ArticlePDF Available

Baby swimming: exploring the effects of early intervention on subsequent motor abilities

Authors:
Hermundur Sigmundsson at Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Hermundur Sigmundsson
Brian Hopkins at Lancaster University
Brian Hopkins
Download full-text PDF
Read full-text
Download citation

Abstract

The aim of the study was to explore the effects of baby swimming on subsequent motor abilities. A range of motor abilities was examined in 4-year-old children who had previously participated in a programme of baby swimming (n= 19) and compared with a matched group of coevals who had not had this experience (n= 19). As predicted from the nature of the exercises that comprise the programme, the effects of baby swimming were restricted to abilities associated with prehension and balance. Suggestions are made as to how the theme of this hypothesis-generating, demonstration study can be pursued in the future with more rigorous experimental controls and applications to children with disabilities and impairments.
Content uploaded by Hermundur Sigmundsson
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Hermundur Sigmundsson on Feb 18, 2018
Content may be subject to copyright.
Baby swimming: exploring the effects of early
intervention on subsequent motor abilitiescch_990428..430
H. Sigmundsson* and B. Hopkins†‡
*Department of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
†Department of Psychology & Centre for Research in Human Development, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK, and
‡Human Movement Science Programme, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
Accepted for publication 5 May 2009
Keywords
balance, infant
stimulation, motor
development, prehension
Correspondence:
Hermundur
Sigmundsson,
Department of
Psychology,Nor wegian
University of Science and
Technology, 7491
Trondheim, Norway
E-mail:
hermundurs@svt.ntnu.no
Abstract
Aim The aim of the study was to explore the effects of baby swimming on subsequent motor
abilities.
Background A range of motor abilities was examined in 4-year-old children who had previously
participated in a programme of baby swimming (n=19) and compared with a matched group of
coevals who had not had this experience (n=19).
Results As predicted from the nature of the exercises that comprise the programme,the effects of
baby swimming were restricted to abilities associated with prehension and balance.
Conclusions Suggestions are made as to how the theme of this hypothesis-generating,
demonstration study can be pursued in the future with more rigorous experimental controls and
applications to children with disabilities and impairments.
Introduction
Cross-cultural studies have shown that subjecting infants to
circumscribed or general forms of physical exercise facilitates
the development of fundamental motor abilities or motor mile-
stones (e.g. Hopkins & Westra 1988). There is experimental
evidence to support this effect (McGraw 1935; Lagerspetz et al.
1971; Zelazo et al. 1972).
Are there other forms of physical exercise, not addressed by
these studies, that may enhance motor development? One
potential candidate is baby swimming. In recent years,there has
been an upsurge of interest among parents in providing their
infants with this aquatic-based type of early experience, espe-
cially in Iceland where there is a long-standing commitment to
the benefits of swimming due in part to the ready availability of
hot springs.
The present study compares the motor abilities of Icelandic
children at 4 years of age who experienced baby swimming
exercises at 2 to 3 months age with a matched sample of those
who did not. Taking into account that the swimming routine
provides vigorous vestibular stimulation as well as promoting
eye–hand co-ordination (see below), we predicted that any
effects at 4 years would be most clearly manifest in tasks involv-
ing balancing and prehensile abilities.
Method
Participants
A questionnaire was sent to the parents of 63 children living in
Reykjavik who had participated in a programme of baby
swimming lessons for 2 h a week over a period of at least 4
months, some 4 to 5 years previously. Among other things, it
requested information about the frequency and length of time
the child had received swimming lessons. On this basis, 19
children (10 boys, nine girls) were selected as having
received the requisite amount of swimming experience. A
similar questionnaire was delivered to all parents of 4-year-old
Child: care, health and development
Original Article doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2009.00990.x
© 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
428
children (n=410) currently attending the 15 nursery schools
from which the swimming experience group was assembled.
Accordingly, 19 children with no experience of baby swim-
ming were selected, matched with the previous group for age,
sex and parental level of education and socio-economic status.
The mean ages for the ‘swimming’ and ‘no swimming’ groups
were 4.72 years (SD =0.235) and 4.47 years (SD =0.241)
respectively.
