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Chlorophyll: Structural Properties, Health Benefits and Its Occurrence in Virgin Olive Oils
Abstract
In recent years, virgin olive oil has acquired a distinguished position on the shelves of markets worldwide. Its increased demand is mostly related with the human health benefits of its consumption. Virgin olive oils contain a variety of health beneficial compounds like chlorophyll, which is a potential cancer preventative agent that has drawn significant attention recently. Biological activities attributed to chlorophyll derivatives consistent with cancer prevention include antioxidant and antimutagenic activity. It is also used as a food-coloring agent and known as natural green 3, and it has the E number E141. Chemical and physical properties of chlorophyll need to be determined in order to reduce its loss during food processing and storage. In this review, health benefits and structural properties of chlorophyll were presented, and its occurrence in virgin olive oil was reviewed. Klorofil: Yapısal Özellikleri, Sağlık Açısından Faydaları ve Sızma Zeytinyağlarında Bulunuşu ÖZET Son yıllarda, sızma zeytinyağı bütün dünyada marketlerin raflarında ayrıcalıklı bir konuma gelmiştir. Zeytinyağına talebin artmasının temel nedenleri arasında, tüketimi halinde insan sağlığına faydaları ile ilişkilidir. Sızma zeytinyağları son zamanlarda dikkatleri önemli ölçüde üzerine çeken, potansiyel kanser önleyici madde olarak bilinen klorofil gibi değerli bazı kimyasallar içerir. Kanseri önleyebilen klorofil türevlerinin biyolojik aktiviteleri antioksidan ve antimutajenik aktivitelerini içermektedir. Klorofil aynı zamanda, doğal yeşil 3 olarak bilinen gıda boyar madde olarak kullanılır ve E numarası E141'dir. Gıda işleme ve depolama sırasında oluşan klorofil kayıplarını azaltmak için klorofilin kimyasal ve fiziksel özelliklerinin bilinmesi gereklidir. Bu derleme çalışmasında, klorofilin sağlık faydaları ile yapısal özellikleri ele alınmış ve sızma zeytinyağında varlığı derlenmiştir.
... It is found in brown algae and diatoms. [6,8,11] 4) Chlorophyll d, which has a bright forest green colour. It is found in red algae. ...
... It is found in red algae. [6,8,11] 5) Chlorophyll e, which is a rare type of chlorophyll. It is found in some genera of yellow green algae like Vaucheria hamata and Tribonema bombycinum. ...
... [6,15,16] In another words, chlorophyll a is the only form of chlorophylls that have the ability to convert the light energy into chemical energy that is used to build up carbohydrate molecules through photosynthesis. [6,11] On the other hand, chlorophyll b is considered an accessory pigment found only in the light harvesting complexes of both photosystems. [6,15,17] This pigment absorbs light and transfers excitation energy to chlorophyll a of the reaction centre where photochemical reaction takes place. ...
Plant pigments exist in varied forms, some with highly complex chemical structures. Chlorophylls represent the most important natural plant pigments. They are the green pigments that contribute in photosynthesis, and they are found in all the organisms preforming this process. Chlorophylls are complex liposoluble organic compounds, consisting of a porphyrin ring (tetrapyrroles macrocycle) with a central magnesium atom, a cyclopentanone ring and a side phytol chain. Two forms of chlorophylls (chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b) are embedded within the thylakoid membranes of higher plants‟ chloroplasts. Chlorophylls have various semi-synthetic derivatives, and chlorophyllins are the most studied among them. The synthesis of different chlorophyllins occurs by removing the phytol chain to increase the solubility in water, and replacing the central magnesium by a divalent cation such as copper, iron or zinc, which is important to retain the green colour of the pigments. Decades ago, human have taken chlorophylls to treat many medical conditions. In this review, we will summarize the potential health benefits and side effects for chlorophylls and their derivatives.
... Те представляват полицикличен ароматен въглеводород, а структурата им наподобява тази на хем (небелтъчната съставна част на хемоглобина), но съдържат магнезий вместо желязо. Познати са 12 типа хлорофили, от които най-добре изучени са хлорофил а и b (Lowe, 1937;Dougherty et al., 1966;Blankenship, 2008;Inanc, 2011) Хлорофил а е зеленикаво-жълт в разтвор, а хлорофил b е синьо-зелен. Установено е, че в листа хлорофил а е с по-високо съдържание от хлорофил b, като съотношенито им варира от 2-3:0.7-1 ...
... Установено е, че в листа хлорофил а е с по-високо съдържание от хлорофил b, като съотношенито им варира от 2-3:0.7-1 (Inanc, A., 2011;Mitova and Marinova, 2012). ...
Under controlled conditions, a greenhouse pot experiment was carried out with lettuce and granulated compost Uni Granules-Parvomay on alluvial-meadow soil (Fluvisol). The influence of increasing compost rate on chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, chlorophyll a+b, carotenoids, total pigments content and nitrogen in lettuce was studied. The highest content of photosynthetic pigments was measured at plants that received 5% imported compost, however the compost norm did not have a statistically significant effect The increase in percentage of applied Uni Granules has been shown to lead to a higher content of total nitrogen in the soil (R²=0.988), but no increase in nitrogen uptake and accumulation in lettuce leaves has been observed. There is a significant correlation between the nitrogen and chlorophyll content in lettuce (R²=0.965).
... 6,13 ± 0,35b 6,13 ± 0,35b 3,08 ± 0,14b 3,08 ± 0,14a 9,21 ± 0,24b 9,21 ± 0,14b 200 8,15 ± 0,30a 6,51 ± 0,25a 2,24 ± 0,12c 2,99 ± 0,10b 10,39 ± 0,21a 9,50 ± 0,17a 500 5,90 ± 0,21c 5,01 ± 0,09c 3,13 ± 0,12b 2,13 ± 0,05c 9,03 ± 0,16b 7,14 ± 0,07d 750 5,47 ± 0,17d 4,72 ± 0,17d 3,34 ± 0,07a 3,04 ± 0,07a 8,81 ± 0,12c 7,76 ± 0,12c Note: Means denoted by different letters within the same column indicate significant differences according to Duncan's test (p < 0.05). However, the presence of AKG led to a decrease in chlorophyll levels throughout the soaking period [47]. Similar results have been reported in other studies, where engineered nanomaterials such as CuO, Cu, MoO 3 , and CeO 2 nanoparticles negatively impacted photosynthesis by reducing chlorophyll and carotenoid contents in rice [48], soybean [49], corn [50], and tomato [51], or by interfering with photosynthesis-related genes [52]. ...
Nickel (Ni) toxicity significantly impairs plant growth, photosynthesis, and metabolism by inducing oxidative stress. This study evaluates the potential of exogenous Alpha-Ketoglutarate (AKG) in mitigating Ni-induced stress in Peganum harmala L. Seedlings were exposed to 0, 200, 500, and 750 μM NiCl2, with or without AKG supplementation. Under 750 μM Ni stress, dry weight (DW) decreased by 33.7%, tissue water content (TWC) by 39.9%, and chlorophyll a and total chlorophyll levels were reduced by 17% and 15%, respectively. Ni exposure also significantly increased secondary metabolite production, with leaf anthocyanin content rising by 131%, and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities increasing by 228% and 53%, respectively, in roots at 500 μM Ni. AKG treatment alleviated Ni toxicity by enhancing TWC by 39% and promoting root and shoot growth. Additionally, AKG treatment boosted the synthesis of phenolic compounds and flavonoids, contributing to improved tolerance against Ni stress. These findings demonstrate the potential of AKG in enhancing Ni tolerance in P. harmala, suggesting its promising role in bioremediation of metal-contaminated soils. This is the first study to report the beneficial effects of exogenous AKG in alleviating nickel toxicity in P. harmala L., offering a new approach for improving plant resilience to heavy metal stress.
... Besides, chlorophyll is known to play a remarkable role in promoting human health owing to its antioxidant and anti-mutagenic properties (Ferruzzi et al. 2002). Moreover, photosynthetic pigments are also considered to have preventive and therapeutic attributes, as they have been reported to stimulate the immune system, help in liver detoxification, and regulate blood pressure, thereby refining liver and heart functions (Chernomorsky & Segelman 1988;Yun et al. 1995;İnanç 2011). ...
Microgreens are tiny plants with a pair of cotyledon leaves, a short stem, and roots. These are considered as sustainable superfoods that are easy to grow and rich in bioactive compounds. Among functional foods, microgreens are particularly noteworthy because they have enticing health-promoting properties due to their rich biochemical profiles which contribute to antioxidant activities. In this study, three varieties of microgreens, Beta vulgaris , Raphanus sativus and Brassica juncea , were studied to estimate phytochemicals such as total chlorophyll, carotenoids, flavonoids, and phenols. Additionally, the antioxidant potentials of methanolic extracts of these microgreens were determined by various assays such as 2, 2-diphenyl, 1-picrylhydrazyl and H 2 O 2 scavenging assay, total antioxidant capacity and reducing power assay. Moreover, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic fingerprinting was conducted to determine the functional groups associated with bioactive phytochemicals present in all microgreens. Scanning Electron Microscopy and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopic studies were also conducted to explore the morphological and elemental profiling of each microgreen. The results revealed that the studied microgreens have rich phytochemical compositions and great antioxidant potential. Furthermore, the functional groups of bioactive compounds identified in each were extensively associated with antioxidant activities. Therefore, micro-greens can be recommended as promising superfoods that can be incorporated into the mainstream diet to improve human health.
... For plants containing healthy fruits, during early development stage of fruit (Season 1) ( As Chlorophylls are essential pigments for photosynthesis. In green plants, chlorophyll is the primary pigment used in photosynthetic processes to transport light energy to a chemical acceptor [22]. The average chl-a content for a plant containing healthy fruit during season 2 when fruits were in a ready-to-harvest state were 7.734, 11.291,10.855, ...
The pomegranate, scientifically known as Punica granatum L., is an intriguing fruit due to its nutritional makeup, which includes a high chlorophyll concentration, flavor, and cultural importance. Chlorophyll levels in leaves ensure that the plant can efficiently produce carbohydrates that can be transported to developing fruits. Also, a decrease in chlorophyll levels can directly affect the growth of pomegranate due to a reduced photosynthetic rate. In this research effect of the content of leaf pigments on different varieties (Healthy and Cracked fruits) of pomegranate from the same cultivar, Bhagwa, was determined. Two distinct seasons were selected for sample collection, one with the initial developing stage of fruits and the second where fruits were in the harvest stage. The analysis revealed that leaf pigment levels at the initial development stage were almost identical in healthy and cracked fruit. Still, as the development of fruit starts, and when it reaches the fully developed stage, the pigment levels in all extracting solvents in leaves of the plant-bearing cracked fruit decreased when compared with healthy fruit. So, parameters leading to a decrease in chlorophyll content need to be evaluated, and protection methods should be implemented at appropriate times to reduce cracking and overall growth of pomegranate.
... They are also known to lower the alimentary uptake of some known carcinogenic substances, while also inhibiting the accumulation of calcium oxalate dihydrate (the precursor of kidney stones). Furthermore, clorophylls are among the most important antioxidants found in food, helping prevent oxidative stress-associated diseases, cardiovascular affections and even cancer (Inanç 2011). ...
Five black tea types, Assam, Darjeeling, Earl Grey, English Breakfast and Oolong were tested for their chlorophyll, carotenoid, flavonoid, total phenolic content and essential oil content. English Breakfast had the highest chlorophyll content (834 mg/kg) and Earl Grey had the highest carotenoid content (360 mg/kg). Total phenolic content was the highest in Darjeeling (an average of 40,874 mg/kg), while flavonoids, specifically, reached the highest concentrations in Oolong (498 mg/kg). Total essential oils were maximum in Assam tea blend (4,600 mg/kg). Tea pH values ranged between 6.13-6.66.
... Similar outcomes were documented in the leaf pigments of Mentha arvensis by Thakur [14], in wheat infected by Heterodera avenae by Sharma et al. [15], in bread wheat infected by Heterodera filipjevi by Ahmadi et al. [16] and Ocimum kilimandscharicum by Haseeb et al. [17] when infected with Meloidogyne incognita. The core component of chlorophyll includes a magnesium ion connected to nitrogen in the 5-ring structure (pheoporphyrins) through methine bridges, accompanied by a lengthy phytol chain [18]. Furthermore, the increasing inoculum level of H. avenae led to reduced nutrient uptake in wheat, particularly of nitrogen and magnesium [19,20], resulting in diminished chlorophyll content. ...
