposite was observed (reference was least liked) when tested in blind. Study 2 (N = 100) extended the range of experimental conditions by focusing on how salt reduction is affected by texture and seasoning type. The main result of Study 1 – that sodium can be reduced up to 30% while maintaining the same palatability (in blind) – was confirmed across different seasoning types, thus enabling a more robust basis for generalization. Contrary to expectations, the presence of a wavy (vs. smooth) texture increased liking only for a single seasoning type, and the effect was not dependent on salt content.
... The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends reducing sodium consumption and its content in food products due to the discovered associations between salt intake and various diseases (Asaria et al. 2007). Consequently, there is growing interest in replacing salt in processed meat products with substitutes such as soy sauce (Kremer, Mojet, and Shimojo 2009;McGough et al. 2012), potassium chloride (which helps control blood pressure and maintain electrolyte balance in the body), calcium chloride (used as food additive E509 to preserve the texture of products like cottage cheese and cheese), and magnesium chloride (used as food additive E509 to preserve the texture of products like cottage cheese and cheese) (García-Íñiguez de Ciriano et al. 2013;Gimeno, Astiasarán, and Bello 1999;Khasanov, Khamaletdinov, Gabitov et al. 2020). ...
Article
Full-text available
High sodium intake from processed foods has been linked to increased risks of hypertension and cardiovascular diseases, prompting the need for sodium reduction strategies in meat products. This study aims to investigate the influence of partially replacing salt (NaCl) with Salicornia herbacea L. in the formulation of meat chips on their yield, quality, and sensory characteristics. The main difference between control and experimental recipes lies in the substitution of part of the salt (NaCl) with S. herbacea L., known for its beneficial properties and lower sodium content. Beef, chicken breast, and horse meat were used for chip preparation. Control recipes contained 8% NaCl, whereas in experimental recipes, NaCl constituted 4%, and S. herbacea L. constituted 4%. The preparation process involved grinding the meat to a minced state, adding salt and spices, forming chips, a three‐stage drying process, and subsequent cooling. The results indicated that the inclusion of S. herbacea L. reduces chip yield by 2%. Moisture, fat content, protein composition, and caloric content of the chips also slightly decreased in experimental recipes. Meanwhile, antioxidant activity and chip‐shape stability increased. Experimental recipes also demonstrated improved sensory characteristics such as taste, aroma, and texture. Thus, despite a minor decrease in production yield the use of S. herbacea L. in meat chip formulations was justified. Simultaneously, alongside sodium reduction, there was an improvement in the product's antioxidant activity and sensory properties. The incorporation of S. herbacea L. makes meat chips more nutritious and appealing to health‐conscious consumers.
... In general, the concentration of sodium chloride in soy sauce is around 18-20 w/v% [4]. The WHO recommends a daily intake of 5 g of NaCl [5]. However, excessive salt intake is the primary cause of high blood pressure, making it crucial to reduce daily salt consumption to maintain health. ...
Article
Full-text available
Most commercially available soy sauce is fermented by high-salt liquid-state (HS) fermentation, which has an excessive salt content and a long fermentation period. In this study, a new salt-reduced fermentation (SR) soy sauce technology involving multiple strains of bacteria was developed to reduce consumers’ salt intake. The SR soy sauce was found to have an amino acid nitrogen content of 8.40 g/L and over 80 kinds of flavor substances, which were significantly higher than those of low-salt solid-state fermented soy sauce and approximately equal to HS soy sauce. Compared with HS soy sauce, the salt content of the SR soy sauce was reduced by 59.2%, achieving the salt reduction goal. The proportion of umami amino acids in SR soy sauce reached 32.0% of the total level, enhancing SR soy sauce’s quality. Hence, the new fermentation process can decrease salt content and shorten fermentation time.
... The umami taste in the horse gram paste is developed during the fermentation process when hydrolytic enzymes in the koji hydrolyze the protein into peptides containing amino acids of glutamic acid, aspartic acid, and proline [54]. This could have also contributed to the insignificant difference in saltiness liking as Kremer et al. [55] suggested that foods containing natural umami substances could have a decrease in salt content without affecting consumer acceptance. ...
... Plant by-products are considered nutrient-rich sources and inexpensive functional substances with diverse potential applications (Taarji et al. 2018). Soy sauce is an excellent alternative to replace NaCl without compromising the nutritional value of the feed (Kremer et al. 2009). However, soybean meal is highly sought-after in the animal feed sector due to its protein richness. ...
Article
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Salted anchovy bones are a non-recyclable waste product containing high salt levels. However, they also contain valuable minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, and nitrogen. This study aimed to find a cost-effective method to desalinate anchovy bones while preserving their nutritional value and repurposing them as a raw material for poultry feed. Through various tests, we were able to reduce the salt content of the anchovy bones from 15.4% to 4.7% using a 50/50 percent mixture of tap water and from 15.4% to 3.7% using a mixture of tap water and soybean meal in a 30/70 percent ratio. Combining soybean meal with desalted anchovy bones resulted in a nutritional composition comparable to that found in poultry feed, reducing salt content. The response surface method (RSM) was employed to determine the optimal proportions of desalted anchovy bones (70-90%) and soybean meal (10-30%) and to study the variables affecting the concentrations of NaCl, Ca, P, Ash, and TNM. The study revealed the influence of desalted anchovy bone and soybean meal percentages on these concentrations. This study demonstrates that the method used provides an ideal approach for understanding the interactions between input parameters (% DAR, % SM) and output parameters (NaCl, Ca, P, Ash, and TNM) and shows promising results for the desalination of anchovy bones using a soybean meal cake as well as the feasibility of creating poultry feed.
... Furthermore, umami can also heighten the perceived saltiness through umami-salt interactions. Soy sauce was utilized as a means of reducing the NaCl content in stir-fried pork without compromising overall taste intensity and hedonic response, owing to its inherent saltiness and glutamate content, which serve to enhance salty flavor perception (Kremer, Mojet, & Shimojo, 2009). The addition of a mixture of less than 0.4% yeast extract and glycine did not affect the sensory acceptability of low-salt dry-cured ham, and the salt reduction ratio of the product reached 20%. ...
Article
Sodium chloride (NaCl) confers a unique flavor and quality in meat products, however, due to growing concerns about the adverse effects of excessive NaCl consumption, how to reduce NaCl content while ensuring quality and safety has become a research hotspot in this field. This review mainly discusses the role of NaCl in dry-cured meat, as well as novel salt-reducing substances that can substitute for the effects of NaCl to achieve sodium reduction objectives. New technologies, such as vacuum curing, ultrahigh pressure curing, ultrasonic curing, pulsed electric field curing, and gamma irradiation, to facilitate the development of low-sodium products are also introduced. The majority of current salt reduction technologies function to enhance salt diffusion and decrease curing time, resulting in a decrease in NaCl content. Notably, future studies should focus on implementing multiple strategies to compensate for the deficiencies in flavor and safety caused by NaCl reduction.
... For example, replacing table salt with soy sauce reduced the overall NaCl content by 0.2%-0.25% (w/w) in three different product categories (salad dressing, soup, and stir-fried pork) without compromising perceived saltiness intensity (Kremer et al., 2009). In soups, the addition of aroma as compensation led to 15% NaCl reduction, 30% NaCl reduction with the combined use of NH 4 Cl with KCl, and aroma in bouillion (Batenburg & van der Velden, 2011), and between 30% and 40% NaCl reduction using MSG (Jinap et al., 2016;Leong et al., 2016). ...
Article
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In many parts of the world, sodium consumption is higher than recommended levels, representing one of the most important food‐related health challenges and leading to considerable economical costs for society. Therefore, there is a need to find technical solutions for sodium reduction that can be implemented by food producers and within food services. The aims of this review are to discuss the barriers related to sodium reduction and to highlight a variety of technical solutions. The barriers relate to consumer perception, microbiology, processing, and physicochemistry. Existing technical solutions include inhomogeneous salt distribution, coated salt particles, changing particle sizes and forms, surface coating, multisensory combinations, sodium replacements, double emulsions, adapted serum release by microstructure design, and adapted brittleness by microstructure design. These solutions, their implementation and the associated challenges, and applicable product categories are described. Some of these solutions are ready for use or are in their early development stages. Many solutions are promising, but in most cases, some form of adaptation or optimization is needed before application in specific products, and care must always be taken to ensure food safety. For instance, further research and innovation are required in the dynamic evolution of saltiness perception, consumer acceptance, the binding and migration of sodium, juiciness, microbiological safety, and the timing of salt addition during processing. Once implemented, these solutions will undoubtedly support food producers and food services in reducing sodium content and extend the application of the solutions to different foods.
... [ 106,116] Red wine pomace seasoning (RWPS) RWPS (by-product) ...
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Meat manufacturers are nowadays in a very unenviable position. Both meat and meat products require the utilization of various additives due to their chemical composition. On the other hand, consumers demand fresh, additive-free, and high-quality products with extended shelf-life, which might be considered as healthier, even functional food. These facts push manufacturers and researchers in pursuit of modern technologies and supplements to meet these high demands. Since a high daily intake of sodium and fat might cause severe health issues, reducing these ingredients in meat products is the first task towards healthier food. Sodium can be reduced by ultrasound, high-pressure processing, pulsed electric field, and replacement of NaCl with KCl, calcium gluconate, calcium glycerophosphate, calcium lactate, and monosodium glutamate. The reduction of the fat content can be achieved through a decrease in the amount of fatty tissue in the inital mixture and/or replacement with non-lipid components, or by partial fatty tissue replacement with oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids. Utilization of plant proteins (soy, wheat gluten, pea, chickpea, lentil, potato, barley, oat, rice, etc.), mycoproteins or micro-algae proteins, plant fats (palm and coconut fat, canola, sunflower, soy and corn oil, etc.), and polysaccharides (starches, fibers), accompanied by a meat-like fibrous structure, resulted in delicious “meat” products, which are considered a healthier alternative to real meat. Growing interest in the replacement of potentially adverse synthetic meat additives favors the use of plant (herb, fruit and vegetable) extracts, as an endless source of bioactive substances with strong antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. These extracts can be used either in raw meat or meat products, as well as in the fodder. Reformulation strategies strengthen and ensure the willingness of consumers to pay a higher price for their own demands regarding the naturalness of synthetic, clean-labeled, additive-free meat products. After a gradual alignment with strategic national/international recommendations and legal/sub-legal frameworks, the added value of such meat products opens wide the door to new segments/entire markets.
... Consuming ultraprocessed foods has been linked with higher calorie intake and weight gain (Hall et al. 2019). Because sodium may be added in an attempt to increase consumer acceptance, food environment interventions must be cautious of sodium content when promoting nutrient dense menu options (Kremer, Mojet, and Shimojo 2009). In addition, while fat is needed for palatability, the plantbased meat industry should be encouraged to reformulate products and replace saturated fat with healthier fats (Drewnowski 1997;Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee 2015). ...
... On the contrary, it was demonstrated the possibility of reducing NaCl using naturally brewed soy sauce while focusing on not sacrificing the consumer's acceptance of stir-fried pork. Appropriately, it was possible to replace salt with brewed soy sauce between 50%, 17%, and 29%, respectively, without significant effect on flavor and delicacy [43]. Another study investigated red wine pomace seasoning (RWPS), extracted from wine pomace as a natural seasoning for salt replacement. ...