Baby swimming routine
The majority of children taking part in baby swimming do so
between the ages of 2 to 7 months, with 1-h sessions carried
out in a water temperature of 35°C. A session begins with a
‘warm-up’ in which the parents sing to their children while
moving them through the water and encouraging them to
stand supported on a hand. Subsequently, an instructor assists
the child in completing somersaults on a thin mattress floating
on the water, diving under water, providing encouragement to
pick up rings floating on the water and jumping from a sup-
ported position on the side of the pool into the water. During
the last 10 min, the parents again balance the infants on a
hand and bring them into reaching distance of objects floating
on the water.
Assessment of motor ability
At 4 years of age, each child was tested on the standardized
Movement Assessment Battery for Children in a quiet room in
their nursery school for the following abilities (Henderson &
Sugden 1992): manual dexterity (posting coins, threading
beads, bicycle trail), ball skills (catching bean bag, roll-
ing ball into goal) and balance (one-leg balance, jumping
over a cord, walking with heels raised). Raw scores were
converted to scale scores according to the norms for child-
ren aged 4 to 6 years, with the higher the score the poorer
the performance. Comparisons among the two groups of
children were made with the Mann–Whitney U-test (one-
tailed).
Results
There was no difference in overall performance (see Table 1),
but there were two significant contrasts between the‘swimming’
and the ‘no swimming’ groups: one involving prehension (Ball
skills sub-test, P<0.05) and the other static balance (one-leg
balance item on the Balance sub-test, P<0.017). Both out-
comes, favouring the swimming group,were in accordance with
the predicted effects of being exposed to regular sessions of baby
swimming.
Discussion
Children experiencing a regular programme of baby swimming
at 2 to 7 months of age manifested superior motor performance
on a standardized, age-appropriate test as 4-year-olds relative to
Table 1. Mean values and standard deviations (SD) on Movement ABC items for Icelandic 4-year-old children [19 in the experimental (Exp.) group
and 19 in the control group]
Exp. n=19 Control n=19
P*CI†Mean SD Mean SD
Total score 4.7 3.5 6.5 4.3 ns. -4.40 to 0.77
Manual dexterity 0.5 1.0 0.4 0.7 ns. -0.45 to 0.76
Posting coins 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.6 ns. -0.39 to 0.28
Threading beads 0.4 0.9 0.1 0.3 ns. -0.16 to 0.79
Bicycle trail 0 0 0.1 0.4 ns. -0.32 to 0.11
Ball skills 2.8 1.6 3.8 2.5 0.05 -2.38 to 0.38
Catching bean bag 2.2 1.6 2.9 2.0 ns. -1.87 to 0.50
Rolling ball into goal 0.6 0.9 0.9 1.3 ns. -1.08 to 0.44
Balance 1.5 2.2 2.3 2.5 ns. -2.32 to 0.79
One-leg balance 0.02 0.1 0.4 0.8 0.017 -0.80 to 0.01
Jumping over cord 1.5 2.2 1.7 2.0 ns. -1.60 to 1.17
Walking heels raised 0 0 0.2 0.5 ns. -0.39 to 0.08
*Mann–Whitney U-test (one tailed).
†CI: 95% confidence interval of the difference between the means.
ns., not significant.
Baby swimming 429
© 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Child: care, health and development,36,3, 428–430
a matched group of coevals without such experience. As pre-
dicted from the fact that the programme targets activities
promoting eye–hand co-ordination and the provision of vesti-
bular stimulation, outcomes converged on abilities associated
with prehension and static balance.
While baby swimming may have rather specific effects in the
motor domain, its potential benefits should also be explored in
other areas of relevance to child development. Examples are
parental attitudes, cardiovascular fitness and physical growth,
and expressions of self-esteem. In fact, it may be possible to
conceive of a testable scenario in which baby swimming exerts
beneficial influences in these respects that in turn promote
successful adjustment to the transition from home to formal
schooling.
The benefits of aquatic therapy have been extolled with
regard to individuals suffering from asthma (Rosimini 2003)
and autism (Yilmaz et al. 2004), but especially those with
cerebral palsy (Kelly & Darrah 2005). Children with the
latter disability (as well as typically developing during early
childhood) can benefit in two ways from aquatic therapy.