This study aimed to examine the effects of various inoculum levels of H. avenae on wheat physiology. The experiments were conducted in the screenhouse at the Department of Nematology, CCSHAU, Hisar, with inoculum levels set at 5, 10, and 15 eggs and juveniles per gram of soil. Observations on physiological parameters were made 30 days post-sowing. It was found that increasing inoculum levels led to significant decreases in total chlorophyll, carotenoid content, chlorophyll fluorescence, photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, and stomatal conductance. The 571 highest inoculum level showed the most pronounced reductions, with respective decreases of 39.71%, 30.55%, 7.90%, 39.75%, 51.58%, and 64.86%. Highest nematode inoculum level also resulted in the highest reduction in gaseous exchange parameters, biomass and leaf pigments concentrations and maximum increment in nematode population density.
... Chlorophyll is a fundamental component of plant energy systems during the process of photosynthesis. Chls are unique pigments with a green color, decomposition of Chl reveals a yellow color, which is due to the predominance of carotenoid pigments [29]. In our results at all sampling times, Chl content was predominant on the carotenoid, which could be due to the specific leaf system of milk thistle that was adapted to drought conditions. ...
... Mycorrhizal fungi contribute to the synthesis and accumulation of carbohydrates, thereby improving the photosynthetic capacity of the host plant (Doidy et al. 2012). Chlorophyll content serves as an indicator of leaf photosynthesis ability and overall plant health (İnanç 2011;Jhanji and Sekhon 2018;Dunn et al. 2018). In our study, inoculated plants exhibited increased total chlorophyll content (both Chl. a and Chl. ...
Medicinal plants are rich sources of pharmaceutically important compounds and have been utilized for the treatment of various diseases since ancient times. Valeriana jatamansi Jones, also known as Indian valerian, holds a special place among temperate Himalayan medicinal plants and is renowned for its therapeutic properties in addressing a variety of ailments. The therapeutic potential of V. jatamansi is attributed to the presence of valuable compounds such as valepotriates, sesquiterpenoids, valeriananoids, jatamanins, lignans, cryptomeridiol, maaliol, xanthorrhizzol, and patchouli alcohol found in its rhizome and roots. This study employed various treatments, including the cultivation of V. jatamansi with the inoculation of Funneliformis mosseae, F. constrictus, and a consortium of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), to investigate their influence on biomass production, chlorophyll content, and the accumulation of bioactive compounds in V. jatamansi. The results revealed significant improvement in these parameters in the inoculated plants. The parameters of plants inoculated with F. mosseae were the highest, followed by those of plants inoculated with F. constrictus and a mixture of AMFs. This study not only underscores the potential of native AMF for promoting the growth of V. jatamansi but also elucidates their role in influencing the synthesis of bioactive compounds. The cultivation of V. jatamansi with native AMF has emerged as a sustainable and eco-friendly approach, providing the dual benefit of enhancing both the medicinal and economic value of this valuable plant. This research contributes valuable insights into the practical application of mycorrhizal associations for the cultivation of medicinal plants, bridging the realms of agriculture and pharmaceuticals.
Graphical Abstract
... 40 Similarly, the acid treatment of chlorophyll b can lead to the removal of magnesium (Mg) from its molecular structure. 66 The binding modes of the dyes to each other were investigated, and it was found that they can exhibit bidentate chelating, bidentate bridging, and monodentate binding modes. Among the numerous modes investigated, the bidentate bridging mode was found to be the most stable compared to the others. ...
Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) have emerged as a promising third-generation photovoltaic technology due to their low-cost fabrication, flexibility, reduced energy payback time, and better performance under diffuse light conditions. Natural pigments offer an environmentally and economically superior alternative to traditional synthetic dyes, which often require a complex synthesis and can be toxic. In this study, we assessed the potential of natural dyes extracted from Syzygium cumini and Malva verticillata at two different pH levels as individual and cosensitizers in DSSCs. The characteristic properties such as absorption, size distribution, and emission of the pigments were studied by using various analytical techniques, including UV–vis spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR), zeta potential measurement, and dynamic light scattering. This technique helped deposit a thin TiO2 layer uniformly on the substrate. Additionally, theoretical calculations using density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT were performed to investigate the electronic and optical properties of dyes. Following validation with experimental UV and FTIR data, the model was employed to predict other cell properties of chlorophyll b, anthocyanidin, and their cocktail and compared with experimental observations. The results indicated that mostly acidified dyes and their combinations exhibited improved light absorption capabilities, enhanced intramolecular charge transfer properties, a reduced energy gap, and increased JSC. Antho/Chl at pH 3 and Chl at pH 3 led to improved photovoltaic performance, as experimentally demonstrated. However, power conversion efficiencies of dyes were theoretically up to 60–63% greater than experimental results. Predictively, antho/Chl pH 3 displayed a higher power conversion efficiency of 4.22%, which is achieved with a VOC and a JSC of over 0.991 eV and 1.536 mA/cm2, respectively.
... Some studies reported that parsley has large amount of chlorophyll that may inhibit the growth of calcium oxalate dehydrate which considered to be a primary phase in calcium oxalate stone formation [19,20]. ...
Parsley is a medicinal plant used widely in urolithiasis. The present study aimed to evaluate the antiurolithiatic effect of parsley and its mechanism. 24 rats divided into four groups: group A (negative control), group B (positive control), group C (cystone® group) and group D (parsley group). Group B were treated with EG and Ammonium chloride (AC). Group C were treated as B plus cystone® and group D was treated as B plus parsley. The period of experiment was 15 days. Urine samples were analysis on days 0 and 15 days. Kidneys of rats from all groups were removed, and histopathologically examined. The kidnies of parsley treated group appeared mostly to be calculi-free (less CaOx) even better than the cystone treated group. CaOx crystals was significantly lower both in histological sections and in urine samples in parsley treated group. We further investigated the mechanism of parsley by adding another 6 rats. The latter treated by parsley only after adaptation period. We found significant increase in urine volume and pH in parsley treated rats compared to negative control. We concluded that parsley acts as antiurolithiatic drug through decreasing urinary calcium excretion, increasing urinary pH, dieresis, decreasing urinary protein excretion and its nephroprtective activity. We recommended to use it in pharmaceutical forms as it is safe and effective as antiurolithiasis remedy.
... Similar results were documented in the leaf pigments of Mentha arvensis by Thakur (2014) [16] and Ocimum kilimandscharicum by Haseeb et al. (1998) [8] when infected with Meloidogyne incognita. The core component of chlorophyll involves a magnesium ion connected to the nitrogen in the 5-ring structure (pheoporphyrins) through methine bridges, accompanied by a lengthy phytol chain (İnanç, 2011) [12] . Additionally, the increasing inoculum level of H. avenae led to reduced nutrient uptake in wheat, particularly in nitrogen and magnesium (Nagesh & Dhawan, 1988) [14] , resulting in diminished chlorophyll content. ...
The present study aimed to examine how different levels of H. avenae inoculation affect the physiology of wheat. The experiments were carried out in the screen house at the Department of Nematology, CCSHAU, Hisar. We investigated the impact of varying inoculum levels, specifically 5, 10, and 15 eggs and juveniles per gram of soil of H. avenae, on the physiological characteristics of wheat by making observations 30 days after sowing. As the inoculum level of H. avenae increased, there was a significant reduction in several key parameters, including total chlorophyll, carotenoid content, chlorophyll fluorescence, photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, and stomatal conductance, at each inoculum level. The most substantial decreases in these parameters were observed at the highest inoculum level, which included reductions of 39.71%, 30.55%, 7.90%, 39.75%, 51.58%, and 64.86%, respectively. Furthermore, at the highest inoculum level, we observed the highest nematode population density and the lowest wheat biomass.
... Chlorophyll has antioxidant properties and on a par with vitamins A, C and E could neutralize the damaging effect of free radicals (Inanc, 2011;Lanfer-Marquez et al., 2005;Queiroz Zepka et al., 2019). There are two main types of chlorophyll: chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, the contents of which in carob samples are shown in Table 3. ...
... Lighting is one of the essential factors, especially for plants grown indoors. The role of the light presence is to support the growth and development of these plants, including the formation of phytochemical compounds (Kopsell and Sams, 2013) such as Chlorophyll (Inanc, 2011), phenolics (Kumar and Goel, 2019), flavonoids (Ghoora et al., 2020), vitamin C (Chambial et al., 2013), and βcarotene (Yadav et al., 2016). ...
Microgreens were tiny vegetables with a higher nutrient content than mature vegetables. Microgreens could be consumed directly as a garnish or salad. It was a high source of antioxidants and suitable for consumption. This review focused on providing a general description of microgreen production techniques, the nutritional content of microgreens, and their role in stimulating the immune system, mainly in preventing COVID-19. Several microgreens from various vegetables show high antioxidants, phytochemicals, and nutrients. This component is suitable for consumption to improve immunity system performance. The micronutrients contribute to immune function. There are four phases of the immune response in the body, namely physical barriers, innate immune response, inflammatory response, and adaptive immune response. When the body detects the presence of a foreign substance, the immune system will immediately respond by activating the immune function that utilizes T and B cells to kill them. Therefore, microgreen is one of the great dietary antioxidants for consumption.
... When not enough insulin is present or when cells cease responding to insulin, the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins is disturbed [4]. Most plants contain chlorophyll, a green pigment for photosynthesis [5]. Chlorophyll is the most abundant natural pigment and has been considered as hypoglycemic agent via mechanism of free radicals' inhibition [6]. ...
Chlorophyll and chlorophyllin (CHL) demonstrated antidiabetic activity by inhibiting gluconeogenesis and increasing glucose uptake in rats’ muscle cells. Liang leaves contain high amounts of chlorophyll and chlorophyllin and may provide an antidiabetic effect. The antidiabetic activity of chlorophyll and CHL contained in Liang leaves, Cu-chlorophyllin (CCL) Liang leaves treated with CuSO4, and untreated crude Liang leaves (CLL) were compared using commercial chlorophyllin (CHL) as a reference. Twelve Wistar male rats were separated into 4 groups (3 rats/group); the first was a normal one (based line group), the second were the diabetic rats treated with CHL, while the third and the fourth were the diabetic rats treated with 0.97 g/kg of CCL and CLL, respectively. Diabetic rats were induced by a high fructose diet, before being taken to administer commercial CHL, CCL, and CLL for 7 days. Nonfasting blood glucose and body weight were checked daily. After euthanasia, organ weight, biochemical, hematological, and histopathological properties were evaluated. CCL treatment showed no antihyperglycemic activity in the rat model but caused some biochemical abnormalities and thrombocytopenia. Commercial CHL gave a higher reduction of nonfasting blood glucose (NFBG) than Liang leaves powder CCL or CLL but also showed some signs of abnormal biochemical parameters. CLL exhibited an antihyperglycemic effect, with higher body weight and increased HDL/LDL ratio and thus could be a promising alternative natural source for diabetes treatment.
... Chlorophyll molecules are tetrapyrrole chelated with magnesium metal, mostly apparent in plants (Schoefs, 2005). Chlorophyll molecules have antioxidant property due to this it is used in cancer therapy and purifying organism and blood ( _ Inanç, 2011). In the food industry, artificial food colors form harmful compounds which are highly toxic to human health. ...
Purpose
This paper aims to critically review the isolation and chemistry of plant pigments.
Design/methodology/approach
A literature survey from 1974 to 2022 was carried out and studied thoroughly. The authors reviewed literature in various areas such as isolation methods and catalytic properties of pigments.
Findings
With vast growing research in the field of catalytic activities of various pigments like chlorophyll, anthocyanin and flavonoids, there is still scope for further research for the pigments such as Lycopene, carotenoids and xanthophyll as there has not been any significant work in this area.
Research limitations/implications
Plant pigments may be used as an ecofriendly catalyst for chemical reactions.
Practical implications
One can get the direction of pigment research.
Social implications
Plant pigments are natural and ecofriendly catalyst which can reduce the pollution.
Originality/value
This is an original work. This paper precisely depicts the advantages as well as disadvantages of the isolation techniques of pigments. This study also presents the chemistry of plant pigments.
Graphical abstract
... The beneficial health effects of carotenoids are not only related to their role as vitamin A precursors, but they may also reduce the risk of developing degenerative chronic diseases such as age-related macular degeneration, type 2 diabetes, obesity, certain types of cancer, and cardiovascular diseases, among others [34]. Chlorophyll and its derivatives can stimulate the immune system, act against sinusitis, fluid accumulation, and skin rashes, eliminate toxins from the body, prevent cancer, normalize blood pressure, and fight bad odors and bad breath [35]. The results summarized in Table 3 indicate that supplementation of white light with red or blue light has negative effects on the photosynthetic pigment content of both cabbage microgreens. ...