Article
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Urbanization is usually followed by changes in eating habits, with a specific trend toward the consumption of ready-to-eat products, such as processed foods. Among the latter, meat products are known contributors to high dietary sodium owing to salt addition. Salt plays an essential role in maintaining the quality of meat products in terms of acceptability and safety. However, an excessive salt intake is linked to high blood pressure and cardiovascular diseases. Hence, several studies have been competing for the discovery of salt alternatives performing in a similar way as common salt. A number of replacements have been proposed to reduce salt consumption in meat products while taking into account consumer preferences. Unfortunately, these have resulted in poorer product quality, followed by new adverse effects on health. This review addresses these recent issues by illustrating some established approaches and providing insight into further challenges in developing low-salt meat products.
... where Ci and Cf refer to the initial and final salt concentrations, respectively. As most of the salt content in the soy sauce was NaCl [25,26], the multi-ion effect was not discussed in the study. To simplify the data analysis, we assumed the conductivity was proportional to the salt concentration. ...
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Soy sauce is a common condiment that has a unique flavor, one that is derived from its rich amino acids and salts. It is known that excessive intake of high-sodium food will affect human health, causing a series of diseases such as hypertension and kidney disease. Therefore, removing sodium from the soy sauce and retaining the amino acids is desirable. In this study, electrodialysis (ED) was employed for the desalination of soy sauce using commercial ion exchange membranes (IEMs). The influence of the current density and initial pH on the desalination degree of the soy sauce was explored. Results showed that the optimal desalination condition for ED was reached at a current density of 5 mA/cm2 and pH of 5, with the desalination degree of 64% and the amino acid loss rate of 29.8%. Moreover, it was found that the loss rate of amino acids was related to the initial concentration and molecular structure. In addition, the amino acid adsorption by IEMs was explored. Results implied that the molecular weight and structure affect amino acid adsorption. This study illustrated that the ED process can successfully reduce the salt content of the soy sauce and retain most of the amino acids without compromising the original flavor.
... Umami from konbu is used to flavor some dishes in the Japanese cuisine, thus producing healthier and tastier meals with reduced salt, sugar and fat contents (Fujii, 2005;Antony et al., 2014;Mouritsen and Styrbaek, 2014;Japanese Culinary Academy, 2016). Similarly, it was shown that the replacement of salt with soy sauce (rich in umami) can reduce up to 50% of salt consumption without decreasing costumer acceptance (Kremer et al., 2009;Goh et al., 2011). It is known that the ionic form of monovalent glutamic acid, i.e., glutamate is the main component of the umami taste (Ikeda, 2002). ...
Article
The fifth basic taste - umami, described as the essence of deliciousness, was discovered more than a century ago in Japan, after extraction of free glutamate from dashi, the Japanese broth prepared with brown seaweed Saccharina japonica (konbu). Although umami was accepted as a basic taste in the Eastern world a long time ago, umami gained recognition in the Western world very slowly. However, as the consumer's longing for delicious food is constantly growing, umami taste can be an important choice criterion. Moreover, in recent years, there has been an increasing demand for vegetarian and vegan products and edible seaweeds are a resource that has been used in the development of new food products. Consumption of edible seaweeds is becoming popular worldwide, not only due to their abundance and unique flavors but also because of their nutritional benefits and umami taste. In this review, the basic concepts of umami in seaweeds are described. The traditional consumption of seaweeds in the Eastern world, but also the more innovative approach in Western countries, are referred. The quantification of compounds responsible for the umami taste in aqueous extracts (broths) based on edible seaweeds was reviewed. Also, the influence of seaweed conservation techniques (drying techniques applied) and extraction conditions on umami potentials have been discussed, as well as the latest studies on metabolic pathways, including the biochemical reactions between glutamate and umami receptors.
... One novel approach to reduce sodium in food products has been through the addition of traditionally brewed soy sauce (SS) due to its saltiness enhancement capability. Kremer et al. (2009), McGough et al. (2012a, 2012b, and Shazer et al. (2017) found that saltiness could be enhanced by SS added to food products. ...
Article
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Salt is a critical ingredient in processed meat and poultry products because of its multiple functions that affect product quality and safety. Although salt is a functional ingredient in food products, sodium reduction continues to be an important topic within the food industry due to interests in reducing dietary sodium intake. Previous work has shown that soy sauce addition may potentiate saltiness perception in processed meats and thus allow for novel formulations with reduced sodium content. Two studies were conducted to further elucidate these effects. First, trained panel sensory char- acteristics, relevant quality parameters, and selected chemical profiles were determined comparing frankfurters containing flake salt and traditionally brewed soy sauce. Seven aqueous compounds were found to be more abundant (P < 0.001) in the soy sauce – containing treatment, and 56 volatile compounds were identified. Principal component analysis of the sensory and selected chemical profiles led to the consideration that ethyl hexanoate (EHEX) may be a causative agent of the saltiness-potentiating phenomenon. Thus, a second study further evaluated concentrations of EHEX, revealing that trained sensory panelists perceived frankfurters containing EHEX as saltier (P < 0.05) and these frankfurters had higher scores for fermented/sour aromatic score (P < 0.05) than the control (Control: 100% NaCl from flake salt). This research demon- strated the ability of EHEX to potentiate saltiness in frankfurters with minimal effects on quality.
... High intensities of salty and sweet may mask bitter and metallic off-taste (Keast & Breslin, 2003) induced by potassium chloride (Inguglia et al., 2017;Israr et al., 2016) in the sodium-reduced ketchup. Soy sauce is commonly used as a condiment as well as an ingredient in cooking recipes; hence, many studies have investigated the use of soy sauce as a sodium replacer to develop a range of sodium-reduced foods (Cho Long, Soh Min, & Kwang-Ok, 2015;Kremer et al., 2013;Kremer, Mojet, & Shimojo, 2009;McGough, Sato, Rankin, & Sindelar, 2012;Xin Wei Goh et al., 2011). However, no previous studies have described differences in consumer sensory perception between regular and sodium-reduced formulations of the current study products. ...
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Among major contributors of dietary sodium intake, many foods are consumed together with companion foods, specifically condiments and carriers. This study compared sensory profiles and overall liking between commercially available regular and sodium‐reduced foods consumed with or without companion foods; and examined changes in sensory profiles and overall liking when foods are consumed in condiment–carrier pairs. Three distinct consumer panels evaluated one of the three condiment–carrier pairs, salsa–corn chips (n = 98, 63% female), ketchup–tater tots (n = 100, 69% female), and soy sauce–cooked rice (n = 98, 70% female). For each panel, consumers evaluated five samples; including the regular and sodium‐reduced carriers/condiments alone, the companion food alone, and the regular and sodium‐reduced foods each with its companion food. Samples were rated for overall liking (9‐point hedonic scale) and the intensity of defining sensory attributes (3‐point Rate‐All‐That‐Apply scale). Consumers perceived sensory attribute differences between regular and sodium‐reduced corn chips (salty) and soy sauce (salty, sweet), but not ketchup. The presence of the companion food reduced consumer ability to discriminate sensory attributes between regular and sodium‐reduced products and changed sensory profiles and liking of the foods. Additionally, consumer heterogeneity in hedonic response identified three consumer segments in each consumer panel. Consumer segments differed in their sensory attribute perception. Practical Application It is possible for the food industry to reduce sodium in a range of companion foods without changing consumer preference. The selection of companion foods is important to consumer evaluation of foods under the context of food pairing; corn chips–salsa and ketchup–tater tots are appropriate food pairs. Future sensory studies on food reformulation toward sodium reduction should target specific consumer segments of product liking and sensory attribute perception, which may in turn be influenced by food consumption frequency.
... 소금은 인체의 생리기능을 위한 필수적인 무기물 소재로 서 음식의 맛을 내고, 저장성에 있어 중요한 역할을 한다 (9)(10)(11)(12). 또한, 소금은 많은 식품에서 사용되는 중요한 재료 중 하나이며, 식품에서의 미생물 위험요소를 줄이는 역할 을 한다 (13). 그러나 염장 식품 또는 짠 음식을 통하여 나트 륨을 과량 섭취할 경우는 고혈압이나 뇌졸중과 같은 심혈관 계 질환의 발병에 영향을 미치는 것으로 보고되고 있다 (14)(15)(16)(17) Results are shown as mean±SD. ...
Article
Seok-jang is one of traditional seasonings prepared by solidification of the mixture of say sauce and salt for long period of aging time. In this study, the physiochemical properties of Seok-jang were investigated for the substitution of solar salt. Seok-jang exhibited highest mineral (P, Na, Fe, Mn, and Al) contents than those of solar salt and soy sauce, while showed lower soluble solids content than that of soy sauce. Seok-jang also exerted the highest pH value 7.70 compared to solar salt and soy sauce. Whereas magnesium and calcium contents of solar salts were 2.90 and 0.26 ppm, which were significantly higher than those of Seok-jang. In color values, L* value was highest in solar salt and lowest in say sauce, While the highest a* and b* value were 6.19 and 18.2 observed in Seok-jang followed by a solar salt and soy sauce. On the other hand, less amount of insoluble solid and sand powder content were 0.03 and 0.07% found in Seok-jang, respectively. In conclusion, Seok-jang was suitable for the potentional substitution of natural salt ingredient.
... Cluster analysis and internal preference mapping revealed that there are consumer segments that prefer soups with decreased sodium and fat content (Clusters 2 and 3). Previous studies have found that a reduction of sodium by 50% or more in processed food systems is possible without affecting taste and consumer acceptability (Bertino, Beauchamp, & Engelman, 1982;Gary & Chan, 1985;Nolan, 1983;Witschi et al., 1985;Yeomans, Gould, Mobini, & Prescott, 2008;Kremer, Mojet, & Shimojo, 2009;Wang et al., 2014). However, the concentration of sodium alone does not determine the acceptability in a complex processed food system. ...
Article
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Targeting both sodium and fat reduction in processed foods while maintaining consumer acceptance is a challenge in the food industry due to the innate liking by humans toward both ingredients. Canned soup is one of the leading processed food categories containing high quantities of sodium. Efforts to reduce both sodium and fat content in canned soup products have been problematic due to resulting decreased consumer acceptance. The objective of this study was to characterize the changes in the drivers of liking when sodium, fat, and herb levels are varied in a model retorted soup system. A creamy tomato soup system was developed containing four fat levels (free, low, reduced, regular), three sodium levels (low, reduced, regular), and two herb levels (with, without). Ninety‐six consumers rated the soups for overall liking on a 9‐point hedonic scale. A descriptive analysis panel composed of 10 trained panelists profiled the sensory attributes among the soups. Higher sodium level was found to be a driver of liking when fat content was reduced. Soups were significantly different in saltiness (taste) and tomato (aroma‐by‐mouth), based on varying fat and sodium levels. Herb content increased overall liking of lower sodium and fat soups and impacted attribute characterization of soups. Future steps would include approaches to increase overall liking of lower fat and sodium soups. Formulation modifications that would decrease intensities of attributes that characterize lower fat and sodium soups, such as sour (taste and aftertaste), grainy (texture), and darkness (appearance), will aid in higher consumer acceptance of these soups. Practical Application With hypertensive individuals requiring reductions of both dietary sodium and fat, food products lower in fat and sodium while maintaining sensory acceptability are needed. Identifying drivers of liking when sodium and fat levels are reduced in processed food systems can assist in product reformulation to increase overall liking. Additionally, understanding the impact of herbs in consumer acceptance of lower sodium and fat food products will also contribute to further advances in product development.