First, the buoyancy provided by water has not only the pot-
ential for facilitating full or partial range of movement, but
also postural control through a reduction in gravitational
effects. Second, the density of water (1 g/cm3)isabout800
times more than that of air, thus serving as a resistive medium
to promote muscle power without excessive loading of the
joints.
The present study did not involve random assignment of
individuals to groups. This limitation, together with relatively
small sample sizes and a retrospective design, detracts from the
efficacy of the study. Nevertheless, we contend that it serves as
an encouraging demonstration project as to the potential ben-
efits of baby swimming. Better understanding of baby swim-
ming and its close cousin aquatic therapy can only be achieved
with resort to a greater methodological rigour in future studies
that aspires to Sackett’s (1981) Level I (randomized controlled
trials) or at the very least Level II (non-randomized prospective
control study).
References
Henderson, S. E. & Sugden, D. (1992) The Movement Assessment
Battery for Children. The Psychological Corporation, Kent, UK.
Hopkins, B. & Westra, T. (1988) Maternal handling and motor
development: an intracultural study. Genetic Social and General
Psychology Monographs,114, 377–408.
Kelly, M. & Darrah, J. (2005) Aquatic exercise for children with
cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology,47,
838–842.
Lagerspetz, K., Nygård, M. & Strandvik, C. (1971) The effects of
training in crawling on the motor and mental development of
infants. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,12, 192–197.
McGraw, M. B. (1935) Growth: A study of Johnny and Jimmy.
Appleton-Century, New York, NY, USA.
Rosimini, C. (2003) Benefits of swim training for children and
adolescents with asthma. Journal of American Academy of Nurse
Practitioners,15, 247–252.
Sackett, D. L. (1981) How to read clinical journals. V: to distinguish
useful from useless and even harmful surgery. Canadian Medical
Association Journal,124, 1156–1662.
Yilmaz, I., Yanarda, M., Birkan, B. & Bumin, G. (2004) Effects of
swimming training on physical fitness and water orientation in
autism. Pediatrics International,46, 624–626.
Zelazo, P. R., Zelazo, N. A. & Kolb, S. (1972) Walking’ in the
newborn. Science,176, 314–315.
Key messages
• Physical exercise facilitates the development of motor skill
• Baby swimming programme may have positive effects on
motor skill development
• Baby swimming programme targets activities promoting
eye–hand coordination and the provision of vestibular
stimulation
• Baby swimming may have rather specific effects in the
motor domain, its potential positive benefits should also be
explored in other areas of relevance for child development
430 H. Sigmundsson and B. Hopkins
© 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Child: care, health and development,36,3, 428–430
... Several previous studies have demonstrated that swimming experience up to 3 years of age affects motor competence development. For instance, baby swimming experience was found to affect motor competence, including ball skills and static balance, at age 4 years [11]. Moreover, regular interventions in baby swimming have been shown to have positively impact the development of gross and fine motor function [12][13][14]. ...
... Numerous studies on baby swimming have documented varied respiratory health effects, both positive and negative [1,[32][33][34], although consistent evidence remains elusive. Previous research has consistently shown that baby swimming positively influences motor competence [11][12][13][14], a finding corroborated by the present study. Although earlier studies cited small sample sizes and on-site interventions as limitations, this study utilized a large cohort and relied solely on questionnaires without direct intervention. ...