Microgreens are environmentally friendly and have health benefits in addition to their basic nutritional contents. The effect of white (W), white–blue (W + B), and white–red (W + R) light on the bioactive compounds, nutrient composition, and antioxidant potential of red and white cabbage microgreens were investigated using light-emitting diodes (LEDs). The results showed that protein, fat, ash, chlorophylls, and carotenoids were the highest in microgreens under W light, while phenolic compounds were highest in microgreens under W + B light. Supplementation with white light, as well as red or blue light, resulted in higher levels of sugars and total fiber in both white and red microgreens. Twenty-six and thirty-three phenolic compounds were identified in white and red cabbage microgreens, respectively. The identified phenolics belonged to three classes, including phenolic acids, flavonols, and anthocyanins. The antioxidant potential of both cabbage microgreens was determined by four methods (ABTS, DPPH, ORAC, and FRAP). It was found that the highest antioxidant potential was observed in microgreens grown under the W + B light combination. On the other hand, the W + R light combination increased the content of β-sitosterol and campesterol. The results may be helpful in the selection of the type of LED lighting that determines the high nutritional and health-promoting potential of white and red cabbage microgreens.
... Chl-a and its metabolites have been shown to build up in several tissues, including the liver and gut [6,7], 1 2, 3 1 which suggests that these organs might be affected by these compounds. Chlorophylls have several positive benefits, and one of these is antioxidant activity, which helps to prevent oxidative DNA damage and lipid peroxidation by decreasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and chelating metal ions [4,[8][9][10]. The chemical nature of porphyrin allows chlorophylls to function as hydrogen donors, stopping the chain process [11]. ...
Introduction
Chlorophylls are natural pigments in our everyday diet, especially with customers' rising preference for more natural and healthful habits. The antioxidant capabilities of both classes of lipophilic substances have been researched since disrupting antioxidant equilibrium appears to be linked to the development of several diseases.
Methods
This research aimed to evaluate the effect of injection with chlorophyll (30 and 60 mg/ml) on enhancing the blood parameters of rats. Twenty-one white male rats were included in this study and divided into three groups: control, 30 mg/ml, and 60 mg/ml.
Results
Treatment with liquid chlorophyll significantly increased white blood cells (WBCs), red blood cells (RBCs), granulocytes, lymphocytes, hemoglobin (Hgb), hematocrit (Hct), mean corpuscular Hgb concentration (MCHC), and platelets. However, it nonsignificantly increased mean corpuscular volume (MCV). These results confirm a great increase in important hematological parameters in response to exogenous injectable chlorophyll with concentrations of 30 and 60 mg/ml and at two different time points, 14 and 28 days after injection. The platelet count was significantly (p<0.001) increased after 30 mg/ml and 60 mg/ml.
Conclusion
These results show a significant increase in important hematological parameters in response to exogenous injectable chlorophyll. The liquid chlorophyll is recommended to increase blood parameters and improve blood characteristics avoiding anemia.
... Fallovo et al. (2009a) demonstrated that calcium plays an important role in lettuce development and that increasing the Ca to N ratio the in plant tissue rises chlorophyll syntheses.. Chlorophyll is a primary metabolite with strong antioxidant properties. It has an energizing effect on the human body and is a potential cancer preventive agent (Inanc 2011, Perez-Galves et al. 2020. Kim et al. (2008) stated that irrigation containing NaCl affected higher carotenoid levels, but phenolic content may be altered by salinity stress in plants. ...
Romaine lettuce (Lactuca sativa var. longifolia) was cultivated in a hydroponic system, in the free-standing
container equipped with two-shelf racks. The luminous intensity of the upper shelves was 200 μmol m 2 s 1,
and that of the bottom was 160 μmol m 2 s 1. The plants were exposed to light for 16 h each day. Seven cultivars
from two groups were cultivated in this study. There were four cultivars from the midi subtype (‘Casual,’
‘Pivotal,’ ‘Delcaso,’ and ‘Airton’) and three from the mini subtype (‘Xiomara,’ ‘Coventry,’ and ‘Elizium’). The
growth period of lettuce in the hydroponic chamber was 30 days. Immediately after harvest, lettuce was evaluated
for plant morphological parameters and for the content of macro- and microelements and metabolites with
health-promoting properties. Additionally, sensory evaluation was performed and leaf color parameters were
measured.
The genotype of romaine lettuce had a major impact on its extrinsic and intrinsic properties. The mini cultivars
produced lower fresh mass but contained higher amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, copper, and boron
than varieties from the midi group. The contents of bioactive compounds were higher for midi romaine lettuce
than for the mini type. In terms of nitrate, there were significant differences, and lower nitrate levels occurred in
the mini group, except in ‘Coventry.’ The results obtained in this study did not allow us to single out any cultivar
from the midi group as the best or the worst in terms of chemical composition. Among the mini cultivars,
‘Elizium’ shown the tendency to accumulate a relatively small amount of nitrate and a relatively large amount of
chlorophyll, carotenoid, polyphenol and flavonoid. ‘Coventry’ with the lowest chlorophyll, carotenoid, and
flavonoid contents was found to be the poorest in bioactive compounds. The sensory evaluation indicated the
good quality of all mini and two midi cultivars, while ‘Delcaso’ (midi cultivar) received the worst marks, because
of poor smell and crispness and a bitter aftertaste. The higher light intensity (200 μmol m 2 s 1) used for plant
illumination did not unequivocally increase the content of health-promoting components or improve other
characteristics of romaine lettuce compared to the light 160 μmol m 2 s 1.
... Hơn nữa, sự khuếch tán của các phân tử cũng được tăng cường khi nhiệt độ tăng vì hệ số khuếch tán tỷ lệ thuận với nhiệt độ (Geankoplis, 2003). Tuy nhiên khi nhiệt độ tăng đến 90℃, chất diệp lục bị chuyển hóa thành pheophytin có màu vàng olive, là nguyên nhân gây suy giảm lượng chlorophyll trong dịch trích (Levent, 2011). ...
Nghiên cứu này khảo sát các yếu tố ảnh hưởng đến quá trình trích ly chlorophyll và chất chống oxy hóa từ cây lá dứa (Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb) cũng như quá trình vi bao kết hợp sấy bọt nhằm ổn định hoạt tính sinh học có trong dịch trích. Nghiên cứu gồm (i) ảnh hưởng của nồng độ ethanol (40-100%), nhiệt độ trích (70-90℃), thời gian trích (10-30 phút) và tỷ lệ nguyên liệu và dung môi (NL:DM) (1:5-1:25, w/v) đến hàm lượng chlorophyll và hợp chất chống oxy hóa; và (ii) khảo sát sự ảnh hưởng của tỷ lệ albumin (5-15%) và carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) (0,5-1,5%) đến sự ổn định các hợp chất chống oxy hóa. Kết quả nghiên cứu cho thấy hàm lượng chlorophyll và các hợp chất chống oxy hóa đạt giá trị cao khi trích ly trong ethanol 80%, nhiệt độ trích ly 80℃, thời gian 20 phút với tỷ lệ NL:DM là 1:20 (w/v). Tỷ lệ bổ sung chất mang albumin 10%, CMC 0,5% và nhiệt độ sấy 60-65oC là phù hợp để ổn định các hợp chất sinh học trong sản phẩm cuối.
... verde observada nos frutos imaturos se deve a presença da clorofila. Esse pigmento é o único com coloração verde encontrada em diversas plantas, algas e cianobactérias(INANÇ, 2011). Sua estrutura é composta por átomos de carbono e hidrogênio organizados em uma estrutura tetrapirrólica contendo um íon magnésio na posição central e uma calda fitol. ...
A babosa branca (Cordia superba) é um fruto encontrado no Brasil e possui formato arredondado, e quando o fruto se encontra maduro, apresenta coloração branca, sabor adocicado e aspecto gelatinoso. Este trabalho teve como o objetivo avaliar as alterações de coloração, firmeza e taxa respiratória da babosa branca cultivada em Lavras, Minas Gerais, Brasil, durante a maturação dos frutos verde, intermediário e maduros, a fim de conhecer melhor a mudança destes parâmetros no processo de amadurecimento. Os frutos foram colhidos e separados em três estágios diferentes, de acordo com a cor da superfície. Posteriormente os frutos foram submetidos às análises de cor, firmeza e avaliação da taxa respiratória. Com o avanço dos estágios de maturação, foi possível observar a degradação da clorofila à antoxantina. Também foram observadas a redução da firmeza e a redução da taxa respiratória com o passar do tempo. Assim, observou-se que devido a essas mudanças, os frutos da babosa branca são considerados frutos não-climatéricos.
... In particular, chlorophylls are mainly responsible for the green color of vegetal food material; thus, their preservation is of great importance for the appearance and consumer acceptance [14,22] of vegetable powders. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that a diet rich in plant pigments, such as chlorophylls and carotenoids, plays an important role in human health [23]. Table 1. ...
This research aimed to develop a new time, energy, and cost-saving production process for obtaining dried powder from Capparis spinosa floral buds. Four different trials, including dry salting with 40% NaCl (for 10 days and 40 days) and brine salting with 18% NaCl (at room temperature for 3 days and at 60 °C for 6 h), were carried out, and two different air-drying temperatures (40 and 50 °C) were used. The effects on chemical and sensory characteristics were investigated and compared with traditional undried caper samples. Spectroscopy and chromatographic techniques such as UV–VIS, GC-MS, and FTIR were used for chlorophylls, carotenoids, polyphenols, flavonoids, and volatile aroma compounds’ analyses. Moreover, a sensory descriptive analysis and acceptability were applied to individuate the product most appreciated by the consumers. Among the different trials, brine salting at 60 °C and drying at 50 °C constituted the fastest process that yielded an appreciated powder by consumers; the chemical analyses demonstrated that this process did not lead to the formation of extraneous aroma compounds that could influence the typical sensory properties of capers and maintained high levels of chlorophylls, carotenoids, and polyphenols. Altogether, the results could be of great significance to industrial production and potentiate positive impacts on the economy of production areas.
... They play the role of a filter to absorb ultraviolet radiation [144]. The chlorophylls represent not only the most abundant natural pigment molecules intervening in photosynthesis, but they have numerous therapeutic properties on inflammation, oxidation, wound healing and cancer prevention [145]. Moreover, these molecules have also been used as colouring agents and anti-ageing components in cosmetic products where they are added to creams and soaps [146]. ...
Pistacia atlantica Desf. (Atlas pistachio) is one of the most widely distributed wild species of the genus. It is an Irano-Touranian species with a large geographic area that extends from the Canary Islands to Pamir Mountains. Since ancient times, atlas pistachio gum-like resin and fruits, very rich in essential oils (EOs) and fixed oils (FOs), respectively, were used in traditional medicine and included in different traditional cosmetics and health and beauty products. Since then, Atlas pistachio fixed oil is incorporated into several soaps, creams and shampoos to benefit from its medicinal properties. Atlas pistachio fixed oils, resin and leaf essential oils are constituted by several bioactive compounds such as monoterpenes with α-pinene and β-pinene in the resin, terpinen-4-ol, elemol, sesquiterpenes with D-germacrene and E-caryophyllene in the leaves and oxygenated mon-oterpenes (bornyl acetate) in the fruits. The unsaturated fatty acids (oleic, linoleic, palmitic and stea-ric acid), sterols (β-sitostero) and tocopherols represented the principal compounds in fatty oil fruits. All these compounds exhibit great therapeutic and cosmetic virtues. Unlike lentisk oil uses in cos-metology, the cosmetic potentials of Atlas pistachio oils remain less valued. In the current review, we seek to highlight the characteristics and properties of Atlas pistachio oils in the prospects of the development of new and different cosmetic formulations as well as an innovative valuation of active ingredients and products inspired by indigenous knowledge and practices.
... Houri et al. [80] also reported that, upon exposure of Cd, Cr, Pb, and Al, photosynthetic activities of Urginea maritima declined. The reduced content of chlorophyll is mainly due to the conversion of chlorophyll a into pheophytin a, which is mediated by replacing magnesium (Mg) by H-atom [81,82] Under stressful conditions, chlorophyll molecules in plants undergo many biochemical changes such as oxidative-reductive processes, phaeophytinization, which is the increased content of pheophytin [83] in the plant body [84]. The cell wall and thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast lose their structure, resulting in the loss of chloroplastic pigments. ...