... Preparation of home-made tomato soups. According to Kremer et al. (2009), the salt equivalent of regular salt soup averages around 0.90 g per 100 g. By considering this salt ratio, five different tomato soups were prepared: (A) tomato soup with 100% NaCl, (B) tomato soup with 60% NaCl and 40% KCl, (C) tomato soup with 60% NaCl, 28% KCl and 12% l-lysine hydrochloride, (D) tomato soup with 60% NaCl, 28% KCl, 6% l-lysine hydrochloride and 6% l-glutamic acid, (E) tomato soup with 60% NaCl, 28% KCl and 12% l-glutamic acid. ...
Article
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Five different salt mixtures were prepared for the aim of lowering the sodium content of tomato soup and effects of using these mixtures on sensory, rheological, microbiological and physico-chemical properties of the final products were evaluated. The results showed that the use of salt substitutes did not affect flow behaviour of soup samples. Sensory profiling revealed that any group could not manage to reach the same saltiness level with the regular salt tomato soup (reference); nevertheless, tomato soups with salt formulation D (60% NaCl, 28% KCl, 6% l-lysine hydrochloride and 6% l-glutamic acid) and E (60% NaCl, 28% KCl and 12% l-glutamic acid) had the most similar sensory evaluation with the reference. No differences were observed among groups in terms of a w (P > 0.05). On the other hand, the lowest average pH value and the highest aerobic mesophilic counts (87 CFU/g) were observed in the soup with salt formulation E (P < 0.05). The findings suggest that the partial replacement of 40% sodium chloride (NaCl) by 28% potassium chloride (KCl), 6% l-lysine hydrochloride and 6% l-glutamic acid (salt formulation D) seems an alternative approach for reducing the sodium content of tomato soups although it may cause a bit decrease in saltiness and an increase in the number of aerobic mesophilic bacteria (68 CFU/g).
... The food industry commonly uses it as "flavor enhancer" and it carries special importance for the reduction of dietary sodium intake. In fact, it has been shown that umami can have a magnification effect on saltiness, confirmed also by other works (Mojet, Heidema, & Christ-Hazelhof, 2004;Kremer, Mojet, & Shimojo, 2009;Yamaguchi and Takahashi, 1984a). ...
Article
Although scientists have known about the umami taste for decades, it is only recently that it has gradually gained wider public recognition as the fifth primary taste. Umami is elicited by L-glutamate, some amino acids and purine nucleotides. Glutamate is found in a wide range of foods but despite that, this taste is not generally included in taste evaluation tests in European countries because it has been found to be hard to conceptualize by the population. To the best of our knowledge, a comprehensive survey on umami familiarity in European countries has not been conducted. Therefore, we chose three countries representative of northern (Finland), central (Germany) and southern Europe (Italy) for our study. Each group contained 300, 271 and 252 participants, respectively. We collected the categorical descriptors spontaneously expressed by volunteers after tasting an umami solution alone, next to the hedonic value perceived in comparison with a watery salt solution and pure water. A significant difference in the hedonic response by country was found. The Finnish sample group used the correct word “umami” at a higher rate (15%) than Italians and Germans (both at 2%). Finland also showed better discrimination between the monosodium glutamate (umami) and sodium chloride (cooking salt) solutions. Overall, the umami taste was rated less pleasant than the salt, females preferring umami more than males, while it was the other way around for salt. Interestingly, a similar percentage of individuals with very low sensitivity for both umami and salt was detected in the countries.
... Soya sosunun kendine has kokusunun ve umami tadı veren bazı maddeleri (örneğin glutamik asit) yüksek miktarda içermesinin tuzluluk tadının algılanmasını artırdığı bilinmektedir. Elde edilen verilere göre, bu stratejiyle test edilen gıdaların (salata sosu, çorba ve domuz eti) genel lezzet yoğunluğunda ve paralelinde tüketici tarafından kabulünde bir değişime neden olmadan sırasıyla %50, %17 ve %29 oranında NaCI azaltımı yapılabilmiştir [65]. ...
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Tuz insanlığın ilk çağlarından beri gıdanın lezzetini ve dayanıklılığını artırmak için kullanılmaktadır. Yapısındaki sodyum ile vücutta sıvı ve elektrolit dengesinin sağlanmasında ve kan basıncının düzenlenmesinde önemli rol oynayan tuz, fazla tüketildiğinde başta kalp hastalıkları olmak üzere pek çok önemli rahatsızlığa neden olmaktadır. Günümüzde, yetişkin insanların tükettikleri günlük ortalama tuz seviyesi tavsiye edilen miktarın çok üstündedir ve diyetle alınan tuzun çoğu işlenmiş gıdalardan gelmektedir. Bu nedenle, bilim insanları gıda endüstrisi ile ortak çalışmalar yaparak tuz alımının azaltılması için yeni stratejiler geliştirmektedir. Ancak ürünün kalite özelliklerini bozmadan NaCI seviyesini düşürmek kolay bir işlem değildir. Bu derlemede tuzun tat algısı, gıdalardaki fonksiyonları ve işlem görmüş gıdalarda tuz içeriğinin azaltılması için uygulanabilecek stratejiler hakkında bilgiler sunulmuştur.
... The salt in soy sauce was mainly sodium chloride (NaCl), which influenced not only the salty taste, but also the texture, and played an important role in preserving soy sauce against microbes (Kremer, Mojet, and Shimojo 2009). Sodium salt imparts a salty taste, but excessive salt can cause the flavor to diminish and generate an astringent taste. ...
Article
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Understanding the effect of chemical characteristics on sensory evaluation elucidates the classification of soy sauce quality. In this work, 16 koikuchi soy sauces (the major form of Japanese soy sauce) from the Akita Prefectural Miso and Soy Sauce Products Committee were comprehensively studied. The results suggested that good quality soy sauce should possess a color with relatively high +a* and +b* values. Moreover, the ratio between the +L* value and +C* value had a negative influence on the external appearance. Furthermore, the soluble salt-free solids content of high-ranking soy sauce was much higher than that of low-ranking soy sauce, especially in the top three ranked soy sauces (at greater than 40%). The salt content not only negatively affect the soy sauce taste, but also played an essential role in improving the soy sauce flavor. Further study of the amino acid content showed that the glutamic acid content in high-ranking soy sauces was significantly lower than that in low-ranking soy sauces. In particular, the interaction between proline and glucose was also observed to improve soy sauce aroma. Finally, the principal component analysis was performed to reconfirm the main attributes for the sensory classification.
... The addition of ingredients containing salty-potentiating compounds such as umami, for example, has been shown to not only enhance the salty taste but also other tastes and flavor notes of food products (Fuke and Ueda 1996;Keast and Breslin, 2002). Traditionally brewed soy sauce (SS; comprised of water, NaCl, soybeans, and wheat) and fermented flavor enhancer (NFE; comparable to SS but manufactured to possess less soy flavor, a lighter color, and umami flavor amplification) are 2 ingredients of particular interest for this research as they both contain high levels of umami substances generated through a fermentation process from contributing amino acids and peptides (Fukushima, 2004;Kremer et al., 2009;Goh et al., 2011;Jiménez-Maroto et al., 2013;Kremer et al., 2013a;Kremer et al., 2013b;Shimojo et al., 2014). Recent research (McGough, 2011;McGough et al., 2012a;McGough et al., 2012b) has shown the use of SS and NFE can be successfully implemented into a sodium reduction system for frankfurters where sodium reduction of 20% singly or 35% in combination with KCl were achieved with no significant (P > 0.05) impact on quality or consumer acceptance. ...
Article
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As interest continues in sodium reduction technologies, there is a need to understand the changes in physiochemical and sensory characteristics of reduced sodium food products. Previous research has shown that traditionally brewed soy sauce (SS) and fermented flavor enhancer (NFE) offer efficacy as viable sodium reduction ingredients. However, their ability to provide similar results in other meat products with different requirements (e.g., flavor, functionality, etc.) for salt is not well understood. In this study, bacon, beef jerky, summer sausage, and boneless ham treatments were generated with sodium reductions of 30 and 50% by including either SS or NFE alone and in combination with potassium chloride (KCl). Sensory and quality measurements, including salty taste, and product qualities such as color, purge, and texture profiles were evaluated. No differences ( > 0.05) were observed for overall liking of bacon at 30 (SS and NFE) and 50% (SS) reductions containing KCl, and for overall liking of beef jerky (NFE) and boneless ham (SS) at 30% reductions utilizing either SS or NFE as a salt reduction tool. Further, saltiness liking scores showed no change ( > 0.05) at 30% reductions in bacon, beef jerky and boneless ham, while a decreased liking ( < 0.05) were observed in summer sausage products containing SS and NFE. These results suggest the use of SS and NFE can increase perceived salty taste without increasing the sodium content of multiple products investigated. These results indicated that SS and NFE are suitable ingredients to utilize in processed meat products to reduce sodium content, while each product has unique and variable responses in sensory attributes that must be considered.
... Natural umami sources have been used in salt-reduced foods-for example, mushrooms in meat dishes [56]. Soy sauces contain salt, but it is also possible to reduce the salt content of a product by replacing NaCl with soy sauce, without lowering the total taste intensity and pleasantness [57]. Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is often used as a flavor enhancer in savory foods. ...
Article
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Reducing salt (NaCl) intake is an important public health target. The food industry and catering services are searching for means to reduce the salt content in their products. This review focuses on options for salt reduction in foods and the sensory evaluation of salt-reduced foods. Simple salt reduction, mineral salts and flavor enhancers/modifiers (e.g., umami compounds) are common options for salt reduction. In addition, the modification of food texture and odor-taste interactions may contribute to enhanced salty taste perception. Maintaining consumer acceptance of the products is a challenge, and recent examples of the consumer perception of salt-reduced foods are presented.
... Because the enhanced side dishes provided 350 mg more sodium on average, the total sodium purchased per month was > 3 times higher following the menu redesign. Much as the low-fat diet movement led to the development of products higher in sugars and starches to promote taste acceptance (Layman, 2014), shifting individuals to more nutrient-dense patterns may lead to higher sodium content to promote taste acceptance (Kremer et al., 2009;Sharafi et al., 2013). ...
Article
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Worksite cafeterias are compelling venues to improve diet quality through environmental changes. We conducted a pre-post study to evaluate how a cafeteria-initiated grill menu redesign influenced sales, revenue, and nutrient content of foods purchased. Secondly, we evaluated consumer opinions about menu changes to inform practices for worksite environment interventions. Monthly sales data (2012–2015) were used to compute gross sales and revenue of entrées and side dishes pre-post menu changes. Alternative protein sources replaced red meat; nutrient composition and nutrients purchased were compared using Food Pro software. Consumer responses were queried using online surveys; open-ended responses were analyzed using NVivo. Differences in sales and nutrient content pre-post menu redesign were tested with Wilcoxon Rank Sum tests. Gross sales of entrées (61 vs. 222 servings/month; p = 0.01) and side dishes (120 vs. 365 servings/month; p = 0.001) increased more than three-fold post-menu changes. Revenue from entrées (312 vs. 1144 USD/month; p = 0.01) and side dishes (238 vs. 914 USD/month; p = 0.001) also increased; per entrée, consumers purchased significantly more unsaturated fat (5 g), and less saturated fat (3 g) and sodium (100 mg). For side dishes, they purchased fewer calories (48 kcal) and unsaturated fat (2.9 g), but more fiber (1.8 g), and sodium (260 mg). Four themes emerged from consumer responses: the importance of 1) variety, novelty, choice; 2) cost, affordability, value; 3) health; and 4) food quality, taste. Menu redesign can improve nutrient content, while also increasing sales and revenue. Multi-dimensional assessment of the nutritional, consumer, and retailer implications is desirable practice for enacting similar environmental changes.