Effect of swimming initiation period and continuation frequency on motor competence development in children aged up to 3 years: the Japan environment and children’s study
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2024
Background Although involvement of toddlers in swimming activities has increased recently, information regarding the impact of swimming during toddlerhood on subsequent child motor competence development is scarce. This study aimed to determine how swimming experience, particularly the timing of initiation and the continuity of swimming activities up to the age of 3 years, affects motor competence development. Methods This prospective cohort study included data on children aged 1.5 and 3 years (100,286 mother–child pairs) from the Japan Environment and Children’s Study. The outcomes measured were gross and fine motor function, using the Japanese version of the Ages and Stages Questionnaire (Third edition). We assessed how these functions correlated with the continuous pattern of swimming pool use frequency from age 1 up to 3 years. Results The group that used a swimming pool once a month or more from age 1–1.5 years but stopped from age 2–3 years showed consistently significant negative associations with gross motor development delay (minimum adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 0.66, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.60–0.73) and fine motor development delay (minimum aOR: 0.66, 95% CI: 0.58–0.76). The group that continued swimming once a month or more from age 1–3 years showed consistently significant negative associations with gross motor development delay (minimum aOR: 0.64, 95% CI: 0.54–0.75) and fine motor development delay (minimum aOR: 0.42, 95% CI: 0.31–0.55). Conclusions These results suggest that swimming experience starting around age 1 year is positively associated with gross and fine motor function development. The beneficial impact on gross motor function persisted from age 1–3 years. In contrast, the effects on fine motor function were not evident until age ≥ 2.5 years after starting swimming at approximately age 1 year. These findings underscore the potential benefits of early swimming experiences in enhancing overall motor skills development during early childhood.
View
... Early school-aged children who attend swimming classes are more efficient in cognitive and motor development than children who do not have swimming experience [19,20]. Early experience in water reduces the risk of developmental disorders in preschool age [21]. More scientific evidence is needed on aquatic activities for infants. ...
... An analysis of the study using AIMS not only demonstrated the positive effect of water on infant development but also concluded that earlier infant contact with water is associated with better motor skills in early childhood. Sigmundsson and Hopkins [21] showed that four-year-old children who participated in water activities as infants had better grasping function and static balance compared to their peers. ...
Supporting Infants' Motor Development through Water Activities: A Preliminary Case-Control Study
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2024
The first twelve months of an infant's life are the most dynamic time in the development of motor activities. Water activities can positively stimulate the motor skills, visual perception, and cognitive abilities of infants. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the motor development of infants aged 3-12 months participating in water activities. Participants in the study included 43 infants aged 3-12 months who attended water activities classes at Warsaw City swimming pools (n = 21) and infants not attending any classes (n = 22). Two methods of assessing motor development were used in the study: the Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS) and the Early Motor Development Questionnaire (EMQ). The raw scores of the AIMS test and the EMQ questionnaire were statistically significantly different (p < 0.05) in both groups between the first and second examinations. In contrast, there was a statistically significant improvement in motor development measured by AIMS and expressed in percentiles (p = 0.002) and in percentiles for Polish children (p = 0.030) in the water group. The age-independent total score of the EMQ before and after the intervention did not change significantly (p = 0.149). The water environment has the potential to support the motor development of infants aged 3-12 months.
View
... Indeed, the strategy used for postural control is influenced by a combination of physiological, biomechanical, and environmental factors [27]. The environmental context, such as swimming, significantly influences the use of sensory information [28,29]. ...
... Although studies have suggested that participation in swimming activities could enhance postural balance capabilities in older individuals [28,35,42,43], the impact of swimming training on children's postural control remains uncertain. While infants exposed to regular baby swimming programs exhibited enhanced motor performance [29], regular participation in standard swimming education among adolescents showed minimal effect on postural defects [44]. The relationship between swimming and postural control in older children aged between 11 and 13 years old remains underexplored in the scientific literature. ...
Postural Control and Neuromuscular Activation in 11-13-Year-Old Athletic Boy Swimmers
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2024
Objective: This study compared postural control and neuromuscular activation in athletic swimmers (A-S) and non-athletic swimmers (N-AS) in older children. Methods: Ten AS and ten N-AS underwent assessments of center of pressure (CoP) parameters under static and dynamic surfaces in two directions (dynamic mediolateral (DML) and dynamic anteroposterior (DAP)) in eyes-open (EO) and eyes-closed (EC) conditions, and electromyography (EMG) parameters under DAP and DML directions in EO and EC conditions. Results: Results showed that AS demonstrated significantly superior postural control (p < 0.05), with smaller CoP area and lower CoP mean velocity compared with N-AS , particularly in static with EC, DAP with EO and EC, and DML with EO conditions. AS exhibited significantly larger neuromuscular activation amplitudes (p < 0.05), especially in the AP direction. Conclusions: These findings suggested that athletic swimming training may enhance postural control and neuromuscular activation in 11-13-year-old children, emphasizing the potential benefits of incorporating swimming exercises in these children.