The presence of toxic heavy metals and dyes in textile wastewater is a serious problem contaminating vegetables by irrigation. This contaminated food upon consumption undermines human health and is lethal for human life. The endophytic bacteria have the ability to degrade textile dyes and remediate heavy metals. The purpose of the present investigation was to evaluate useful concentration levels of textile wastewater (TWW) for irrigation in combination with the endophytic bacterium Enterobacter cloacae ZA14 to remediate heavy metals for improving growth of the tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plant. The tomato seedlings showed inhibited germination (52%); suppressed root length (55%) and shoot length (53%); declined RWC (47%); lowest CSI (34%); reduced MSI (32%); increased accumulation of heavy metals Cr, Pb, and Cd in roots and shoots; with decreased metal tolerance index; and rise in production of total thiols (57%) at use of 100% TWW without bacterial application. On the contrary, the supplementation of endophytic bacterium ZA14 showed improved germination (100%), a decline of 3 and 5% in root and shoot length respectively, increased CSI (13%), decrease in MSI (6%), reduced bioaccumulation of Cr (root 30 and shoot 56%), Pb (root 58 and shoot 65%), and Cd (root 21 and shoot 58%), total thiols (76%), when irrigated with 25% TWW. Hence, it is concluded that the irrigation with 25% TWW, along with the application of Enterobacter cloacae ZA14, may improve the growth of tomato by mitigating the phytotoxicity of dyes and heavy metals from textile wastewater.
... Lycopene inhibits cell growth by changing the mevalonate pathway in Ras gene-activated prostate cancer LBCaP cells by inactivating Ras and lowering intracellular total cholesterol by inhibiting the production of the cholesterol manufacturing enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-methylgutaryl-coenzyme A (Friedman 2013). Chlorophylls inhibit the expression of heme oxygenase mRNA and enzymatic function of heme oxygenase, affecting the redox environment of pancreatic cancer cells, which causes antiproliferative and anticancer functions (Levent 2011;Vaňková et al. 2018). ...
Consumers all across the world are looking for the most delectable and appealing foods, while also demanding products that are safer, more nutritious, and healthier. Substitution of synthetic colorants with natural colorants has piqued consumer and market interest in recent years. Due to increasing demand, extensive research has been conducted to find natural and safe food additives, such as natural pigments, that may have health benefits. Natural colorants are made up of a variety of pigments, many of which have significant biological potential. Because of the promising health advantages, natural colorants are gaining immense interest in the dairy industry. This review goes over the use of various natural colorants in dairy products which can provide desirable color as well as positive health impacts. The purpose of this review is to provide an in-depth look into the field of food (natural or synthetic) colorants applied in dairy products as well as their potential health benefits, safety, general trends, and future prospects in food science and technology. In this paper, we listed a plethora of applications of natural colorants in various milk-based products.
... Based on optimum content of extracted chlorophyll, different concentrations of the samples were prepared and maximum peak wavelength was evaluated. Therefore, for the next phase of assay, the optimized sample and solvent were selected (Levent, 2011). ...
This study aims to the evaluation of stability and antibacterial properties of the extracted chlorophyll from alfalfa. For this purpose, chlorophylls a and b from alfalfa were extracted by enzymatic and ultrasound methods. The results show that the content of chlorophyll a in alfalfa is higher than chlorophyll b and also the enzymatic method demonstrates higher yield in chlorophyll extraction. In the present study, the chlorophyll stability was evaluated in different conditions including temperature (−18, 4 and 25 °C), time (15, 30 and 45 days), pH (4.5 and 5.5) and NaCl concentration (50, 100 and 150mM). Also, antibacterial effects were investigated at different concentrations of chlorophyll (20, 40, 60 and 100μM) against some bactriaes by agar disk diffusion and microdilution (MIC and MBC) methods. The results demonstrate that 50 mM of NaCl, temperature −18 °C, pH = 4.5 and time15 days are associated with the highest chlorophyll a and b contents. Furthermore, the resistance of bacterias in agar disk diffusion and microdilution methods observe Listeria < Staphylococcus < Salmonella < Escherichia < Pseudomonas and Listeria<(Staphylococcus = Escherichia = Salmonella)<Pseudomonas, respectively. Also, there are significant differences between different chlorophyll concentrations against Listeria and Staphylococcus in evaluation of inhibition effects of total extracted chlorophyll (p < 0.05).
... Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in most plants that gets its name from the Greek words chloros (green) and phyllon (leaf) (Inanc, 2011). Both compounds have a tetra-pyrrole ring structure, with the only difference being the nature of the central metal atom-magnesium (Mg) in chlorophyll and iron (Fe) in hemoglobin (Padalia et al., 2010), which is why wheatgrass is referred to as "green blood". ...
p class="MsoNormal"> Wheatgrass is a plethora of essential phytochemicals considered to exhibit numerous benefits on human health. Therefore, the study of phytochemicals with varying stages of growth is essential. This study aims to determine the optimum harvesting period of wheatgrass based on its phytochemical content. During the growth of wheat seed (WK 1204 variety), the phytochemicals such as chlorophyll, total phenol content, flavonoids and tannins were extracted by 80% acetone and 80% methanol from wheatgrass harvested on days 6, 7, 8, 9 12 and 15, respectively. 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity, chlorophyll and flavonoid contents significantly (p<0.05) increased and reached the maximum level on day 9. Total phenol content was found to be increasing significantly (p<0.05), while the tannin content was decreasing considerably (p<0.05) on day 15. The optimum harvesting period was found on day 9. The DPPH radical scavenging activity, chlorophyll and flavonoid content significantly (p<0.05) increas ed and reached the maximum level, i.e., 92.27±1.92%, 6.63±0.053 mg g -1 and 183.64±33.49 mg QE g -1 , respectively, on day 9 of cultivation. The total phenol content was found to be increasing significantly (p<0.05) from 291.67±5.69 mg GAE g -1 on day 6 to 446.67±5.77 mg GAE g -1 on day 15, while the tannin content was declining significantly (p<0.05) from 11.74±0.29 mg GAE g -1 on days 6, 7 and so on to 3.36±0.47 mg GAE g -1 on day 15. Therefore, the optimum harvesting period of wheatgrass was found to be day 9 in terms of phytochemical analysis.</p
... Chlorophylls have been reported to have antioxidant activity, like anthocyanins, helping to protect cells from free radical damage; they also have anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-mutagenic and other properties. Positive effects on wound healing have also been reported, and the vitamins associated with chlorophylls are vitamin A, C and E (Zepka et al., 2019;Levent, 2017). ...
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is the fifth most cultivated plant in the world. One way to classify mango is according to the color of the skin; mangoes are classified as green, yellow and red. Color is a visual attribute that defines consumer preference in some countries. This pigmentation diversity is defined by families of genes that encode for protein production, which lead to biosynthetic pathways responsible for the production of vitamins and vitamin precursors. In Mexico there is a wide range of colors in the native mango germplasm, which could represent an important source of antioxidants, pigments and would bring benefits to the human health of Mexicans, through the consumption of the fresh fruits, or the commercial/industrial exploitationof these. According to the literature, this diversity of colors represents a genetic richness that could be exploited in the genetic breeding programs of the species in the country, to generate new varieties with desirable characteristics in the national and international market. In order to gather and discuss information that contributes to the understanding of the biochemical and genetic processes that determine such pigmentation and the production of vitamins in mango, this review describes the main genes involved and the biosynthetic pathways of the most common pigments, considering the impact on human health when they are consumed, and highlighting the challenges and opportunities that could be derived from the utilization of pigmentsfrom the Mexican germplasm.
... Chlorophylls are unique pigments with green color and are found in diverse plants, algae, and cyanobacteria [12]. Chlorophyll is made up of carbon and nitrogen atoms along with a magnesium ion in central position. ...
In developing countries rapid industrialization, urbanization and vehicular traffic leads to the deterioration of air quality. It is an appropriate time for taking necessary step to check air pollution. Due to increase deforestation and pollution level in developing country, researchers need to find perfect plant species for plantation in polluted area. Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) and Anticipated performance index (API) are the green technologies to assess impact of air pollution on different plant species, to decrease the air pollution by growing high tolerant plants species near industries and road side, to indicate the air pollution by plants with high tolerance index and to develop the green belt. This kind of initiative is very imperative to optimize environmental problem especially in urban and industrial localities with the help of plants, selected on the basis of their APTI and API value.
... Chlorophylls are oil-soluble, amphiphilic pigments with a green color, which are extensively distributed in several plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. 121 Chlorophylls can be found in plants with two different structures: Chlorophyll-a, which has a methyl (−CH 3 ) group at the 7-carbon position, and chlorophyll-b, which has an aldehyde (−CHO) group at the 7-carbon position. 4 Due to this structural difference, chlorophylls have different colors. ...
The current increased industrial food production has led to a significant rise in the amount of food waste generated. These food wastes, especially fruit and vegetable byproducts, are good sources of natural pigments, such as anthocyanins, betalains, carotenoids, and chlorophylls, with both coloring and health-related properties. Therefore, recovery of natural pigments from food wastes is important for both economic and environmental reasons. Conventional methods that are used to extract natural pigments from food wastes are time-consuming, expensive, and unsustainable. In addition, natural pigments are sensitive to high temperatures and prolonged processing times that are applied during conventional treatments. In this sense, the present review provides an elucidation of the latest research on the extraction of pigments from the agri-food industry and how their consumption may improve human health.
... Chlorophylls have positive effects on inflammation and oxidation. Several reports have demonstrated that a diet rich in plant pigments, such as chlorophylls, plays an important role in human health (Inanç, 2011). ...
The cultivation of Capparis spinosa is widespread in the Mediterranean basin. The caper is a perennial and deciduous creeping shrub, of which different aerial parts are edible, such as the flower buds, fruit and caper shoots, however the level of consumption of caper shoots is less widespread. The caper shoots are quite typical of the south-eastern part of Spain and their consumption is usually as a side in salads. The present investigation tries to raise awareness of the nutritional value of this aerial part of the caper plant and promote higher levels of consumption of this specific part, by means of the study of different cultivars located in different geographic zones. According to the present investigation, it has been observed that the tender stems have good biochemical characteristics, providing higher nutritional value than the flower buds and caper fruits. The cultivar ʻORI 1ʼ located in Orihuela (Alicante) has presented the best biochemical characteristics, due to its significantly higher values in polyphenols, flavonoids, flavonols and antioxidant activity. Therefore, it would be worthwhile to encourage the consumption of caper shoots, introducing them as one more ingredient in the Mediterranean diet. The caper is a high value crop, due to its ability to adapt to climate change and drought, in addition to the beneficial properties that the different aerial parts contribute to human health.
... Klorofil merupakan molekul pigmen yang memberikan wana hijau pada tumbuhan, alga dan cyanobacteria (Inanc, 2011).. Klorofil berperan dalam mengubah energi cahaya dari sinar matahari menjadi energi kimiawi melalui penyerapan energi, mentransfer energi tereksitasi ke pusat reaksi (Chen, 2014). Klorofil juga memiliki manfaat dalam bidang kesehatan. ...
Pohon salam (Syzygium polyanthum (Wight) Walp.) merupakan salah satu tumbuhan yang daunnya sering dimanfaatkan oleh masyarakat di berbagai daerah di Indonesia sebagai penyedap rasa dalam masakan dan obat-obatan tradisional. Daun salam umumnya dimanfaatkan dalam kondisi segar. Pemanfaatan daun segar tersebut dilakukan berdasar umur daun, yang berkaitan dengan kandungan bahan aktifnya. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui kandungan pigmen klorofil dan karotenoid daun salam pada umur yang berbeda. Penelitian menggunakan Rancangan Acak Lengkap, sampel daun diambil dari urutan daun yang berbeda berdasarkan letak duduk daun yaitu urut dari daun paling ujung (muda) merupakan daun ke-1, ke-3, ke-5, dan daun ke-7. Ulangan sebanyak 3 kali dari tangkai pohon yang berbeda. Parameter yang diamati adalah kandungan klorofil-a, klorofil-b, klorofil total dan karotenoid yang diukur secara spektrofotometri. Data dianalisis menggunakan ANOVA dilanjutkan dengan DMRT. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa Kandungan pigmen klorofil dan karotenoid meningkat seiring pertambahan umur daun. Kandungan klorofil-a tertinggi pada daun ke-3, sementara klorofil-b,klorofil total dan karotenoid tertinggi pada daun ke-5.
Багато рослин та рослинних продуктів володіють хіміопрофілактичною ефективністю для різних органів, включаючи легені. Волоський горіх (Juglans regia L.) вирощується в південно-східній Європі, південно-західній і центральній Азії і південно-західному Китаї. У волоських горіхах міститься велика кількість антиоксидантів. Основними фенольними речовинами J. regia L. є елагова, кавова, сиринова кислоти і юглон. Експериментальні дослідження екстракту волоського горіху на гризунах in vivo показали наявність антиоксидантних властивостей і значне зниження маркерів окисного стресу.