Chapter
Common salt (sodium chloride) is commonly added in the processing of meat products as food additives. It has important role in improving taste, palatability, flavor, structural properties and microbial safety of meat products. The higher consumption of salt is associated with several metabolic diseases, hypertension and renal diseases. Although as such meat is low in sodium content, the added salt makes processed meat products a significant source (up to 20%) of dietary sodium intake. Thus, meat industry is focusing on the development of low-salt meat products. Various salt replacers/substitutes, chloride, lactate, and phosphate salts, altering the physical state (size and shape) of ice crystals, plant powders, flavor enhancers, plant hydrolyzates, yeast extracts, spices, herbs and natural extracts are used to replace sodium chloride in the low-salt meat products. A combination of various alternatives or salt mixtures had synergistic effects, thereby could be a suitable strategy in the production of low-salt meat products. In addition to this, novel non-thermal processing technologies such as ultrasound application, high-pressure processing, pulsed electric field, and basic electrolyzed water are gaining popularity in the development of such products by improving salt diffusion, improving flavor and texture. There is a need to conduct further in-depth studies to optimize the application of these novel processing technologies for the production of good-quality meat products with improved microbial safety.
Chapter
Meat provides an excellent medium for growth and carrying of probiotics that leads to improvement in functional value, beneficial effect on health and organoleptic properties. However, during meat processing, the high salt content and processing at high temperature causes major challenge in the survival of probiotic cultures. Fermented meat and meat products important functional meat products and this segment is still dominated by the probiotic meat products. Thus dry- and semi-dry sausages are most appropriate for carrying probiotics due to processing these sausages at low temperature. To get the desirable pact on nutritive value and quality of meat products addition to positive effect on human health, the probiotic culture should have good fermentation ability. At present, lactic acid bacteria and Bifidobacterium dominate the list of most used probiotics in the food industry due to their desirable properties. The selection of a proper probiotic culture that fulfill all the criteria of a desirable probiotic to produce functional meat products and proper validation of health claims are the need of the hour to tap the full potential of the probiotic meat products. The ever-increasing growing demand of functional meat products with probiotics provides an open arena with lots of opportunities for meat industry.
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For successful new product development, it is crucial to devise product attributes and marketing strategies appropriate for the expected consumption contexts. However, the impacts of product attributes and marketing factors on sales across the various consumption contexts are scarcely examined. Thus, this study aims to compare the product attributes and marketing factors affecting the sales of new frozen cooked rice (meal) and frozen dumpling (snack) products, which have different consumption contexts. This study used Nielsen point‐of‐sale data on new frozen cooked rice and dumpling products in Korea for weeks 1–48 in 2020. The results reveal distinct key factors influencing sales for each product category. The key factors driving the sales of frozen cooked rice are formulation, recipe type, package type, weight diversity, and distribution channel diversity. The key factors driving the sales of frozen dumplings are the main ingredient, dumpling shape, sauce flavor, claim, weight diversity, bundling promotion, and distribution channel diversity. These findings contribute to new product development by increasing the understanding of product attributes and marketing factors in different consumption contexts. Practical Applications This manuscript contributes to the field of food consumer studies by comparing the impact of product attributes and marketing factors on frozen food sales in different consumption contexts, such as meals and snacks. The information obtained from this study provides useful insights for researchers in the sensory and gastronomic fields, as well as for food experts and practitioners. The results of this study can be of interest to the gastronomy sector, as we highlighted sensory factors such as main ingredients, sauce flavors, recipe types, and formulations as product attributes that influence consumers' food purchases. These findings can aid researchers and new product developers in the food industry in developing innovative foods that can potentially be incorporated into the sensory experience.
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Reducing salt in food without compromising its quality is a huge challenge. Some review articles have been recently published on saltiness perception in some colloidal systems such as emulsions. However, no published reviews are available on saltiness perceptions of gel-based matrices, even though salt release and perception in these systems have been extensively studied. This article reviews the recent advances in salt perception in gel-based systems and provides a detailed analysis of the main factors affecting salt release. Strategies to enhance saltiness perception in gels and emulsion-filled gels are also reviewed. Saltiness perception can be improved through addition of biopolymers (proteins and polysaccharides) due to their ability to modulate texture and/or to adhere to or penetrate through the mucosal membrane on the tongue to prolong sodium retention. The composition of the product and the distribution of salt within the matrix are the two main factors affecting the perception of salty taste. Food structure re-design can lead to control the level of interaction between the salt and other components and change the structure, which in turn affects the mobility and release of the salt. The change of ingredients/matrix can affect the texture of the product, highlighting the importance of sensory evaluation.
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Background Evidence has demonstrated that excess sodium intake is associated with development of several non-communicable diseases. The main source of sodium is salt. Therefore, reducing salt intake in foods is an important global public health effort to achieve sodium reduction and improve health. This study aimed to model salt intake reduction with 'umami' substances among Japanese adults. The umami substances considered in this study include glutamate or monosodium glutamates (MSG), calcium diglutamate (CDG), inosinate, and guanylate. Methods A total of 21,805 participants aged 57.8 years on average from the National Health and Nutrition Survey was used in the analysis. First, we employed a multivariable linear regression approach with overall salt intake (g/day) as a dependent variable, adjusting for food items and other covariates to estimate the contribution of salt intake from each food item that was selected through an extensive literature review. Assuming the participants already consume low-sodium products, we considered three scenarios in which salt intake could be reduced with the additional umami substances up to 30%, 60% and 100%. We estimated the total amount of population-level salt reduction for each scenario by age and gender. Under the 100% scenario, the Japan’s achievement rates against the national and global salt intake reduction goals were also calculated. Results Without compromising the taste, the 100% or universal incorporation of umami substances into food items reduced the salt intake of Japanese adults by 12.8–22.3% at the population-level average, which is equivalent to 1.27–2.22 g of salt reduction. The universal incorporation of umami substances into food items changed daily mean salt intake of the total population from 9.95 g to 7.73 g: 10.83 g to 8.40 g for men and 9.21 g to 7.17 g for women, respectively. This study suggested that approximately 60% of Japanese adults could achieve the national dietary goal of 8 g/day, while only 7.6% would meet the global recommendation of 5.0 g/day. Conclusions Our study provides essential information on the potential salt reduction with umami substances. The universal incorporation of umami substances into food items would enable the Japanese to achieve the national dietary goal. However, the reduced salt intake level still falls short of the global dietary recommendation.
Article
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Reducing sodium content in foods is an important public health measure to reduce salt intake and decrease the incidence of noncommunicable diseases, such as cardiovascular disease and chronic kidney disease. This study quantified the amount of salt intake that could potentially be reduced by using umami substances, including glutamate, inosinate, and guanylate, without compromising taste, for adults in the United Kingdom (UK). We used data comprised of 1834 adults aged 20 years and over from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS RP) 2016/2017–2018/2019. Four hypothetical scenarios in which the market share of low‐sodium foods accounts for 0%, 30%, 60%, or 90% of consumed products were considered in the analyses. Per capita daily salt intake corresponding to the NDNS RP food groups was calculated for each scenario, and the salt intake was aggregated by gender and age groups. Replacing salt with umami substances could help UK adults reduce daily salt intake by 9.09%–18.59% (9.21%–18.43% for women; 8.83%–19.43% for men), which is equivalent to 0.45–0.92 g/day of salt reduction (0.41–0.82 g/day for women; 0.50–1.10 g/day for men). The use of umami substances may serve as one method for the UK government to encourage salt intake reduction, particularly in the context of food product reformulation, as 80% of salt consumed in the country comes from processed foods. Empirical studies with sensory evaluation should be conducted to confirm consumer tolerance. The food industry should also be engaged in conversations regarding the addition of umami to food products in the United Kingdom. The use of umami substances may serve as one method for the UK government to encourage salt intake reduction. Replacing salt with umami substances could help UK adults reduce daily salt intake by 9.10‐18.59% (9.21‐18.43% for women; 8.83‐19.43% for men), which is equivalent to 0.45‐0.92g/day of salt reduction (0.41‐0.82g/day for women; 0.50‐1.10g/day for men).
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Background Excessive salt intake has been linked to the development of several non-communicable diseases. Reducing the sodium content of foods is an important global public health activity to achieve salt reduction and health promotion. The objective of this study was to estimate the effect of sodium substitution with umami substances on the reduction of daily salt intake among adults in the United States. The umami substances considered in this study were glutamate, inosinate, and guanilate. Methods Our analysis included 4,139 participants aged 20 years and older from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Four hypothetical scenarios (0%, 30%, 60%, and 90%) on the market share of umami substitute foods were developed. For several food groups, salt reduction rates due to substitution with umami substances were estimated based on previous studies. Daily salt intake corresponding to the NHANES food groups in each scenario was calculated for each participant, and the total daily salt intake was aggregated by gender and 10-year age groups. Results Without compromising the taste, substitution with umami substances can reduce the salt intake among adults in the United States by 5.51–10.54% at the population level, which is equivalent to 0.46–0.88g of salt reduction (women 5.69–10.56% and 0.41–0.76g; men 5.31–10.51% and 0.51–1.01g). Approximately 23.73–20.25% of adults could achieve the World Health Organization’s recommendation of 5g/day. Conclusions Our study provides essential information on the potential salt reduction from sodium replacement with alternatives in the United States. However, the reduced salt intake level still falls short of the WHO recommendation of 5g of salt intake per day.
Article
Background Sodium chloride intake far exceeds guidelines by health and regulatory agencies. Acknowledging the positive relationship between sodium intake and blood pressure, interest in substances which assist in sodium reduction while contributing a savory taste such as umami are highly investigated. Objective The objective of this scoping review was to identify and characterize studies investigating umami tastants on sodium reduction in food with the goal of informing future research. Methods A literature search was conducted in Medline, Embase, Cochrane Database, EBSCO PsycInfo, PROSPERO, NIH Reporter, Clinical Trials.gov and WHO Trials and completed in March 2022 to identify peer-reviewed publications among adults (≥ 18 years) with interventions focusing on umami tastants to reduce sodium content. Results The literature search identified 52 studies among which mono-sodium glutamate (MSG) was the most studied umami tastant or food. Further, the majority of research on umami was represented through cross-sectional sensory studies to determine acceptability of foods with part of the original sodium chloride replaced by umami tastants. Only one study investigated the use of an umami tastant on overall daily sodium intake. Conclusions To assist individuals in adhering to sodium reduction intake goals set forth by regulatory agencies and their guiding policies, these findings indicate that additional research on umami tastants including systematic reviews and prospective trials is warranted. In these prospective studies, both intermediate outcomes (dietary pattern changes, daily dietary intake of sodium, and blood pressure) and hard outcomes (incidence of hypertension or stroke as well as cardiovascular composite outcomes) should be considered.