View
... Swimming is an effective way to stimulate the development of bones, muscles, and other tissues. It enhances multi-sensory participation and improves the formation of future swimming skills, promoting the whole body and mind development of children, as well as enhancing immunity (4)(5)(6)(7)(8). Nevertheless, sub-standard water quality in children's swimming can lead to rashes, asthma, and other health problems in them (9,10). ...
Effects of 8 weeks parent-accompanied swimming on physical capacity and intelligence in preschool children
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2024
This study aimed to explore the potential effects of 8-week parents-accompanied swimming on the physical capacity and intelligence of preschool children in China. Thirty-six boys (mean age 3.56 ± 0.27 years) were divided into three groups: the traditional physical exercise group (TP, n = 12), the accompanied swimming group (AS, n = 12) and the independent swimming group (IS, n = 12). Participants’ physical capacity was assessed before and after the intervention using the following indicators: height, weight, distance of tennis ball throw, standing long jump distance, time for the 10-meter shuttle run, time for a two-legged continuous jump, sit-and-reach distance, and time on the walking balance beam. Intelligence was assessed at three points: pre-test, mid-test after 4 weeks, and post-test. Data were analyzed using a two-way repeated measures ANOVA, Bonferroni test (p < 0.05) and effect size. The time of the AS and IS groups to walk the balance beam was significantly lower than the TP group, with a difference of 1.81 s (p < 0.01, [95% CI −3.22 to −0.40], ES = 1.53) and 1.25 s (p < 0.05, [95% CI −2.66 to 0.16], ES = 0.81). At the mid-test, the IQ scores of the TP group were lower than the AS group (p < 0.05, [95% CI −12.45 to −0.96], ES = 0.89). Additionally, at post-test, the IQ scores of the TP group were significantly lower than those of both AS (p < 0.01, [95% CI −14.12 to −2.74], ES = 1.15) and IS groups (p < 0.01, [95% CI −12.53 to −3.31], ES = 1.21). Swimming enhances children’s balance and IQ scores more than traditional physical exercises. Involving parents in swimming leads to a more significant increase in IQ scores within 4 weeks of initial swimming exercise.
View
... The resistance provided by water represents the weight to be overcome during freestyle kick exercise. Continuous resistance from water is crucial for increasing muscle strength while minimizing excessive joint loading, reducing the impacts on joints and bones and making the training safer and more comfortable [48,49]. Additionally, aquatic exercise involves complex movement patterns and coordination demands. ...
Effects of Aquatic Exercise and Floor Curling on Balance Ability and Lower Limb Muscle Strength in Children with Intellectual Disabilities: A Pilot Study in China
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2024
Children with intellectual disabilities often face challenges in balance ability and lower limb muscle strength, which negatively impact their daily lives and motor function. Therefore, it is crucial to enhance the balance ability and lower limb muscle strength of children with intellectual disabilities. This study aimed to investigate the effects of a 12-week aquatic exercise and floor curling intervention on the balance ability and lower limb muscle strength of children with intellectual disabilities. Forty-two participants were randomly assigned to the aquatic exercise group, floor curling group, and control group. The aquatic exercise and floor curling groups received a 12-week intervention, while the control group engaged in supervised free activities. The participants’ balance ability and lower limb muscle strength were assessed using the Berg Balance Scale and a muscle strength testing device before and after the intervention. The results showed significant improvements in balance ability and lower limb muscle strength for both the aquatic exercise group and the floor curling group after the intervention. The aquatic exercise group demonstrated an average improvement of 10.84% in balance ability and an overall average improvement of 16.28% in lower limb muscle strength. The floor curling group showed an average improvement of 9.04% in balance ability and an overall average improvement of 15.67% in lower limb muscle strength. These improvement results were statistically significant (p < 0.05) and ranged from medium to large effect sizes (d = 0.5~0.8). The findings of this study validate the positive effects of aquatic exercise and floor curling on the balance ability and lower limb muscle strength of children with intellectual disabilities. These interventions can be considered effective approaches for functional rehabilitation in children with intellectual disabilities.