Chlorophylls are organic pigments that are a part of our daily diet, particularly in light of the increased popularity of more eco-friendly and healthy practices. Since altering oxidative equilibrium seems to be connected to the emergence of numerous illnesses, the antioxidant capacities of both groups of lipophilic compounds have been studied. The objective was to evaluate adding dietary chlorophyll at two concentrations—30 and 60 mg/ml—would improve blood characteristics in rats. Supplemented dietary chlorophyll showed significantly increased WBCs, RBCs, granulocytes, lymphocytes, HGB, HCT MCHC, and Platelets. it nonsignificant effect on RDW, MPV, and Eosinophil. These findings support a significant rise in critical hematological parameters at two separate time intervals, 14 and 28 days following dietary chlorophyll supplementation, at dosages of 30 and 60 mg/ml. After 30 and 60 mg/ml, platelet count, PCT, lymphocytes, and monocytes substantially (p0.001) rose. In light of these findings, critical hematological indicators markedly rise in response to exogenous dietary chlorophyll. To strengthen blood parameters and enhance blood features and prevent anemia, dietary chlorophyll is advised.
The colors that are used in the food are now used in a higher rate for the production of important food
commodities like dairy, bakery, food industries. The Food dyes also plays an important part by providing a
positive impact on the commercialization of food. The dyes are of two types mainly, the natural dyes as well
as synthetic dyes. The natural dyes are naturally isolated processed and used as coloring agents, whereas
the synthetic dyes are chemically synthesized and is used worldwide as the coloring agent, but these agents
could be harmful for the human health. This review paper is mainly concentrated on the various dyes, their
uses and the negative impact on human health and an alternative source for the coloring purpose which
could be used in the modern food industry to expand the commercialization as well as providing safe
consumption to the public.
No previous study in the discipline or topics relating to community-based tourism has shown a management-oriented approach through the lens of a balanced scorecard (BSC). This paper contributes to this gap and considers the question: What is the relevant focus of each perspective in the BSC structure? Overall, the BSC has four perspectives considered, namely the growth-oriented perspective, the internal business process perspective, the customer perspective and the sustainability perspective. Structural equation modeling (SEM) fits provide empirical support for the BSC framework. The simplicity of the BSC structure provides a simple concept in guiding the communities to design and implement a business model, which forms the theory of the business. This study deploys a case research design based on a questionnaire-based survey instrument. The case communities share similar ethnic backgrounds and ecological resources and landscapes. Numerous aspects of implications are also discussed and presented in this article.
This research treats the community as a brand and adapts the stimulus-organism-response (SOR) concept in consumer behavior to suggest how communities can chart their marketing, marketing communications and brand strategies forward. Three layers of the SOR form the basis of the contribution. While the first layer describes how the CBT stimuli lead to the formation of tourist perceived value, which further induces tourists to engage in learning, the second layer involves how the stimuli, in particular the destination personality and tour guide roles, play in establishing the identity-fit linkage between the tourists and the CBT experiences. The third layer involves combining the previous two layers of brand efforts in impacting tourist satisfaction and influencing brand ambassadorship. The data were collected based on a convenience-based sampling method, which involved tourists who participated in the CBT to the communities located in Chiang Rai that offer coffee and tea-based agritourism and CBT experiences.
Hàm lượng nitrate (NO3−) trong thực phẩm, đặc biệt là rau ăn lá là một trong những chỉ tiêu quan trọng để đánh giá chất lượng rau quả hiện nay. Nhiều nghiên cứu đã được thực hiện nhằm kiểm tra dư lượng nitrate nhưng chủ yếu là thu mẫu và phân tích hàm lượng trong rau ở các khu chợ địa phương. Ở Việt Nam, các công bố về mối tương quan giữa hàm lượng nitrogen, tỉ lệ NO3−/+NH4 lên sự tăng trưởng và tích luỹ nitrate còn khá hạn chế và đa phần trên đối tượng được trồng trên đất. Cải bẹ xanh là một loại rau có giá trị cao và được sử dụng phổ biến trên cả nước. Tuy nhiên, ảnh hưởng của nitrogen đến sự tích tụ nitrate trong cải bẹ xanh được trồng bằng phương pháp thuỷ canh vẫn chưa được làm rõ. Bài báo trình bày việc khảo sát cây cải bẹ xanh được nuôi trong môi trường MS với bốn nghiệm thức có tỉ lệ NO3−/+NH4 khác nhau (2/1; 1,5/1; 3/1 và 4/0) trong hệ thống thuỷ canh hồi lưu. Kết quả cho thấy, nhu cầu về nitrogen của cây thay đổi ở mỗi giai đoạn, cây cần tỉ lệ NO3−/+NH4 thấp ở giai đoạn tăng trưởng chậm và tỉ lệ NO3−/+NH4 cao ở giai đoạn tăng trưởng nhanh. Ngoài ra, sự gia tăng hàm lượng nitrate còn giúp gia tăng hàm lượng chlorophyll trong lá. Sự loại +NH4 hoàn toàn trong môi trường kích thích sự tích luỹ nitrate trong cây. Nghiên cứu cho thấy môi trường phù hợp với sự nuôi trồng thủy canh ở cây cải bẹ xanh là môi trường MS có bổ sung gấp đôi hàm lượng KNO3. Trong môi trường này, cây tăng trưởng tốt, hàm lượng chlorophyll trong lá cao và đặc biệt hàm lượng nitrate trong lá (417,59 ± 10,51 mg/kg trọng lượng tươi) nằm trong giới hạn cho phép để sử dụng (< 500 mg/kg rau tươi).
Microbial pigment production has become popular these days due to its numerous application in various fields like pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetic industries. Color of an object attributes its quality that attracts our attention. Increasing awareness of toxicity of synthetic colors has surfaced consumers’ preference for natural food color additives. Microbial pigments are preferred these days owing to their stability, cost-effectiveness, feasibility, availability throughout the year, and sustainability toward environmental aspects. In food industry, food colorants usage from compound is highly regulated. Safety of microbial pigments is determined through their harmless, nonpathogenic, and biodegradable nature. Bacteria are the most explored microorganism due to their adaptable nature. Hence, research on bacterial pigments should be a sustainable approach for cost reduction and increasing applicability for industrial production. Yield and productivity determines the economics and viability of a bioprocess. Organic chemistry and metabolic engineering advancement have enabled microbial mass production. Development of new tools through recombinant DNA technology has improved yield through genetic manipulation of biosynthetic pathway. There is great scope of metabolic engineering of bacteria for industrial application which may solve certain metabolic diseases and environmental problems. These days, nanotechnology has been applied in food industry for pigment formulation to increase stability, shelf life, leading to better delivery systems for food and feed.KeywordsMicrobial pigmentCarotenoidsFood colorCost-effectiveBacteria
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh perlakuan terhadap pembuatan keju susu low fat yang ditambahkan bubuk daun salam dengan persentase yang berbeda terhadap persentase produk, warna, dan total asam laktat. Materi penelitian terdiri dari susu low fat komersial 20 liter, 100 g bubuk daun salam, 1 g bakteri mesofilik, 20 ml rennet cair, 400 g susu skim, 4 g CaCl2, 200 ml aquades, larutan NaOH 1 liter, indikator warna phenolptalein 50 ml. Rancangan penelitian menggunakan Rancangan Acak Lengkap (RAL) dengan 5 perlakuan dan 4 ulangan. Perlakuan meliputi P0 : perlakuan tanpa penambahan bubuk daun salam, P1 : perlakuan penambahan bubuk daun salam 0,25%, P2 : perlakuan penambahan bubuk daun salam 0,50%, P3 : perlakuan penambahan bubuk daun salam 0,75%, P4 : perlakuan penambahan bubuk daun salam 1%. Hasil menunjukan bahwa terdapat pengaruh yang sangat nyata dari penambahan tepung daun salam terhadap nilai L* dan a*, serta whiteness index. Persentase produk, nilai b*, dan total asam laktat tidak dipengaruhi oleh penambahan bubuk daun salam. Nilai total rataan persentase produk 13,57 ± 1,87; warna L* 42,47 ± 8,03; a* 3,78 ± 2,09; b* 22,66 ± 1,48; whiteness index 37,91 ± 7,24; dan total asam laktat 2,75 ± 0,55%. Dapat disimpulkan bahwa penambahan bubuk daun salam dapat mengubah warna keju menjadi lebih gelap dan hijau tua.
ÖZET Tüketicilerin, organik gıdaların daha sağlıklı, besleyici olduğunu düşünmeleri ve beslenme-sağlık ilişkisindeki farkındalığın artmasına bağlı olarak tüm organik gıdalarda olduğu gibi organik fındığa olan talepte son yıllarda artış trendindedir. Ancak organik fındıkların besin kompozisyonuyla ilgili sınırlı bilgiler vardır. Bu çalışmanın amacı organik ve konvansiyonel yöntemlerle yetiştirilen Prime Kalite (Giresun Kalite-Tombul) natürel, kavrulmuş fındık ve zarlarının klorofil a, klorofil b ve toplam klorofil miktarlarını belirlemektir. Çalışma materyali olan organik fındıklar Giresun ili Keşap ilçesindeki (Türkiye) organik tarım sertifikasına sahip üreticilerden, konvansiyonel örnekler ise yakın bahçelerden temin edilmiştir. Naturel fındıkların yanı sıra altı farklı proses koşulunda (130 °C-15 dk., 130 °C-30 dk, 145 °C-15 dk., 145 °C-30 dk., 160 °C-15 dk., 160 °C-30dk.) kavrulmuş fındıklar incelenmiştir. Fındık zarları, endüstride sıklıkla kullanılan proses koşullarında (145 °C 30 dk) elde edilmiştir. Çalışma sonuçlarına göre organik ve konvansiyonel naturel fındıkların klorofil a (9.20, 12.27 mg/kg, organik ve konvansiyonel sırasıyla) klorofil b (15.94, 21.25 mg/kg, organik ve konvansiyonel sırasıyla) ve toplam klorofil miktarları (25.14, 33.52 mg/kg, organik ve konvansiyonel sırasıyla) arasında istatistiksel olarak farklılık görülmemiştir. Benzer şekilde farklı proses koşullarında fındıkların klorofil miktarlarında geniş bir varyasyon gözlenmesine rağmen anlamlı bir farklılık tespit edilmemiştir. Ancak organik fındık zarlarının (169.95 mg/kg) konvansiyonellere (78.79 mg/kg) kıyasla iki kattan fazla toplam klorofile sahip olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca üretim sisteminden bağımsız olarak zarda meyveye göre yaklaşık dört kat fazla klorofil belirlenmiştir. Sonuç olarak üretim yöntemi ve proses koşullarının fındıkların klorofil miktarları üzerine etkisinin olmadığı ve zarın fındık içine göre çok daha zengin klorofil kaynağı olduğu görülmüştür. İşlenmiş organik gıda formülasyonlarına katılacak bileşenlerin de organik olması gerektiği düşünüldüğünde organik fındık zarlarının organik gıda katkı maddesi olarak yüksek kullanım potansiyeli vardır. ABSTRACT As with all organic foods, the demand for organic hazelnuts has been on the rise in recent years due to consumers' thinking that organic foods are healthier and more nutritious and the awareness of the nutrition-health relationship has increased. However, there is limited information about the nutritional composition of organic hazelnuts. The aim of this study is to determine the chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll amounts of Prime Quality (Giresun Quality-Tombul) natural, roasted hazelnuts and their skins grown by organic and conventional methods. Organic hazelnuts, which are the study material, were obtained from producers with organic agriculture certificate in the Keşap district of Giresun province (Turkey), and conventional samples were obtained from nearby gardens. In addition to natural hazelnuts, in six different process conditions (130 °C-15 min., 130 °C-30 min., 145 °C-15 min., 145 °C-30 min., 160 °C-15 min., 160 °C-30 min.) roasted hazelnuts were examined. Hazelnut skins were obtained under the process conditions frequently used in industry (145 °C 30 min). According to the results of the study, there was no statistical difference between the chlorophyll a (9.20, 12.27 mg/kg, organic and conventional, respectively), chlorophyll b (15.94, 21.25 mg/kg, organic and FULL TEXTS BOOK 622 https://www.gthk.org/
The effects of various concentrations of iron, zinc, and manganese on Arthrospira platensis MGH-1 growth and the capability of this cyanobacterium to accumulate these micronutrients were investigated. Maximum growth parameters were exhibited by A. platensis MGH-1 at 0.1 g L⁻¹ iron, 2.0 mg L⁻¹ zinc, and 6.0 mg L⁻¹ manganese. The maximum bioaccumulation value was observed in 0.3 g L⁻¹ iron, 8.0 mg L⁻¹ zinc, and 40 mg L⁻¹ manganese. The selection of the appropriate concentration for each micronutrient to produce A. platensis MGH-1 fortified with iron, zinc, and manganese was performed based on both the parameters of growth and accumulation of these metals. Then, the effects of selected concentrations for each micronutrient were investigated on photosynthetic pigments, protein and sugar contents, antioxidant enzyme activity, phenolic compound, and fatty acid content in A. platensis MGH-1. Maximum soluble sugar, phenolic compounds, and palmitoleic acid content were exhibited at 0.1 g L⁻¹ iron. The highest amount of antioxidant enzyme activity and palmitic acid content was detected at 4.0 mg L⁻¹ zinc-treated A. platensis MGH-1. The chlorophyll-a content increased significantly at 25 mg L⁻¹ of manganese. Arthrospira platensis MGH-1 treated with the micronutrients contained high amounts of γ-linolenic acid (GLA, 18:3n-6) compared to the control. Overall, this study showed that 0.1 g L⁻¹ iron and 25 mg L⁻¹ manganese were appropriate concentrations of micronutrients to enrich A. platensis MGH-1 and it can be suggested for the development of functional foods. Also, A. platensis MGH-1 fortified with 0.1 g L⁻¹ iron has more potential to be used in nutraceutical/ functional food since it is very rich in bioactive compounds.