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Soy sauce, one of the most common Asian fermented foods, exhibits a distinctive savory taste profile. In the present study, targeted quantitation of literature-known taste compounds, calculation of dose-over-threshold factors, and taste re-engineering experiments enabled the identification of 34 key tastants. Following the sensoproteomics approach, 14 umami-, kokumi-, and salt-enhancing peptides were identified for the first time, with intrinsic taste threshold concentrations in the range of 166-939 μmol/L and taste-modulating threshold concentrations ranging from 42 to 420 μmol/L. The lowest taste-modulating threshold concentrations were found for the leucyl peptide LDYY with an umami- and salt-enhancing threshold of 42 μmol/L. Addition of the 14 newly identified peptides to the taste recombinate (aRecDipeptides) increased the overall taste intensity and mouthfulness of the recombinate, and comparison with the authentic soy sauce confirmed the identification of all key tastants. Finally, these data as well as the quantitative profiling of several (non)-fermented foods highlight the importance of fermentation with respect to taste formation. On the basis of this knowledge, microorganisms with specific digestion patterns may be used to tailor the taste profile and especially the salt taste sensation of soy sauces.
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In response to health concerns generated by increased sodium intake, many new approaches have been studied to reduce the sodium content in processed food. It has been suggested that reducing sodium in the food supply may be the most appropriate solution. The aim of this scoping review was to establish what sodium reduction strategies are effective in maintaining acceptable sensory qualities for various food industry applications. Studies that evaluate and report on the effectiveness of a sodium reduction strategy relevant to food and included outcomes detailing how the strategies were received by human subjects using sensory data are included, as well as book chapters, literature reviews, and patents focusing on sodium reduction strategies. Only those published in English and since 1970 were included. Literature was obtained through Scopus, PubMed, EBSCOhost, and ScienceDirect databases, whereas patents were obtained through US Patent Trademark Office, Google Patents, and PATENTSCOPE databases. Two‐hundred and seventy‐seven primary studies, 27 literature reviews, 10 book chapters, and 143 patents were selected for inclusion. Data extracted included details such as analytical methods, broad and specific treatment categories, significant outcomes, and limitations among other material. Sodium reduction methods were categorized as either salt removal, salt replacement, flavor modification, functional modification, or physical modification. Although salt removal and salt replacement were the majority of included studies, future research would benefit from combining methods from other categories while investigating the impact on sensory characteristics, technological aspects, and consumer perception of the strategy.
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Background Evidence has demonstrated that excess salt intake is associated with the development of several non-communicable diseases. Therefore, reformulating the sodium content of foods is an important global public health effort to achieve salt reduction and improve health. This study aimed to model sodium replacement with 'umami' substances and estimate the possible reduction effects of the umami substances on the daily salt intake among Japanese adults. The umami substances considered in this study include glutamate or monosodium glutamates (MSG), calcium diglutamate (CDG), inosinate, and guanilate.MethodsA sample of 21,805 participants aged 57.8 years on average from the National Health and Nutrition Survey (NHNS) were used in the analysis. First, we employed a multivariable linear regression approach, with overall salt intake (g/day) as a dependent variable, adjusting for intake (g/day) from food items and other covariates, to estimate the contributions of each food item to daily salt intake. We then considered three hypothetical scenarios with varying market share percentages of umami substitute foods (30%, 60%, and 100%). We estimated the population-level salt reduction for each scenario, by age and gender, based on the contribution of each food to salt intake estimated by the regression model and the estimated salt reduction rates by food item based on an extensive literature review. Under the 100% scenario, the achievement rates for national and global dietary goals of salt intake in the Japanese population were also calculated.ResultsWithout compromising the taste, the universal incorporation of umami substances can reduce the salt intake of adult Japanese persons by 12.0-21.1% in the population level, which is equivalent to 1.27-2.22g of salt reduction. A mean daily salt intake before and after scenario in universal umami substance’s incorporation changes from 9.95g to 7.73g for the total population, from 10.83g to 8.40g for men and from 9.21g to 7.17g for women, respectively. Approximately 60% of Japanese adults could achieve the national dietary goal of 8g/day, while only 7.6% could meet the global target of 5.0g/day. Conclusions Our study provides essential information on the potential salt reduction from sodium replacement with alternatives. The universal incorporation of umami substances into some foods could achieve the national dietary goals for the Japanese. However, the reduced salt intake level still falls short of the global dietary recommendation of 5g of salt daily.
Article
In recent years, the issue of excessive salt intake has been raised and the need for low-sodium foods has increased. In this study, we prepared bread with soy sauce to reduce the salt content and investigated its quality characteristics. Since salt reduction deteriorates the physical properties of dough, extra strong flour was used for bread making. Using a dough (30 % salt reduction) in which the 1.4 % (baker’s percent) of total salt was replaced with an appropriate amount of soy sauce, low-salt white bread was produced by the optimal short-time baking method to improve the color of bread. This reduced-salt bread was significantly inferior in appearance, i.e., volume (specific loaf volume) and crumb color, staling and so on compared to the control bread (control) made from the dough with a normal amount (2 %) of salt. However, bread taste, saltiness and umami, showed equivalent or significantly higher values compared to the control. The saltiness and umami were also significantly higher than those of normal bread with 1.4 % salt. These results clarified that the addition of an appropriate amount of soy sauce has the effect of enhancing the saltiness of bread. The overall quality of this reduced-salt bread was inferior to that of the control; however, the difference between breads was not large. These results suggested that it is possible to produce low-salt white bread without significantly compromising bread quality by using an appropriate amount of soy sauce in bread-making.
Article
Although it is not an easy task, sodium reduction in food is necessary, and in this scenario, the research for tasty food with reduced sodium content has an extremely relevant role. In this study, sodium reduction in corn extruded snacks was evaluated. Four snack samples were evaluated: one control sample (with salt and monosodium glutamate) and three reduced-sodium formulations. To minimize sensory losses caused by sodium reduction, monosodium glutamate (MSG) and Umami Ingredient (a new flavor enhancer ingredient obtained from shiitake mushroom byproducts) were used as flavor enhancers, since the utilization of Umami Ingredient enables the development of MSG-free and low-sodium products. The physical (expansion ratio, density and cutting force) and sensory (acceptance through hedonic scale, Just-about-right scale and characterization by the Rate-All-That-Apply method) characteristics of the snacks were investigated. Snacks with lower sodium content exhibited lower acceptance compared to the control sample, but they were not rejected by the consumers. Umami Ingredient performed similarly to MSG on seasoning flavor, salty and umami tastes. From this result, Umami Ingredient can be considered a potential alternative to replace MSG in low-sodium food, acting as a flavor enhancer and contributing to reducing the use of additives in the product formulation.
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The variety of processed food products in Japan is vast compared to the rest of the world; processed soybean foods are no exception. Miso, soy sauce, soy milk, and tofu are the main processed soybean product groups. For processed food products that provide a mellow and attractive flavor, the aroma is one of the most important factors controlling the value of the products, and it is a significant challenge to achieve a high quality aroma with good palatability. Therefore, to create attractive processed soybean food products, fundamental knowledge of the key aroma constituents (potent and off-flavor odorants) in processed soybean foods and their chemical and sensory behaviors is strongly needed. In this article, I will introduce part of our research focusing on the potent odorants and their characteristics in miso as well as the topic of enhancing the effect of saltiness due to aroma.
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Diets with a high sodium chloride (NaCl) intake are indicated by doctors to be a factor responsible for causing cardiovascular disease. This has led to the search for NaCl substitutes used to prepare meals and process industrialized products, resulting in the food industry using new compounds. In this context, flavor enhancers appear to be able to maintain the sensory characteristics of food and reduce the amount of NaCl used. Substituting NaCl with other light commercial salts may also represent an alternative to reducing its consumption. Thus, it is of great importance to have a sensitive, portable, reliable, and cost-effective sensors for monitoring salt and flavor enhancers. For that reason, developing methodologies and devices able to chemically analyze salts and capable of establishing a relationship with human taste perception has become relevant for quality control and product development. In this context, this study proposes developing and applying an e-tongue system that can analyze aqueous solutions containing different concentrations of flavor enhancers (monosodium glutamate, disodium guanylate and disodium inosinate), light commercial salts and NaCl. The e-tongue comprised four gold interdigitated electrodes (IDEs) modified with layer-by-layer films of copper tetrasulfonated phthalocyanine (CuTsPc), polyaniline (PANI), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) with different architectures. Data were statistically analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA). The e-tongue system proved to be efficient for identifying and discriminating flavor enhancers and commercial salts at different concentrations and is a possible alternative for quality control analysis and product development in the food industry.
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Health concerns related to the intake of salt have necessitated the investigation into NaCl reduction by examining the cross-modal interaction between the perception of saltiness and pungency elicited by Sichuan pepper oleoresin (Spo). The category scale and the generalized Labeled Magnitude Scale (gLMS) were used to determine the degree to which Spo enhanced the perception of saltiness in the NaCl model solution. Sixty-eight participants were divided into the hyposensitive, semi-sensitive, and hypersensitive groups according to individual exponent. The power functions of saltiness under different pungency carriers were obtained. The level of enhancement varied between the different sensitivity groups and pungency carriers. In the hypersensitive group, the low and strong pungency carriers effectively enhanced the perception of saltiness at low to moderate, and moderate to strong NaCl solutions, respectively. In the semi-sensitive group, low and moderate pungency carriers induced additive effect in the perception of saltiness at full and moderately strong NaCl solutions, respectively. However, the additive effect was inadequate in the hypo-sensitive group. Therefore, the low pungency solution was more feasible for enhancing in the perception of saltiness, while the maximum NaCl reduction percentages corresponded to the hypersensitive and semi-sensitive groups at 38.61% and 39.06%, respectively. This research not only provided insight into the effect of pungency on the perception of saltiness as it related to individual sensitivity, but also presented valuable information regarding flavor when developing food with reduced salt content.
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Excessive salt in the diet can pose significant health risks and, therefore, the reduction of salt derived from food is an important issue relating to human nutrition and health. Furthermore, the perception of saltiness will be different among people when considering their innate sensitivity, gender, age, psychological traits and dietary habits. In this study, 31 younger participants and 29 older participants were used as research subjects. A web-based questionnaire survey was used to collect information regarding of socio-demographics, consumption frequency and liking for salty and pungent food, as well as personality traits throughout the younger and the older participants. In addition, the 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) ratings were tested by generalized Labeled Magnitude Scale (gLMS) in the laboratory conditions. Two-alternative forced choice (2-AFC) method was used to test the sensitivity differences in the saltiness of NaCl and the pungent sensation elicited by Sichuan pepper oleoresin between the younger and older groups. The results showed significant differences in the liking for pungent food, consumption frequency of salty food, life satisfaction, negative affect, sensation seeking and PROP ratings between the younger and older groups (p<0.05). Moreover, except for the detection threshold of saltiness, thresholds were significantly lower in the younger group than in the older group. The saltiness recognition threshold and salty intensity in the presence of pungent carriers were further analyzed by using the 2-AFC and 15 cm linear scale methods. Interestingly, the results showed that the saltiness recognition threshold decreased in the presence of the sub-threshold pungency solution, while, the salty intensity was promoted in both the younger and older groups when exposed to the slightly pungent solution (0.106 g Sichuan pepper oleoresin /L water solutions) compared to the control (spring water). For the younger group, the percentage enhancement of the salty intensity was between 9.3% and 12.5 % (p<0.05), while, at the concentration of 4.05 g/L, the salty-increasing percentage increased by 6.4% in the older group (p<0.05). In addition, the percentage reduction of NaCl reached a level of up to 34.4% in the younger group and was 4.4% in the older group (p<0.05). The Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR) method was used to further analyze the relationship between the individual physical and psychological factors, and the percentage change in salty intensity. The results indicated that the percentage change in salty intensity increased when the detection threshold of saltiness, the sensation seeking ratings and PROP ratings increased. On the contrary, the change decreased when the age, life satisfaction ratings, detection threshold of pungency and consumption frequency of salty food increased. These findings not only provide new information for the flavor design of salt-reduced food and dishes, but also be valuable to public health as well as economic benefits.