View
... This is due to the positive effects that the water environment has on an individual, and as the density of the water allows the human body to become buoyant [37]. The weight relief and ease of movement in the water allows for a safe exploration of strength and functional activity training and enables individuals to produce movements that they may not be capable of on land [56]. Water provides buoyancy, which facilitates a full range of movement and postural control due to the reduction in gravitational effects it has, as well as the support it has on the individual [55]. ...
The Effects of a 6-Week Swimming Intervention on Gross Motor Development in Primary School Children
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2023
  • Children
(1) Background: This study examines the effects of a 6-week swimming intervention on motor competence in children. (2) Methods: A total of 107 children (n = 52 boys, n = 55 girls) aged 7.8 ± 0.63 years that were recruited from five primary schools in central England participated in this study, undertaking either an aquatic intervention once a week for six weeks or acting as a control group completing their usual physical education program. Participants underwent pre- and post-assessments of general motor competence using the Test of Gross Motor Development, Third Edition (TGMD-3) (a process measure) and a composite of 10 m running sprint time and standing long jump distance (product measures). Aquatic motor competence was assessed via the Aquatic Movement Protocol (AMP). Fear of drowning and swimming opportunities were also assessed by implementing a questionnaire. (3) Results: Following a mixed-model ANOVA, an overall main effect was found from pre (40.05 ± 13.6) to post (48.3 ± 18.6) for TGMD-3 scores (p < 0.05) and pre (38.7 ± 31.7) to post (50.6 ± 36.8) for AMP scores (p = 0.001). A negative significant relationship was found between AMP scores with both fear of water (p = 0.01) and fear of drowning (p < 0.05). A positive significant relationship was found between swimming opportunities and AMP score (p = 0.001). (4) Conclusions: The aquatic-based intervention improves not only aquatic motor competence but also transfers improvements in dryland movement competencies. Future research should look to implement control groupings which do not participate in swimming to further investigate the difference between swimmers and non-swimmers; however, due to swimming being a part of the national curriculum in England, this may not be feasible.
View
How We Learn
Chapter
  • Jun 2024
In this chapter, the focus is on “how we learn.” We present important theories within development, including Gottlieb’s theory on “probabilistic epigenesis” and Thelen’s theory on the “dynamic systems perspective.” Theories within learning include Edelman’s theory on neural Darwinism and Ericsson’s theory on “deliberate practice.” We also present Csikszentmihalyi’s theory on “flow,” Bandura’s theory on “self-efficacy,” and our theory on “What is trained develops.” In this chapter, we also provide some practical examples to explain and support these theories. In summary, we discuss how these theories can be integrated to enhance our understanding of how we learn.
View
View
View
Effects of Early Aquatic Experience on Motor and Physiological Outcomes in Infants and Children Under 36 Months: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Article
  • Sep 2023
Background and Purpose Early aquatic experiences may benefit infants and young children with and without developmental delays, but research is limited. Our purpose was to review aquatic experience effects on motor skill, heart rate, and weight gain for participants younger than 3 years of age. Methods PubMed, Science Direct, and CINAHL were searched from inception through February 2022. Included studies examined infants and children younger than 36 months having aquatic experiences, compared with not having or prior to aquatic experiences, and reported outcomes that included motor skills, heart rate, or infant weight gain. Studies were assessed for quality and potential bias using the PEDro or STROBE checklists. Effect sizes were calculated as the standardized mean difference (Cohen's d ; 95% confidence interval) within and between groups in individual studies and combined across studies using random-effects models. Results Twelve of 16 articles met the criteria, with 110 participants in studies assessing motor skills, 58 participants in studies assessing heart rate, and 421 newborns in studies assessing infant weight gain. Significant within-group effects were found in motor skills ( d = 1.16; 0.09, 2.23), heart rate ( d = −0.93; −1.54, −0.31), and weight gain ( d = 1.01; 0.09, 1.92). Between-group effects were not significant in motor skills ( d = 0.48; −0.49, 1.44), but were significant in newborn weight gain ( d = 0.63; 0.43, 0.83). No articles reported between-group data for heart rate. Discussion and Conclusions Moderately strong evidence supports the beneficial effects aquatic experiences have in infants and young children. Limitations include heterogeneity across aquatic experience protocols and measures, retrospective study design for one study, and lack of recommendations for optimal timing and duration for protocols. Additional research is needed to determine effectiveness in subpopulations at developmental risk.