Japanese spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) is a vegetable commodity with high economic value in Indonesia. Japanese spinach contains a lot of nutrients such as magnesium, iron, folic acid, calcium, potassium, sodium, vitamins A, B, C, and vitamin K, which are very good for health. In reducing the risk of decreased quality of postharvest Japanese spinach, the right ozonization technology and storage temperature can lead to quality maintenance of Japanese spinach. The ozonization treatment and the right storage temperature can maintain the nutritional value and some characteristics of Japanese spinach, such as its physics, chemicals, and sensory characteristics. Ozonization is used for the disinfection of spinach before storage. This study aimed to determine the effect of ozonization immersion time and storage temperature on the physical, chemical, and sensory characteristics of Japanese spinach during storage. The ozonization immersion time was 5, 10, and 15 mins. The storage temperature variations were room temperature (25oC) and cold temperature (10oC). This study was conducted using a Factorial Complete Randomized Design (CRD). The results showed that ozonization and cold temperature treatments could maintain the physical quality (weight loss and texture), chemical quality (water content and total phenolic), and sensory quality (appearance and hardness) of Japanese spinach during storage. A total of 5 min of ozonization immersion time and cold temperature storage is the most effective treatment of its water content, total phenolic, weight loss, texture, appearance, and hardness.
Cassia alata L. (called Gelinggang) was a type of herbal plant used as a skin and diarrhea medicine. However, there has been no further research related to gelinggang microgreens. Therefore, this study utilizes gelinggang as a microgreen. This study aimed to determine the growth media’s effect on chlorophyll and ascorbic acid in gelinggang microgreens. In this study, gelinggang seed was grown in organic soil and rockwool for about 14 days at room temperature (27±1°C). The chlorophyll of acetone extract and ascorbic acid of sodium oxalate extract of this microgreen were determined using UV-Vis spectrophotometric methods. There was a difference between organic soil and rockwool as growing media on the vitamin C and chlorophyll gelinggang microgreen. The study showed that microgreens on organic soil had the highest chlorophyll content, while microgreens on rockwool had the highest vitamin C content. Thus gelinggang microgreens high in phytochemicals compounds could be used as health-promoting food ingredients.
One of the most important indicators of quality of vegetable oils is colour, which can be detected with colorimetric measurements. The determination of colour is traditionally done using colorimeters, spectrometers, tintometers, and other analytical equipment. As an alternative to replace the classical analytical methods, smartphone-based colorimetry using digital image analysis can be used. For colorimetric detection of colour in vegetable oils, a Huawei P30 lite smartphone and android application “Colour Picker” with an image matching algorithm RGB model was used. The image of sample and standard solutions was captured in a polyvinyl chloride box with light-emitting diode (LED) lamps. The aim of the study was to detect the colour of vegetable oils with smartphone-based image analysis. The detected colour of eleven vegetable oils (sea buckthorn, sunflower, rice, macadamia nut, hemp, corn, grape, linseed, rapeseed, olive, and milk thistle oils) was compared with standard solutions of iodine with a concentration range from 0 to 100 mg·100 ml ⁻¹ . The results show that smartphone-based colorimetry can be used for detection of the colour of vegetable oils and it is possible to compare the colour with standard solutions of iodine. The colour of vegetable oils was expressed as the colour number obtained from an iodine standard solution prepared in deionised water.
Cocoa research is an extensive study, and more understandings regarding cocoa and its derivative products’ taste have been reported in the last 20 years. The focus of taste development in cocoa starts from the plant cultivars, farming, post-harvesting, fermentation, drying, roasting, blending, alkalization, and conching. The processes transform mucilaginous cocoa beans rich in sugar, fat, alkaloids, polyphenols, and minerals into a popular taste of chocolate. This article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the origins, post-harvest processing, quality control, and flavor development of cocoa beans. Major cocoa flavor markers are theobromine, caffeine, catechin, epicatechin, and proanthocyanidins. However, cocoa flavor notes are built upon intricate combinations of amino acids, alcohols, phenols, volatile acids, esters, aldehydes, ketones, lactones, terpenoids, minerals, glycated and polymeric substances.KeywordsCocoa flavor markersFlavor developmentPost-harvest processingQuality control
The chocolate industry and cocoa products undergo intense competition and evolution, which demands new food products. The growing demand for functional food from sustainable plant-based product motivates food scientists to develop new types of chocolate products containing the vegetal extract. Incorporation of vegetal extract in the chocolate formulation is intentionally aimed to improve the health-promoting properties of the chocolate, such as phenolic content and antioxidant activity. Herbs and spices are some other ingredients with potential use in the chocolate formula. This chapter presents the various bioactive compounds in cocoa, the impact of chocolate processing on the bioactive compounds of cocoa, enhancing the bioactive components of chocolate by incorporating different vegetal extracts, and the consumer perception of chocolate and chocolate with vegetal extracts. In the end, the outlook for potential further development of chocolate products is presented.KeywordsChocolateHerbsSpicesExtractAntioxidant
Background
Fruits are vital food resources as they are loaded with bioactive compounds varying with different stages of ripening. As the fruit ripens, a dynamic color change is observed from green to yellow to red due to the biosynthesis of pigments like chlorophyll, carotenoids, and anthocyanins. Apart from making the fruit attractive and being a visual indicator of the ripening status, pigments add value to a ripened fruit by making them a source of nutraceuticals and industrial products. As the fruit matures, it undergoes biochemical changes which alter the pigment composition of fruits.
Results
The synthesis, degradation and retention pathways of fruit pigments are mediated by hormonal, genetic, and environmental factors. Manipulation of the underlying regulatory mechanisms during fruit ripening suggests ways to enhance the desired pigments in fruits by biotechnological interventions. Here we report, in-depth insight into the dynamics of a pigment change in ripening and the regulatory mechanisms in action.
Conclusions
This review emphasizes the role of pigments as an asset to a ripened fruit as they augment the nutritive value, antioxidant levels and the net carbon gain of fruits; pigments are a source for fruit biofortification have tremendous industrial value along with being a tool to predict the harvest. This report will be of great utility to the harvesters, traders, consumers, and natural product divisions to extract the leading nutraceutical and industrial potential of preferred pigments biosynthesized at different fruit ripening stages.
The inhibitory effect of water-soluble extracts of garlic bulbs, green garlic, green onions, hot peppers, ginger, Chinese parsley, and basil on the growth of Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus was examined. Garlic bulbs, green garlic, and green onions showed an inhibitory effect against these two fungi. The influence of heat, acid, and salt upon the inhibitory effect of these three herbs was further studied. Increasing the temperature from 60 to 100 degrees C resulted in a significant (P < 0.05) decrease in the inhibitory effect of garlic bulbs against the fungi tested. Green garlic and green onion lost their antifungal activity against A. niger after being treated at 80 and 60 degrees, respectively. For A. flavus, the inhibitory effect of green garlic declined significantly (P < 0.05) with an increase in temperature. However, the antifungal activity of green onions against A. flavus was heat stable. For both fungi tested in this study, the antifungal activity of these spice plants was not affected by acid treatments at pH values 2, 4, or 6, or salt by treatments at concentrations of 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4 M (P > 0.05).
Botany Illustrated, Second Edition
This easy-to-use book helps you acquire a wealth of fascinating information about plants. There are 130 pages with text, each facing 130 pages of beautiful illustrations. Each page is a separate subject. Included is a coloring guide for the realistic illustrations. The illustration pages are composed of scientifically accurate line drawings with the true sizes of the plants indicated. Using colored pencils and the authors’ instructions, you can color the various plant structures to stand out in vivid clarity. Your knowledge of plants increases rapidly as you color the illustrations.
There is a balanced selection of subjects that deal with all kinds of plants. However, the emphasis is on flowering plants, which dominate the earth. Drawings show common houseplants, vegetables, fruits, and landscape plants. They also show common weeds, wild flowers, desert plants, water plants, and crop plants.
Botany Illustrated has three sections. An Introduction to Plants gives you facts on everything from cells to seeds. The Major Groups section is from fungi to algae, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants. In Flowering Plant Families are magnolias to asters, and water-plantains to orchids, with the families of major interest included. You will find plants used for food, ornamentals, lumber, medicines, herbs, dyes, and fertilizers, whether wild or poisonous, or of special importance to our Earth’s ecosystem.
Topics that will be of interest to you include:
• Why leaves ‘turn’ color in autumn
• How certain plants devour insects
• How a flower develops into a fruit with seeds
• Why some plants only flower at certain times of the year
• How water, nutrients, and sugars move within a plant, including tall trees
• How flowers are pollinated
• The ‘inside’ story of how plants manufacture their own food
• How plants are named and classified
• How vines ‘climb’
• Why ‘pinching’ makes plants ‘bushy’
• How plants reproduce sexually
• Why shoots grow towards light
• How specific leaf colors can indicate specific mineral deficiencies
Botany Illustrated is especially easy to use because of its great flexibility. You can read the text and look at the drawings, read the text and color the drawings, or just enjoy coloring the drawings. No matter where your interests lead you, you will quickly find your knowledge of plants growing! Thus, this beautiful book will be of great value to students, scientists, artists, crafters, naturalists, home gardeners, teachers, and all plant lovers.
The progress in photosynthesis research has been transduction and expression of photosynthetic genes quite dramatic during the last two decades. The which occur both in the nuclear/cytosol compartment Nobel prizes awarded to Peter Mitchel (1978), to and in the chloroplast. Several chapters are devoted Johannes Deisenhofer, Hartmut Michel and Robert to the transcription machinery and the two plastid Huber (1988), to Rudolf Marcus (1992) and to Paul RNA-polymerase complexes, to the regulation of Boyer and John Walker (1997) have recognized— photosynthesis genes by redox signaling both in directly or indirectly—the structural or mechanistic chloroplasts and in the prokaryotic systems, as well discoveries related to the photosynthetic energy as to the sugar sensing mechanisms. Chapters also conversion. Actually, photosynthesis may be the first cover important regulatory aspects imposed by po- biological process described, not only in molecular transcriptional modifications and degradation of terms, but even in atomic terms. mRNA molecules, and the translational regulation Much of the excitement around photosynthesis is mechanisms operating in chloroplasts. based upon the connection between light and life. Part III—Biogenesis, turnover and senescence— is closely connected to the question of regulation. Light is an elusive ‘substrate’ that cannot be handled The chapters included emphasize how the c- in the same way as conventional chemical substrates plicated membrane structures, composed of both in biological metabolic reactions.
Two antioxidative components in commercial preparations of sodium copper chlorophyllin were isolated as their methyl esters. Through the identification of the methyl esters by comparison with authentic samples and the saponification of the methyl esters, disodium copper isochlorin-e4 and trisodium copper chlorin-e6 were demostrated to be included in sodium copper chlorophyllin as constituents. The antioxidative activities of both sodium copper chlorins on Fe2+ and ascorbic acid-induced lipid peroxidation in rat liver homogenates were about 8-fold greater than that of sodium copper chlorophyllin. The two components were concluded to play a principal role in the antioxidative action of sodium copper chlorophyllin.
The effect of chlorophyll (Chi) and pheophytin (Phy) on the photooxidation of triglycerides was examined. Prooxidant behavior similar to that noted in previously reported experiments using methyl linoleate as a substrate was observed. The prooxidant activity of Phy was found to be higher than that of Chi. Moreover, Chi b accelerated photooxidation to a greater degree than did Chi a, and Phy b was more active than Phy a. From the compositional variation of Chi and Phy during photooxidation, it was found that Phy was stable during oxidation of oils. These facts suggest that the Phy content must be noted when considering the oxidative stability of edible oils.