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For the reduction of sodium consumption from foods with soups or sauces for noodles, NaCl mixture (LMC-salt) was prepared with the Lentinus edodes mycelium cell wall components from mycelia grown in submerged culture. NaCl was entrapped in their cavities and also deposited on the surface of mycelium cell wall. Noodles prepared with LMC-salt (Nm) enhanced the saltiness perception up to 40%, potentially by reducing “severance of flavor” as a consequence of slower release of entrapped NaCl in L. edodes cell wall, when compared to noodles prepared with NaCl (Nc) only. Compared to Nc, lightness was lower and redness was slightly higher resulting in higher color intensity in Nm. Overall textural properties did not show significant differences. Weight and volume of the cooked Nm were decreased, while turbidity of the soup was increased compared to Nc after cooking. Overall preference was slightly lower, but did not have significant specific negative attributes. These results could support a strategic approach to reduce total sodium consumption by enhancing saltiness of noodle in noodle dishes and consequently reducing uptake of soups or sauces that are leading sources of sodium intake.
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Although researchers have suggested that mere exposure may partially account for the strong regional and cultural food preferences human beings exhibit, the existing literature is equivocal on this point. To demonstrate the role of exposure in cultural food preferences, experiments must demonstrate true liking rather than relative preferences. This field study in an Alaskan fishing and cannery village lent support to the hypothesis by demonstrating that an increased rate of consumption of doughnuts in a free-feeding situation corresponded to the number of trials subjects (N = 225) had with the food. Problems with the design are discussed, and it is proposed that cultural flavor markers may become liked as a result of exposure to them.
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This study determined the effects of repeated in-home consumption on long-term food acceptance and the best way of measuring the boredom concept over time. Subjects (n=244; 120 women, 124 men; mean age 37 years) consumed 175 ml soup at home every weekday for 3 weeks. Three parallel groups tested three soups: (1) regular chicken soup A, (2) an improved version of the regular chicken soup B, which we expected to be less boring, and (3) chicken soup C with a familiar flavour but new to chicken soup. Results showed a significantly smaller decrease for chicken soup C compared to the two other soups for both desire and liking. The question whether consumers looked forward to drink a second cup resulted in a more pronounced difference between chicken soup C and the other two soups. Gender, use frequency (heavy vs. light users) and variety seeking tendency did not affect the pattern in response for desire and liking over time. Time-preference measurement (i.e. consumers predicting interest over time based on three actual consumptions) was also applied. There was no correlation (r=0.07) between the predictions of change in interest and the change in desire and liking that consumers actually experienced. In other words, consumers thought they would not get bored with the instant soups, but in fact they did become bored––albeit slightly––with two of the three soups when actually eating. We therefore recommend (1) that the time-preference measurement with long-term exposure tests using a broader range of products across different product categories to be fully validated, and that (2) the development of a valid and efficient method that quickly measures boredom over time be continued.
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Salts are used as flavouring agents in the cuisines of many cultures, the most commonly used being NaCl. They impart their own salty taste and enhance other flavours. The apparent ability to increase the intensity of other desirable flavours is puzzling as virtually all published psychophysical studies show that NaCl either suppresses or has no effect on other flavours. To reconcile this contradiction we have proposed that salts selectively filter flavours, such that unpleasant tastes (such as bitterness) are more suppressed than palatable ones (such as sweetness) thereby increasing the salience and/or intensity of the latter. We now present evidence to support this idea.
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Forty three subjects were invited under the pretence that they would take part in an experiment on hunger feelings. They came without having eaten anything that morning and received a standard breakfast containing orange juice, cream cheese on crackers and yoghurt. These products were later (when subjects returned after scoring hunger feelings during the day) used as targets amidst a set of distractors varied by adding or subtracting different amounts of two basic tastes. Orange juice was varied in sweetness and bitterness, cream cheese in sourness and bitterness and yoghurt in sweetness and sourness. The changes were made comparable by using just noticeable differences, determined in preliminary experiments with other subjects, as units of change. Two measurements of memory were compared, an absolute (indicating which were the targets) and a relative one (indicating whether the targets and distractors were more, less or equally pleasant, sweet, sour, bitter or salty as the item eaten at breakfast). Both methods showed incidental learning, but relative memory was superior. Memory differed between tastes and was partly product dependent. These experiments suggest that taste memory is tuned to detect novel and potentially dangerous stimuli rather than to remember features of earlier experienced stimuli with great precision.
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An increase in concentration of one of the tastants in a 'real food' might affect not only the perception of the taste quality of that manipulated tastant but also the other perceivable taste qualities. The influence of concentration increase of sodium or potassium chloride in tomato soup, sucrose or aspartame in iced tea, acetic or citric acid in mayonnaise, caffeine or quinine HCl in chocolate drink, monosodium glutamate (MSG) or inosine 5'-monophosphate (IMP) in broth on the other perceivable taste qualities in these foods was studied in 21 young subjects (19-33 years) and 21 older subjects (60-75 years). The results showed that for each of these tastants, except for the two acids, increasing the concentration provoked significant positive or negative interaction effects on the perception of one or more other taste qualities of the product. Especially in the young, olfaction plays a larger role in the assessment of taste intensity than has been hitherto assumed. The elderly are less able to discriminate between the taste qualities in a product, whereas the young are more able to do so.
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Feta cheese (five trials) of different sodium content was made from split lots of curd by varying the salting procedure i.e., dry salting with NaCl (control) or mixtures of NaCl/KCl (3:1 or 1:1, w/w basis) and filling the cans with brine made with NaCl or the above NaCl/KCl mixtures, respectively. It was found that up to a 50% reduction of sodium content in Feta cheese is feasible, with partial replacement of NaCl by KCl, without an adverse effect on its quality. The results also indicated that the cheeses made with mixtures of NaCl/KCl exhibited no significant (P > 0.05) differences in compositional (moisture, fat, protein, salt), physicochemical (pH, aw), sensory (appearance, body and texture, flavour, overall quality) and textural (force and compression to fracture, hardness) properties in comparison with the control cheese. The Na:K ratio (molecular basis) decreased from 31.5 in the control cheese to 4.0 and 1.4 in the cheeses salted with 3:1 or 1:1 mixture of NaCl/KCl, respectively. Thus, the use of the 1:1 NaCl/KCl mixture in the salting of Feta cheese effectively brought its Na:K ratio near the desired 1.0, while also greatly reducing the sodium content by about 50%.
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There is ample evidence suggesting that excess salt ingestion is involved in the pathogenesis of essential hypertension. In man the evidence is indirect; in the laboratory animal the evidence is direct and unequivocal. Of particular significance are the experimental findings indicating that the youngest animals are those most susceptible to salt-induced hypertension and that even relatively brief periods of exposure to a high salt diet in early life can result in permanent hypertension. The public health implications of such data warrant attention in light of current practices of early introduction of salted baby foods, which expose the infant to many times its need for sodium and serve no nutritional purpose.Salt intake by adults in this country averages 10 g per day. The daily requirement is less than 0.5 g, an amount that is adequately supplied by a diet of naturally unsalted foods. Higher intakes among groups of people correlate with higher prevalence rates of hypertension in what could be interpreted as a dose-response relationship. Hereditary predisposition combined with excessive salt consumption may be the common means by which essential hypertension develops.In Westernized societies, higher sodium intake tends to accompany lesser use of the potassium-rich foods. The resultant dietary disproportion of high-sodium: low-potassium may have even greater clinical importance for the development of hypertension than that of the sodium ion alone.
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The traditional view of measurement repeatability is discussed in the light of psychological theories about stability and change in preference and choice behavior. The argumentation is illustrated by data obtained in groups of children and adults who are exposed to the same hedonic sensory measurements a number of times. It is demonstrated that first hedonic impressions are poor predictors of final liking and choice. The repeatability of hedonic methods should be judged on the basis of the stability of the change in preference of different, but comparable populations, rather than on the reliability of repeated measurement in the same population.
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The threshold values of taste substances are influenced by several factors. To learn about the effect of the temperature on stimulus, recognition and terminal thresholds, these threshold values were determined for sucrose, sodium chloride, caffeine, quinine hydrochloride, citric and tartaric acid at tempertures of 10, 20, 40 and 60°C in a panel of 19 tasters. The individual values were found to vary over a wide range, resulting in a relatively large standard deviation of the mean threshold values. A temperature-dependence was found for the stimulus and recognition thresholds which was different for the different taste substances. The stimulus and recognition thresholds are lowest in the temperature range of 20 to 40°C. The threshold values increase with increasing temperature, and except for citric acid, significant and highly significant differences existed particularly between 20 and 60°C, whereas statistically verifiable results could not be obtained between 10 and 20°C. There was no verifiable temperature dependence either for the terminal thresholds. The terminal thresholds were found to lie rather in a relatively narrow concentration range and to be largely independent of the temperature. The results suggest that in warm dishes and beverage more taste substances are required to produce the same taste intensity. A dependence of the individual thresholds upon age, sex and smoking habits could not be found.
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The pleasantness of a food declines with consumption and this phenomenon has been demonstrated reliably in the short-term. To investigate long-term effects of repeat consumption on pleasantness, preference and intake, 21 volunteers consumed either a salty snack (french fries) or sweet snack (chocolate) every day for 15 days. Four dependent variables were measured: pleasantness ratings, ranked preference, frequency of consumption and ad libitum intake. Daily pleasantness of taste ratings decreased across the exposure period only for chocolate. Ranked preference for chocolate declined during the sweet snack condition and increased during the salty snack condition. Preference for french fries remained the same during the salty snack condition and increased during the sweet snack condition. Frequency of consuming chocolate outside the laboratory decreased during the sweet snack exposure. No such pattern was found for french fries in either condition. Ad libitum intake in the laboratory remained the same over time for both foods. Short-term sensory-specific satiety within the eating episode was consistent over time. Therefore, long-term monotony effects were found only for pleasantness, preference and frequency of eating chocolate following repeated exposure, but these changes had no impact on ad libitum intake. Systematic, repeat exposure to a single food provides a useful paradigm for investigating the development of monotony.
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The sensory interactions of monosodium glutamate (MSG) and NaCl in a clear soup were examined by a sensory test, by a response-surface method. The extents of saltiness and palatability were expressed by second order polynomials of the concentrations of MSG and NaCl added. The polynomials indicated that to provide an appropriate saltiness and the maximum palatability score, more NaCl was required in soup with a lower MSG concentration, and vice versa. It is recommended that when the amount of sodium in the soup must be restricted while retaining a high palatability score, the NaCl level should be reduced while adding an optimal MSG level.