View
"Walking" in the Newborn
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 1972
Brief daily exercise of the walking and placing reflexes in the newborn leads to a high rate of responding by 8 weeks and to an earlier onset of walking alone. There appears to be a critical period during which the walking response can be transformed intac from a reflexive to an instrumental action.
View
View
The effects Of training in crawling on the motor and mental development of infants
Article
  • Sep 1971
  • SCAND J PSYCHOL
LAGERSPETZ, K., NYGÅHD, M. & STRANDVIK, C. The effects of training in crawling on the motor and mental development of infants. Scand. J. Psychol., 1971 12, 192–197.–Eleven infants under the age of 1 year were trained in creeping for 15 minutes daily for 3 weeks, while 11 children, who served as controls, spent the corresponding times with the experimenters without training. The experimental group learned to creep significantly earlier, and transfer effects on other locomotor development were observed. Even effects on factors other than motor developmental were obtained. A training experiment with a pair of monozygotic twins is also reported.
View
View
Maternal handling and motor development: An intracultural study
Article
  • Sep 1988
Citing a distinction between informal and formal routines used by mothers in handling their infants, we examined formal handling routines, in which the caregiver acts in a pedagogical manner; these routines are widespread in many non-Western countries. We hypothesised that formal handling serves to facilitate gross motor development during early infancy. To examine this hypothesis, the effects of a Jamaican formal handling routine on a broad range of developmental outcomes was examined. Results showed that the effects were specific to early gross motor development and in particular to postural control along the vertical axis of the body. Information is also provided on other aspects of Jamaican child care. It seems that the handling routine forms part of a folk (developmental) medicine system and may serve not only to promote child health but also as a sort of developmental neurological examination.
View
Benefits of Swim Training for Children and Adolescents with Asthma
Article
  • Jul 2003
To review scientific evidence related to the benefits of swimming and present an evidence-based approach to prescribing swim training for children and adolescents with asthma. Extensive literature review of all research that has been done on swim training in asthmatic children and adolescents, using the databases CINAHL, Medline, and ProQuest. When swimming is compared to other sports in the scientific literature, it has been found to have a lower asthmogenicity. It has also been shown to decrease the severity of asthma symptoms. Swimming may be an effective nonpharmacological intervention for the child or adolescent with asthma. Research findings are summarized regarding the benefits of swim training on children and adolescents with asthma, and a stepped three-level approach to swim prescription is outlined along with safety recommendations.
View
View
Aquatic exercise for children with cerebral palsy
Article
  • Jan 2006
Exercise for children with cerebral palsy (CP) is gaining popularity among pediatric physical therapists as an intervention choice. Exercise in water appeals to children with CP because of the unique quality of buoyancy of water that reduces joint loading and impact, and decreases the negative influences of poor balance and poor postural control. In this paper, research of land-based exercise and aquatic exercise for children with CP is reviewed. Clinically relevant considerations for aquatic exercise programming for children with CP are discussed.
View
The Movement Assessment Battery for Children. The Psychological Corporation Maternal handling and motor development: an intracultural study
  • Jan 1988
  • 377-408
  • S E Henderson
  • D Sugden
Henderson, S. E. & Sugden, D. (1992) The Movement Assessment Battery for Children. The Psychological Corporation, Kent, UK. Hopkins, B. & Westra, T. (1988) Maternal handling and motor development: an intracultural study. Genetic Social and General Psychology Monographs, 114, 377–408.
How to read clinical journals. V: to distinguish useful from useless and even harmful surgery
  • Jan 1981
  • 1156
  • Sackett D. L.
Sackett, D. L. (1981) How to read clinical journals. V: to distinguish useful from useless and even harmful surgery. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 124, 1156-1662.