A new pheophorbide a related compound named as chlorophyllone a (1), C33H32N4O3, was isolated as an antioxidative compound from the extract of the short-necked clam, . It suggests a new degradative pathway of chlorophylls.
Chlorophylls are the most abundant plant pigments in nature. Recent studies have shown that chlorophyll derivatives can exhibit health-promoting activities, apart from their use as food and pharmaceutical colorants. Nevertheless, information regarding their absorption is almost inexistent. In the present model study with dogs the apparent absorption was calculated, based on chlorophyll content in food, minus the excreted chlorophyll, and the eventual appearance of any chlorophyll derivative in the bloodstream was investigated. Spinach was added to a commercial dog food and animals in the experimental group were held on this diet for 10 days. Chlorophylls a and b were transformed into their respective pheophytins during the G.I. passage. Beyond pheophytinization no other important degradation occurred. The apparent absorption of the chlorophyll derivatives ranged from 2.5 to 4.0%, with an average of 3.4%. In a second experiment, where dogs consumed a diet containing 10% dried spinach, no chlorophyll derivatives could be found in the peripheral blood until 150 min after consumption, which seems to evidence either their low absorption or their quick metabolization. Consequently, a low systemic exposure to chlorophylls or their derivatives is expected.
This paper presents the first investigation of the chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments composition in sicilian monovarietal virgin olive oils from the three (Cerasuola, Nocellara, Biancolilla) main olive varieties cultivated in Sicily (Italy). In all, 19 compounds were identified and quantified in 24 olive oil samples. The application of reversed-phase liquid chromatography with photodiode array detection using a C-30 column in the simultaneous qualitative–quantitative analysis of virgin olive oils pigments, has been shown. The qualitative pigment pattern was similar among the varieties investigated, whereas quantitative differences were found among the different cultivars, which can all be considered as having an high pigment content. Pheophytin a, was the major component (19.36–25.04ppm), followed by β-carotene (8.06–16.27ppm). Pheophytin a′ (2.92–4.17ppm), lutein (2.28–4.49ppm) and neoxanthin (1.54–2.11ppm) were also well represented. The presence of carotenoid esters was also detected. The neoxanthin and β-carotene contents were higher compared to reports present in the literature for other olive oil varieties. This may be due to genetic factors and/or geographical differences. The ratio between the two isochromic pigment fractions, namely the chlorophyll and the carotenoid fractions, was around one in all varieties, showing that they were in balance. The lutein/β-carotene ratio was less than one in all cases. These parameters, along with other analytical parameters, could be used as indicators of typicality in olive oils. The presence of a specific pigment profile in olive oils could in fact be used to guarantee the genuineness of the product, since the quality control of food requires a precise knowledge of the pigments composition of the original products.
In an in vitro experiment, aluminosilicates (Atox® and Novasil™ Plus) and a yeast cell wall derivate (Mycosorb®) were used as sequestering agents (SAs) to verify their capacity for binding aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in vitro. SAs were individually mixed at three different ratios with AFB1 (1:5000, 1:50,000 and 1:500,000, w/w) in water (CTR), rumen fluid from a lactating cow with a low rumen pH (LRS) or rumen fluid from a dry cow with a high rumen pH (HRS), and then used in a 3×3×3 factorial arrangement of a completely randomized design. At the 1:500,000 AF:SA ratio Atox® and Novasil™ Plus sequestered over 0.87 and 0.98 of the AFB1 in the CTR and rumen solutions (LRS and HRS), respectively. This efficacy decreased when the amount of clays was reduced, with higher values (P
In vitro antioxidant and antimutagenic activity of dietary chlorophyll derivatives was assessed. Antioxidant activity was determined by the ability of each compound to scavenge the long-lived free radicals 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) (ABTS+). Antimutagenic activity was assayed with a modified microscreen bacterial reverse mutagenicity assay using Salmonella typhimurium TA100 and benzo[a]pyrene as the tester strain and mutagen respectively. Derivatives of chlorophyll a were found to be more effective radical quenchers than those of chlorophyll b. Furthermore, metal-free derivatives such as chlorins, pheophytins, and pyropheophytins exhibited significantly lower antiradical capacity than metallo-derivatives such as Mg-chlorophylls, Zn-pheophytins, Zn-pyropheophytins, Cu-pheophytina, andCu-chlorophyllins. Both metal-free and metallo-chlorophyll derivatives demonstrated similar dose-dependent inhibitory activity against B[a]P induced mutagenesis. These results demonstrate that dietary chlorophyll derivatives prevalent in both fresh and processed foods and dietary supplements have antioxidant and antimutagenic activities.
Fifty‐two samples of virgin olive oil from various regions of Greece were examined for the presence and levels of chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments using normal phase liquid chromatography and spectrometry. Pheophytin α (Pheo α) was the main pigment in all the oils examined (>10 mg kg ⁻¹ in more than 70% of samples). Two pheophytin α derivatives (peaks A and B), eluted close to Pheo α, may potentially be used to examine handling conditions and length of storage of oil until analysis. Analysis of 25 Greek commercial oils obtained from retail stores verified the above observations. Chlorophyll α may be present in a virgin olive oil just after production. Its absence should not be exclusively attributed to cultivar characteristics or extraction conditions, since pheophytinisation occurs rapidly. Lutein content varied between 0.2 and 3.9 mg kg ⁻¹ and β‐carotene content from 0.4 to 5.1 mg kg ⁻¹ . The lutein/β‐carotene ratio was characteristic (<1) for samples from Koroneiki, the major Greek cultivar for oil production. The total Pheo α (Pheo α + peak A + peak B)/total carotenoid (lutein + β‐carotene) ratio ranged between 2 and 11 owing to prevailing green hues. This ratio may be used as an indicator of oil typicality along with other analytical parameters.
© 2001 Society of Chemical Industry
The growing body of epidemiological and experimental evidence associating diets rich in fruits and vegetables with prevention of chronic diseases such as cancer has stimulated interest in plant food phytochemicals as physiologically active dietary components. Chlorophyll and its various derivatives are believed to be among the family of phytochemical compounds that are potentially responsible for such associations. Dietary chlorophyll is predominantly composed of lipophilic derivatives including chlorophyll a and b (fresh fruits and vegetables), metal-free pheophytins and pyropheophytins (thermally processed fruits and vegetables), as well as Zn-pheophytins and Zn-pyropheophytins (thermally processed green vegetables). Water-soluble derivatives including chlorophyllides, pheophorbides, as well as a commercial-grade derivative known as sodium copper chlorophyllin (SCC) also contribute to the diversity of dietary chlorophyll derivatives. Although the use of chlorophyll derivatives, especially SCC, in traditional medical applications is well documented, it is perhaps the potential of chlorophyll as a cancer preventative agent that has drawn significant attention recently. Biological activities attributed to chlorophyll derivatives consistent with cancer prevention include antioxidant and antimutagenic activity, mutagen trapping, modulation of xenobiotic metabolism, and induction of apoptosis. Although most research has focused on commercial-grade SCC, the extent to which natural chlorophyll derivatives modulate biomarkers of cancer risk is also being explored. Recent research efforts have also included investigation of the impact of digestive factors on chlorophyll structure and bioaccessibility as a means to better understand the extent to which these pigments may be bioavailable in humans and therefore have more systemic impact in the prevention of cancer.
Aims: To develop a natural fungicide against aflatoxigenic fungi, to protect stored rice, using the essential oil of lemongrass.
Methods and Results:Aspergillus flavus Link. was isolated from stored rice and identified as an aflatoxigenic strain. Lemongrass oil was tested against A. flavus and the test oil was fungistatic and fungicidal against the test pathogen at 0·6 and 1·0 mg ml−1, respectively. Aflatoxin production was completely inhibited at 0·1 mg ml−1. The results obtained from the thin layer chromatographic bioassay and gas chromatography indicated citral a and b as the fungicidal constituents in lemongrass oil. During the fumigant toxicity assay of lemongrass oil, the sporulation and the mycelial growth of the test pathogen were inhibited at the concentrations of 2·80 and 3·46 mg ml−1, respectively.
Conclusion: Lemongrass oil could be used to manage aflatoxin formation and fungal growth of A. flavus in stored rice.
Significance and Impact of the Study: Currently, fungicides are not used to control fungal pests or mycotoxin production on stored rice. Rice treated with the essential oil of lemongrass could be used to manage fungal pests as well as the insect pests in stored rice. The essential oil is chemically safe and acceptable to consumers, as synthetic chemical fungicides can cause adverse health effects to consumers.
The effects of chlorophyll and pheophytin on the autoxidation of oils in the dark were investigated by oven tests. The results
indicated that both chlorophyll and pheophytin show antioxidant activity when methyl linoleate is used as substrate. Furthermore,
chlorophyll retarded the oxidative deterioration of triglycerides in rapeseed and soybean oils at 30 C. Among the four chlorophyll
derivatives (chlorophylls a and b and pheophytins a and b), chlorophyll a showed the strongest antioxidant activity. The antioxidant
effects of chlorophyll and pheophytin depended on the storage temperature and the kinds of oil used as substrate.
The possibilities of using pheophorbid (a), chlorin e
6, its copper complex, 6-N-(2-aminoethylamido)chlorin e
6 dimethyl ester, and its complexes with Cu(II), Ni(II), Co(II), and Zn(II) as dyes for cellulose, acetate, and wool fibers were studied.
In previous studies we reported the presence of compounds with spectral characteristics similar to pheophytin α (Pheo α),
which often accompany the Pheo α peak in the chromatographic profile of virgin olive oils (VOO) at 410 nm under normal-phase
HPLC conditions. The occurrence and levels of these compounds were found to be affected by storage conditions of the oil samples.
In the present study we investigated whether the major Pheo a degradation products, identified as pyropheophytin α (coeluting
with the respective epimer) and 132-OH-pheophytin α, could be used as estimates of VOO history. The content of Pheo α and its degradation products was determined
for a great number of authentic olive oil samples of unknown history. Results are discussed in comparison with other quality
indices (e.g., antioxidant content) when necessary. High amounts of the pyro form (20–30% of total pheophytins) were related
to thermal abuse or lengthy storage. The presence of allomers indicated oxygen availability. The levels of these products,
0–20% of the total pheophytin content for 62% of the samples, seemed to be influenced by the presence of pro- and antioxidants.
When low levels of Pheo α are not accompanied by other degradation products, light exposure for a certain period of storage
can be assumed.
The kinetics of crystallization of calcium oxalate mono-, di-, and trihydrates (COM, COD, and COT, respectively) has been studied in calcium oxalate supersaturated solutions, 0.15 M in sodium chloride at 37°C. With COD and COT at relatively high solid/solution ratios, the reaction product for a limited period corresponds to the starting material. The rate of crystallization is proportional to the square of the relative supersaturation for all three hydrate phases with specific rate constants kg (COT) > kg (COM) > kg (COD). At lower solid/solution ratios the crystallization of COD and COT is accompanied by coprecipitation of the thermodynamically more stable COM. The formation of this phase can be suppressed by the addition of polyphosphate which is adsorbed to a greater extent by COM. The differences in adsorption properties of the three hydrates may account for stabilization of COD which has been observed in a number of renal calculi.
The activity of green tea extracts (GTE) on the oxidation of refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) seal blubber oil (SBO) and menhaden oil (MHO) was examined under Schaal oven conditions at 65 °C. Progression of oxidation was monitored using weight gain, peroxide value (PV) and 2-thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) data. GTE exhibited a pro-oxidant effect in both oils examined, perhaps due to the catalytic effect of their chlorophyll constituents. Therefore, in follow-up experiments, a column chromatographic technique was employed to remove chlorophyll from GTE. The resultant dechlorophyllized green tea extract (DGTE) was applied to both SBO and MHO at 100, 200, 500 and 1000 ppm levels. The antioxidant activity of DGTE was compared with the effects of the commonly-used antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) at 200 ppm and α-tocopherol at 500 ppm. DGTE at ≥200 ppm exhibited excellent antioxidant activity in both oils and its efficacy was higher than that of BHA, BHT and α-tocopherol, but less than that of TBHQ.