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Response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to determine the effects of monosodium glutamate (MSG) and sodium chloride (NaCl) concentrations on the hedonic score of nonspiced and spiced chicken broth. Sensory analysis indicated that both MSG and NaCl concentrations affected (P < 0.005) the hedonic score of the chicken broth. Estimated by the second order polynomial equation, the maximum hedonic score of nonspiced broth was 7.28 on a 9-point hedonic scale with the combination of 0.33% MSG and 0.83% NaCl. In the presence of spice, the maximum hedonic score increased to 7.81 with the estimated levels of 0.38% MSG and 0.87% NaCl. the increase in the hedonic score of spiced chicken broth might indicate the contribution of spice to the palatability. the increase in levels of MSG and NaCl for the maximum hedonic score of spiced chicken broth was probably due to a masking effect of spices on the taste response of MSG and NaCl.
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A distinction is made between decision utility, experienced utility, and predicted utility and an experiment is reported addressing people's ability to forecast experienced utility. Subjects in two experiments made predictions of their future liking for stimuli to which they were then exposed daily for one week. The stimuli were ice cream in a pilot study, plain yogurt in the main study, and short musical pieces in both studies. Decreased liking was the modal prediction, even when the true outcome was increased liking, or reduced dislike. There was substantial stability of tastes, but there were also substantial individual differences in the size and even the sign of changes in liking with repeated exposure. There was little or no correlation between the predictions of hedonic change that individuals made and the changes they actually experienced.
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Frankfurters were manufactured with beef-pork mixtures using commercial procedures and varying levels (2.5%, 2.0%, 1.5%, 1.0%) of two types of NaCl (granulated, flake). Parameters investigated were sensory color, texture, flavor and overall acceptability, and instrumental texture and color during storage at 8°C. Sensory scores for color were acceptable and similar among treatments with varying salt levels, except for products with 1.0% salt. As emulsion stability decreased, however, frankfurter skin color became darker. In general, a reduction in salt by more than 20% (<2.0% salt) resulted in frankfurters of softer and less firm texture. Scores for flavor and overall acceptability were lower (P<0.05) for frankfurters with 1.5% or 1.0% vs 2.5% salt and deteriorated with increasing storage for all salt treatments. Flavor deterioration with storage was more pronounced in products with reduced salt levels (1.5% and 1.0%).
Article
Kefalograviera cheeses (five trials) of different sodium content were made from split lots of curd by varying the salting processes, i.e. brine—and dry—salting with NaCl (control) or a mixture of NaCl/KCl (3:1 or 1:1, w/w basis). The results indicated that up to 50% reduction of sodium content in Kefalograviera cheese is feasible, with partial replacement of NaCl by KCl, without an adverse effect on its quality. It was also found that the cheeses made with the mixtures of NaCl/KCl did not exhibit any significant (p>0.05) difference in compositional (moisture, fat, protein, salt), physico-chemical (pH, aw), or textural (force and compression to fracture, hardness, cohesiveness, springiness, gumminess, chewiness) properties in comparison with the control cheese. Kefalograviera cheese of highly acceptable quality, which did not differ (p>0.05) in sensory characteristics (appearance, body and texture, flavour, total score) from the control cheese, can be produced using a mixture of NaCl and KCl instead of NaCl alone. The Na:K ratio (molecular basis) decreased from 35.3 in the control cheese to 4.2 and 1.4 in the cheeses salted with 3:1 or 1:1 mixture of NaCl/KCl, respectively. The use of the 1:1 NaCl/KCl mixture in the salting of Kefalograviera cheese effectively brought its Na:K ratio close to the desired 1.0, while also greatly reducing the sodium content by about 50%.
Article
The glutamic acid content (non-protein) of 23 fresh and 39 processed foods was determined using an enzymic method of analysis. The concentrations of glutamic acid in fresh foods ranged from 6·7 mg/100 g in zucchini (marrow) to 658 mg/100 g in walnuts. The glutamic acid content increased from 50·3 to 292 mg/100 g during the ripening of fresh tomatoes. The concentrations in processed foods ranged from 0·05 mg/100 g in cottage cheese to 6·8 g/100 g in beef stock cubes.
Article
Consumer acceptance of food and beverage was measured after modifying four key factors or `context effects' in five consumer central location tests: its function as a meal component, social interaction during consumption, the physical environment in which the food is selected and consumed, and food choice. One of two flavor variations each of salad, pizza and iced tea were served. Acceptance ratings and self-reported food intake were obtained from consumers. In Tests 1–5, context effects were added sequentially, so that by Test 5 all context effects were present. Sixth test served as a comparison to `real life' and took place at a local restaurant. Our hypothesis was that product acceptability would increase with the addition of the various context effects. Meal context had the strongest positive effect on tea; social context had a strong negative effect on pizza; environment had a weak but positive effect on pizza and tea and a negative effect on salad; and choice had a positive effect on salad. These results suggest that context variables do affect product acceptance, but that the relationship between context effect and consumer acceptance may not be consistent within and across meal components.
Article
Palatability changes in seven model foods (soups and mashed potato) evoked by various combinations of monosodium glutamate (MSG) and disodium inosinate and guanylate (I + G) were studied. Flavour enhancers were added to each food matrix according to the same factorial design. The magnitude, direction and regularity of hedonic responses were highly product-dependent. Contribution of MSG and I + G to palatability-enhancement also varied for different model product: in chicken broth and vegetable soup MSG played the leading role; in mushroom, red beets and asparagus soups contribution of I + G was considerable. In green peas cream soup the supplementation by MSG/I + G evoked mostly negative hedonic effect. Analysis of naturally present free amino acids revealed considerable differences in their amount and composition. The interaction of naturally present glutamates and added umami substances (and probably other sensory-active compounds) might be at least partially responsible for observed diversity of hedonic responses.
Article
The principal aim of this study was to compare two experimental conditions for measuring the effect of repeated consumption on liking: a laboratory boredom test and a home use test. Another goal was to investigate the impact of perceived familiarity, appropriateness and complexity on the dynamics of liking. Two groups of consumers were recruited, one for each condition. Five variants of salty crackers, each with a different flavour, were tested. The laboratory condition did not show any difference in the dynamics of liking among the flavours. The home condition revealed a significant increase in liking for only one flavour. This increase could not be related to the level of complexity of the flavour or to other factors measured in this study. However, for both conditions, familiarity and appropriateness had a strong effect: the most familiar and appropriate flavours were always the most preferred.
Article
A survey on free glutamic acid (Glu) content in a variety of foods (broths, soups, sauces and salad dressings), with and without added monosodium glutamate (MSG), was carried out. A simple procedure, involving a dilution step for liquid samples or homogenization with 0.1 N HCl for solid and slurry samples, followed by derivatization with o-phthaldialdehyde, HPLC separation on C18 column and spectrofluorometric detection, was employed to quantify Glu, as well as a number of other free amino acids and biogenic amines. Broths and soups with added MSG had Glu contents of 92.7–341 mg/100 g. The highest amounts of Glu in foods with no added MSG were found in products containing hydrolyzed proteins (up to 129 mg/100 g). None of the products ready for consumption exceeded the limit of 10 g/kg of food, established by the European Directive, 95/2/CE [European Parliament and Council Directive (1995). No. 95/2/EC of 20 February 1995 on food additives other than colours and sweeteners. Official Journal, L061, 1–40].Relatively high amounts of biogenic amines were found in marmite (77.3 mg/100 g of putrescine and 32.2 mg/100 g of tyramine) and soy sauce while broths and soups showed generally low amounts of biogenic amines, putrescine being the most represented.
Article
Sodium intake exceeds the nutritional recommendations in many industrialized countries. Excessive intake of sodium has been linked to hypertension and consequently to increased risk of stroke and premature death from cardiovascular diseases. The main source of sodium in the diet is sodium chloride. It has been established that the consumption of more than 6 g NaCl/day/person is associated with an age-increase in blood pressure. Therefore, it has been recommended that the total amount of dietary salt should be maintained at about 5–6 g/day. Genetically salt susceptible individuals and hypertensives would particularly benefit from low-sodium diets, the salt content of which should range between 1 and 3 g/day. In industrialized countries, meat products and meat meals at home and in catering comprise one of the major sources of sodium, in the form of sodium chloride.
Article
Sensory science and consumer science are very young compared with the other scientific disciplines from which they have borrowed well-established methods. Methods and practices commonly used in sensory science and in consumer research are critically reviewed from a psychologist's point of view and alternative solutions are suggested. Five frequent fallacies are described and illustrated: the idea that people are uniform, that they are consistent, that they make rational choices, that their perception is more important than their memory of sensory impressions and that situations are characterised by objectively measurable context variables.
Article
We measured people’s choice and changes in choice of three types of tea, each at a low and an optimum level of sweetness. Twenty-eight tea drinkers participated in an initial taste test session and 20 additional consumption sessions. During the first session they tasted the six tea samples, ranked them in order of preference, and otherwise familiarized themselves with the samples prior to the long-term experiment. In each of the 20 consumption sessions they selected a tea, drank it, rated how well they liked it, how tired they were of it, and their satisfaction with having chosen it. We observed four choice patterns: constant-switcher, acquired-liker, non-switcher, and systematic-switcher. Over the 20 sessions the liking of the low-sweet tea increased and the tiredness ratings of the optimum-sweet tea increased. These changes, however, did not increase the frequency with which they chose the low sweet teas. Initial liking significantly predicted choice for about half the panelists.
Article
This study investigated odour–saltiness interactions in aqueous solutions. In a first experiment, 81 consumers indicated expected taste attributes for 86 labels of flavour related to common food items. Panellists were able to rate expected saltiness of food flavour evoked by food written items. Differences in expected saltiness were observed in relation to actual salt content of food. In experiment 2, we selected commercially available aromas corresponding to 14 of the salt-associated flavour labels found in experiment 1. Odour-induced saltiness enhancement was investigated for odours evoked by these aroma water solutions containing or not sodium chloride. Fifty-nine consumers rated odour and taste (bitterness, sourness, saltiness, and sweetness) intensity orthonasally and retronasally. Results showed that expected flavours could induce saltiness and enhance saltiness in solutions containing a low level of sodium chloride through odour-induced changes in taste perception. These results suggest that well selected odours could be used to compensate sodium chloride reduction in food.
Article
Intake of dietary sodium has been linked to hypertension and consequently increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). The estimated cost of CVD to both the EU and US economies is €169B and $403B, respectively. Currently the daily sodium adult intake is approximately three times the recommended daily allowance (Ireland and UK) and therefore public health and regulatory authorities are recommending reducing dietary intake of sodium to 2.4g (6g salt) per day. Processed meat products comprise one of the major sources of sodium in the form of sodium chloride (salt). Salt has an essential function in meat products in terms of flavour, texture and shelf-life. Apart from lowering the level of salt added to products there are a number of approaches to reduce the sodium content in processed foods including the use of salt substitutes, in particular, potassium chloride (KCl) in combination with masking agents, the use of flavour enhancers which enhance the saltiness of products when used with salt and finally optimising the physical form of salt so that it becomes more functional and taste bioavailable. The ultimate goal of ingredient suppliers and meat processors is to produce reduced sodium meat products that consumers can enjoy as part of an ongoing healthier diet and lifestyle. This article reviews some of the technological aspects of reduced salt meat products and how the meat and food ingredient industries are responding to this current health issue.
Article
Lowering salt content in meat products is possible from a technological and sensorial point of view, although little information is available about the consumers' attitude and acceptance of these products. Attitude towards low salt meat products, following the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) proposed by Ajzen, was evaluated by 392 consumers. Acceptability of small calibre fermented sausages with 50% molar substitution of NaCl by six different mixtures of KCl (0-50%) and K-lactate (0-50%) and the control (22g NaCl/kg) was determined by 98 consumers. The preference of the previous best two treatments was compared to the batch control by 279 consumers. In general consumers had a positive attitude towards low salt meat products, being higher for women than for men. Women showed stronger ideas and higher Perceived Control on the Behaviour towards reduced sodium meat products than men. Smokers showed lower intense beliefs than non-smokers. Consumers with a basic level of education were more affected by what other people important for them thought they should do. The final model obtained using the Theory of Planned Behaviour showed a good predictive capacity (R(2)=0.60) and a good internal consistency. Regarding the acceptability study, batches with substitution levels of 50% and 40% by K-lactate, showed lower overall acceptance than the control batch. Significant differences in acceptability were found regarding the gender and place of residence of the consumers. The preference study showed no differences between the batch control and batches with 50% KCl and 40% KCl + 10% of K-lactate substitution levels. According to these results and from a sensorial point of view, it is possible to reduce NaCl content in small calibre fermented sausages by 50% and obtain a product acceptable for consumers.
Article
Memory for texture plays an important role in food expectations. After fasting overnight, subjects (41 women, 35 men, age 19¿60 years) received a breakfast including breakfast drink, biscuits and yoghurt. Subsequently, they rated their hunger feelings every hour, and returned for a taste experiment in the evening. When unexpectedly confronted with five texture variations of each breakfast item, they were asked to recognise the samples they had eaten earlier. Signal detection showed that subjects could recognise the drinks and yoghurts, but not the biscuits. In a second test with newly coded samples, subjects rated liking and compared their perception of the sample with the remembered target on different attributes. Memory was not related to liking and it was poor for fat (biscuits and yoghurt), but good for thickness (drinks and yoghurt) and crispiness (biscuits). Levels of fat were not remembered as such, but showed some indirect distinctiveness in related attributes as crispiness, thickness or crumbling (biscuits) and thickness or creaminess (yoghurt).
Article
This article provides a selective overview of the early studies of umami taste and outlines significant questions for further research. Umami compounds such as the amino acid glutamate [often in the form of the sodium salt monosodium glutamate (MSG)] and the nucleotide monophosphates 5'-inosinate and 5'-guanylate occur naturally in, and provide flavor for, many foods and cuisines around the world. Early researchers in the United States found that the flavor of pure MSG was difficult to describe. But they all agreed that, although humans found umami compounds, when tasted alone, to be unpalatable, subjects reported that these compounds improved the taste of foods. This taste "dichotomy" may be partly unlearned because it is also observed in very young infants. The uniqueness of umami perception is based on several lines of evidence. First, numerous perceptual studies have shown that the sensation aroused by MSG is distinct from that of the other 4 taste qualities. Second, biochemical studies that show the synergy of the binding of MSG and 5'-guanylate to tongue taste tissue mirror this hallmark perceptual effect. Third, several specific receptors that may mediate umami taste have recently been identified. There remain, however, a number of puzzles surrounding the umami concept, including the molecular basis for an apparent tactile component to umami perception, the reason for the unpalatability of pure umami, and the functional significance for human health and nutrition of umami detection. Future work aimed at understanding these and other open issues will profitably engage scientists in umami research well into the next century.
Article
A total of 61 subjects selected a type of bread twice a week, 15 times in all, to be used in their families at home. Four bread types were available: white, wheat, rye and sour rye, each with two sodium chloride levels (normal salt = NS, low salt = LS, half of the normal level). The subjects' attitudes, norms and buying intentions concerning the LS bread were measured at the beginning and at the end of the experimental period. The data were used to test the feasibility of the Fishbein model for the prediction of buying intention and actual selection. In addition, hedonic responses to the breads were measured. The LS bread was selected in 32-39% of cases in all, depending on the bread type. However, there were large individual differences. The proportion of LS breads chosen decreased during the experimental period for all the four bread types. In accordance with this, buying intentions, attitudes and hedonic responses were less favorable to the LS breads by the end of the experiment. Low salt content was best accepted in sour rye breads. The Fishbein model predicted 38% of the buying intentions and 21% of the actual selections (end measurements). When the hedonic response was inserted into the model, the values were improved to 52 and 32%, respectively. It is concluded that the Fishbein model is a useful frame of reference for human food selection studies, and that its predictive power in this particular field of behavior appears to improve substantially when the hedonic response is included in the model.
Article
In the present study the effects of the umami substances, monosodium glutamate (0.2%) and 5'-ribonucleotides (0.05%), on the acceptance of low-salt soups in two groups of subjects, one with low-salt (n = 21) and the other with high-salt (n = 23) preferences were assessed. The groups were presented with soups containing 0.3% sodium chloride (low-salt group) and 0.5% sodium chloride (high-salt group). The subjects three times consumed leek-potato or minestrone soup with umami and three times the other soup without umami during six sessions over 5 weeks (sessions 2-7). In addition they tasted these and two other soups (lentil and mushroom soup) during sessions 1 and 8, during which they evaluated the pleasantness, taste intensity, and ideal saltiness of the soups with and without added umami. These ratings were higher when soups contained umami in both the low- and high-salt groups, and they remained higher regardless of which of the soups served for lunch contained umami. The low- and high-salt groups did not differ in pleasantness ratings, although the former rated the taste intensity of their soups higher and ideal saltiness closer to the ideal than did the latter. The pleasantness ratings of soups without umami were significantly lower at the end of the study than at the beginning, whereas those of soups with umami remained unchanged. These data suggest that the pleasantness of reduced-salt foods could be increased by addition of appropriate flavors.
Article
Across-meal variety was operationally defined as the varying of a midday meal, whereas monotony was defined as serving the same midday meal for 5 days. Acceptance and intake of the meal declined in the monotony week and did not decline in the variety week. Acceptance levels decreased but remained high, demonstrating that monotony can occur with acceptable foods. Intake increased on the final day of testing under the variety condition. The potato product was resistant to monotony for both acceptance and intake, as has been shown for other staple foods. Green beans were sensitive to monotony. Correlations between acceptance and intake were highly significant; they were moderate in the variety condition (averaging r = 0.5) and lower in the monotony condition, suggesting how variety impacts normal varied eating.
Article
The present study was designed to investigate the effect of variety on long-term product acceptance and consumption in a home-use situation. Subjects (N= 105) consumed a meat sauce once a week at dinner at home for a period of 10 weeks. Three variety groups were designed. The monotony group (N= 45) consistently received the same flavour of meat sauce across all 10 weeks; the imposed variation group (N= 30) received one from three different flavours of the meat sauce in random order, and the free choice (N= 30) in variation group was allowed to choose among three flavours of the meat sauce. Results showed a substantial increase in boredom and decline in acceptance ratings after repeated consumption. As hypothesized, this effect was the largest for the monotony group and was least pronounced in the free-choice group, with the imposed variation group in between. Consumption data were in line with these acceptance ratings; the monotony group consumed less of the food than the free-choice group over that time. In conclusion, repeated consumption of a food product only once a week at home resulted in a remarkable increase of boredom over time. The boredom effect was the largest for subjects who consistently received the same food, and was least pronounced for subjects who were allowed to choose among three different flavours of the food.
Article
Frequent and repeated exposure to foods produces stimulus satiation or monotony. To explore further the nature of stimulus satiation, two experiments were conducted. Experiment 1 investigated the influence of initial pleasantness and frequency of intake on monotony. Tests showed that bread and butter was eaten more frequently but was liked less than chocolate. Therefore, normal-weight, healthy males were randomly assigned to either a chocolate condition (CC, N=13) or bread and butter condition (BC, N=16). All subjects received fixed amounts of the assigned food (67g/1473kJ of chocolate or 95g/1355kJ of bread and butter) every day for 22 days. On days 1, 8, 15 and 22 subjects consumed this food ad libitum. Pleasantness of taste and desire to eat chocolate declined significantly over time but no such changes were observed for bread and butter. Experiment 2 examined intake, pleasantness and desire to eat chocolate in 53 subjects over a 15 day period, with 3 conditions: control (CS: N=15), fixed (FS: N=20) and variable (VS: N=18). CS received no chocolate except on test days (days 1, 8 and 15), FS received 67g/1473kJ of chocolate daily and VS received increasing amounts of chocolate from 57g/1251kJ on day 1 to 86g/1888kJ by day 12. Pleasantness and desire to eat chocolate declined over time with this being more pronounced for F and V subjects. However, ad libitum intake increased over time. Both experiments demonstrated significant changes in pleasantness and desire to eat chocolate, but no commensurate decline in intake. Thus, although stimulus satiation occurred for subjective ratings of pleasantness and desire to eat chocolate, intake remained unaffected. This apparent dissociation between pleasantness and intake may reflect different processes underlying liking and wanting.
Article
We investigated odor-induced changes in taste perception (OICTP), by examining the influence of strawberry and soy sauce odors on perceived sweetness (Experiment 1) and saltiness (Experiment 2). We explored whether taste-smell interactions occur at the central level, by delivering odorants (strawberry, soy sauce, odorless water) and tastants (sucrose, sodium chloride) separately, and whether effects of imagined odors are comparable to those of physically presented odors. We found specific taste-smell interactions: sweetness enhancement induced by strawberry odor and saltiness enhancement induced by soy sauce odor. These interactions were elicited with separate delivery of olfactory and gustatory stimuli. Secondly, we found a similar but rather limited effect with the imagined odors: imagined strawberry enhanced perceived sweetness of water solutions, and imagined soy sauce enhanced perceived saltiness of weak sodium chloride solutions. We concluded that OICTP is a centrally mediated phenomenon, and that imagined odors can to some extent induce changes in perceived taste intensity comparable to those elicited by perceived odors.
Article
The importance of perceived complexity, a "collative property" as defined by [Berlyne, D. E. (1967). Arousal and reinforcement. In Nebraska symposium on motivation (pp. 1-110). University of Nebraska Press], to the dynamic development of preference was investigated. Eighty-six female and 82 male subjects rated their liking for and various collative properties of seven very similar orange drinks that differed only in perceived complexity as a result of adding small quantities of other flavours. This was done before and after giving each subject extended experience of one of the drinks, each being used equally often for this purpose. As predicted by the theory of [Dember, W. N., & Earl, R. W. (1957). Analysis of exploratory, manipulatory and curiosity behavior. Psychological Review, 64 (2), 91-96] exposure to a stimulus with a slightly higher complexity than an individual subject's optimally preferred level of perceived complexity, caused an upwards shift in that level, whereas exposure to a less complex stimulus had no such effect. Changes in the appreciation of the drinks predicted by the theory were also observed.
Sensory & Food Quality Salt reduction using soy sauce Odour-taste in-teractions: a way to enhance saltiness in low-salt content solutions
  • Of Science
  • S . Lawrence G
  • C Salles
  • C Septier
  • Thomas-Danguin J Busch
Vol. 74, Nr. 6, 2009—JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE S261 S: Sensory & Food Quality Salt reduction using soy sauce... Lawrence G, Salles C, Septier C, Busch J, Thomas-Danguin T. 2009. Odour-taste in-teractions: a way to enhance saltiness in low-salt content solutions. Food Qual Pref 20:241–8.
Nederlands Voedingsstoffen bestand (Dutch Nutrient Database)
  • Voedingscentrum
Voedingscentrum. 2001. Nederlands Voedingsstoffen bestand (Dutch Nutrient Database). The Hague, The Netherlands.