The current study investigates the association between drought tolerance traits and aflatoxin contamination in peanut grown under long-term drought. Two field experiments were conducted at Khon Kaen University, Thailand using a split–split plot design with three drought stress levels as main plots, 11 genotypes as sub-plots, and two soil inoculations of Aspergillus flavus treatments as sub-sub-plots. The effects of temperature, soil moisture and A. flavus population on kernel colonization and aflatoxin contamination, and drought tolerance traits viz. specific leaf area (SLA) and root length density (RLD) were measured. The results demonstrated that elevated soil temperatures and reduced soil moisture, favored aflatoxin production. Drought in combination with higher levels of A. flavus inoculum load in the soil resulted in an increase in the fungal populations in the soil which in turn resulted in increased kernel colonization and subsequent aflatoxin contamination. A combination of SLA and RLD, and kernel colonization had a significant influence on aflatoxin contamination under drought conditions in both seasons (r = 0.73** and 0.76**). The results revealed that drought tolerance traits (SLA and RLD) could be contributing to resistance to aflatoxin contamination suggesting that a combination of SLA, RLD and kernel colonization could be used as selection criteria in selecting parents for aflatoxin resistance.
This article reports the evolution of major and minor components and oxidation indices of seven samples of virgin olive oil (VOO) which differ in their initial contents of natural antioxidants, during 21 months of storage at room temperature and in darkness. As expected, statistically significant differences in the antioxidant contents were observed, with initial concentrations ranging from 0.33 to 0.55 mmol/kg for α-tocopherol and from 1.08 to 3.88 mmol/kg for total phenols. The quality indices PV, K232 and K270 increased linearly during the storage time studied (21 months), which should make it possible to predict the shelf-life of a VOO sample by extrapolation from the results obtained during a relatively short period of storage (i.e. several weeks). K232 was the first parameter that exceeded the established upper limit for extra VOO and therefore seems to be the most relevant index for analysis and monitoring to determine the commercial category of the olive oil. The reduction of total phenolic compounds ranged from 43% to 73%, and it was remarkable that the decrease was higher in samples whose initial phenol contents were greater. Hydroxytyrosol increased linearly in most samples, whereas its complex forms decreased considerably, with the exception of two in which the hydroxytyrosol content decreased continuously or diminished after an initial increase. This fact was probably due to the low initial concentration of hydroxytyrosol secoiridoid forms: i.e. 0.32 mmol/kg for the sum of 3,4-DHPEA-EDA and 3,4-DHPEA-EA in one of these samples as compared to between 0.65 and 2.06 mmol/kg in the others. Finally, there was a slight and apparently linear fall in the α-tocopherol content of all samples, with a reduction ranging from 0.054 mmol/kg (12%) to 0.127 mmol/kg (23%), although there may be a short lag phase at the beginning of the assay.
Monovarietal virgin olive oils are labelled with the olive varieties giving them their distinctive character. There are numerous studies focussed on the characterisation and quantification of the minor fractions of virgin olive oils that have generated databases on varietal olive oils. However, few studies have focussed on the components of the pigment fraction of virgin olive oils. The aim of this work was to quantify the components of the chlorophyll and carotenoid fractions of the monovarietal virgin olive oils from the Arbequina cultivar, growing in the Spanish area of Catalonia, during two consecutive crop seasons. Additionally the pigment changes occurring during 24 months of oil storage were evaluated. The results of this study showed minor qualitative differences between monovarietal virgin olive oils from two consecutive seasons. The quantitative differences could be attributed to the harvest period in each season rather than to the year's weather conditions. Storage of the monovarietal virgin olive oils probably caused an important loss of the chlorophyll fraction, mainly chlorophyll a, during the first 6 months of storage. On the other hand, the carotenoid fraction was very stable and the retention of provitamin A was close to 80%, even after 24 months of storage.
Copyright © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
This study reflects the effect of different microwave heating times (1, 3, 5, 10 and 15 min) on physical and chemical characteristics of three Portuguese olive oils from three protected designation of origin (PDO), "Azeite de Trás-os-Montes PDO", "Azeites da Beira Interior PDO", and "Azeite de Moura PDO". The parameters evaluated were free acidity, peroxide value, specific extinction coefficients (K232 and K270), color and chlorophylls and carotenoids content. A differential pulse voltammeter was also used to monitor the changes in alpha-tocopherol content. The results showed that microwave heating produce losses in the quality of the different analysed olive oils. The heating time did not promote the occurrence of hydrolysis in the samples since no changes in free acidity values were found. All other parameters were affected by exposure time in a similar way: in the first 3 min no marked changes were observed, after that the quality of the oil decrease significantly. The microwave heating time also affects the total chlorophylls, carotenoids and alpha-tocopherol contents which clearly decreased as long as the exposure time increases. After 15 min of heating the electrochemical signal, due to the alpha-tocopherol, disappear completely in the voltamogram.
The inhibitory effects of four chlorophyll derivatives (chlorophyllide [Chlide] a and b and pheophorbide [Pho] a and b) on aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-DNA adduct formation, and on the modulation of hepatic glutathione S-transferase (GST) were evaluated in murine hepatoma (Hepa-1) cells. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay showed that pretreatment with Chlide or Pho significantly reduced the formation of AFB1-DNA adducts, and that Pho was the most potent inhibitor. However, wash-out prior to adding AFB1 totally eliminated inhibition by Childe and partially eliminated inhibition by Pho, indicating that the inhibitory effect of Chlide, and to some extent Pho, was mediated through direct trapping of AFB1. Furthermore, spectrophotometric analysis showed that Pho treatment could increase GST activity in Hepa-1 cells. These observations indicate that the chlorophyll derivatives studied may attenuate AFB1-induced DNA damage in the Hepa-1 cell by direct trapping of AFB1. Pho provided additional protection not only by direct trapping, but also by increasing GST activity against hepatic AFB1 metabolites.
The kinetics of dissolution and growth of calcium oxalate monohydrate were examined in the presence of small concentrations of pyrophosphate, chlorophyll, and other agents. Data presented show that the retardation in mass transport in both processes is controlled by the nature of the additive, its concentration, and the way the additives are combined in the dissolution medium. Dissolution was studied using a particle counter method, and growth was conducted in a gel system under the slow diffusion of the reacting ions. Results obtained show that chlorophyll is more active than other inhibitors studied and suggest a higher surface adsorption intensity on the primary sources of the crystal surface.
Earlier reports from our laboratories described the inhibitory effect of Mg++ and pyrophosphate on the dissolution and growth of calcium oxalate. In this report, growth of Ca oxalate in presence of very low concentration of chlorophyllin was followed by the Coulter counter and a multichannel analyser. The effect of chlorophyllin concentration on crystal formation was studied at different levels of supersaturation. A concentration of 0.1 microgram/ml produced a remarkable retardation of the induction period and the growth rate. The findings obtained in this study are discussed in the light of the crystal poisoning theory. Comparison was made between chlorophyllin and other growth inhibitors.
Chlorophyllin, the sodium and copper salt of chlorophyll, chlorophyll a, and chlorophyll b were tested for their ability to inhibit the mutagenic activity of the direct-acting mutagen 4-nitro-o-phenylenediamine (NOP) and its plant-activated mutagenic enhancement. All three forms of chlorophyll were antimutagenic against both NOP and its plant-activated product, with chlorophyllin proving most effective. Chlorophyll-containing plant extracts, however, proved very efficient at activating NOP into a mutagen of greater potency. When these extracts were assayed for total chlorophyll content it was found that they contained far less chlorophyll than was required for an antimutagenic effect to occur. Thus, the balance between chemical mutagen activation and/or enhancement by chlorophyll-containing plant extracts and the potential antimutagenicity of these plant extracts is a function of chlorophyll concentration. The data presented here indicate that this balance must be taken into consideration in future studies investigating the efficacy of complex natural plant extracts as antimutagenic substances.
We induced the deposition of calcium oxalate crystals in rat kidney by intraperitoneal administration of 4-hydroxy-L-proline or sodium oxalate and studied the amounts and size distribution characteristics of the deposited crystals. Intravenous administration of sodium copper chlorophyllin inhibited the deposition and growth of calcium oxalate crystals induced by 4-hydroxy-L-proline or sodium oxalate. This finding may be of importance in calcium oxalate urolithiasis.
A method is described for the growth of calcium oxalate dihydrate in normal urine. Soluble chlorophyllin, at a concentration of 20 microgram/ml inhibited the crystallisation and the growth kinetics of the dihydrate crystals. The inhibitory capacity of chlorophyllin was compared with previous results. Data obtained suggest that the food and drug colourant chlorophyllin might be useful in the treatment of calcium oxalate stone disease.
Mechanisms of the antimutagenic action of chlorophyllin (CHL) towards benzo[a]pyrene (BP) were studied in vitro. In the Salmonella assay, CHL inhibited the mutagenic activity of BP in the presence of an S9 activation system and was particularly effective against the direct-acting ultimate carcinogen, benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide (BPDE). Spectral studies indicated that the time-dependent hydrolysis of BPDE to tetrols was augmented in the presence of CHL concentrations on the order of 5 microM. Dose-related inhibition of several cytochrome P450-dependent enzyme activities was observed upon addition of CHL to in vitro incubations. Spectral changes for the interaction between CHL and cytochrome P450 indicated that CHL does not bind to the active site of the enzyme, but exerts its inhibitory effect indirectly. This was achieved by inhibiting NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase (Ki approximately 120 microM with cytochrome c as substrate), and did not involve lowering of the effective substrate concentration by complex formation with the procarcinogen. It is concluded that the in vitro antimutagenic activity of CHL towards BP involves accelerated degradation of the ultimate carcinogen, with inhibition of carcinogen activation occurring only at high CHL concentrations. The latter mechanism is unlikely to occur in vivo following p.o. administration due to the limited uptake of CHL from the gut, but tissue concentrations may be sufficiently high to cause degradation of BPDE.
Reports on an inverse relationship between the consumption of fresh vegetables and human gastrointestinal cancer have been followed by screening for the protective activity of a large number of plant extracts, including leafy vegetables. Chlorophyll is ubiquitous in all green plant parts. Chlorophyllins are derivatives of chlorophyll in which the central magnesium atom is replaced by other metals, such as cobalt, copper or iron. An attempt has been made in this article to review the relative efficacy of chlorophyll and chlorophyllin in modifying the genotoxic effects of various known toxicants.
Chlorophyllin (CHL), a food-grade derivative of the green plant pigment chlorophyll, has recently been shown in this laboratory to be a potent inhibitor in vivo of hepatic aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-DNA adduction and hepatocarcinogenesis (Breinholt et al. (1995) Cancer Res. 55, 57-62). We report here that CHL forms a strong noncovalent complex with AFB1 in vitro (dissociation constant (Kd) by Scatchard analysis = 1.4 (+/- 0.4) microM based on copper chlorin content), which may contribute to its anticarcinogenic activity. Kd values for the related porphyrins chlorine e6, protoporphyrin IX, and zinc protoporphyrin IX were also of the same order of magnitude as that of the commercial CHL. Mole ratio analysis provided evidence that all porphyrins examined associate with AFB1 at an approximate one to one stoichiometric ratio. Energy minimization computer modeling of the complex indicates a favorable association energy of -20 kcal/mol, independent of oxidation state of the 8,9-double bond of AFB1. AFB1 incubated in vitro with liver microsomes in the presence of added CHL showed comparable levels of inhibition in the production of several phase 1 metabolites, including the postulated procarcinogenic metabolite AFB1 8,9-epoxide. Kinetic analysis of microsome-catalyzed AFB1-DNA adduction suggested a CHL inhibition constant near 10 microM chlorin. In vivo, addition of CHL to concentrated AFB1 solutions followed by gavage administration resulted in dose-dependent inhibition of hepatic AFB1-DNA adduction, whereas the same dosages of AFB1 and CHL incorporated into a single bolus of trout diet for gavage provided less protection at all CHL doses.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Chlorophyllin (CHL), a water-soluble derivative of chlorophyll, forms molecular complexes with heterocyclic amine mutagens in vitro. In a previous study [Dashwood and Guo (1993): Environ Mol Mutagen, 22:164-171], we observed an inverse correlation between the binding constants of several mutagen-CHL complexes and the antimutagenic potency of CHL in the Salmonella assay. The present investigation utilized molecular mechanics methods of energy minimization and spectrophotometric titration to examine structural features of chlorophylls, chlorins, and porphyrins that might be important for complex formation with heterocyclic amines. The exocyclic amine group of the mutagen aligned consistently with acid groups in CHL, suggesting that H-bond or electrostatic interactions facilitate complex formation. Replacement of the exocyclic amine with a nitro group abrogated this specific orientation and raised the minimized energies of the complexes. No relationship was found between complex strength and the specific positions of amine or methyl groups on the mutagen. However, the presence of methyl groups increased the minimized energies and lowered the binding constants of the complexes, perhaps due to partial disruption of pi-pi interaction by steric effects. All of the compounds examined, including chlorophyll a, required the presence of pi-pi interactions to form stable complexes with the heterocyclic amines. In general, the present results were in agreement with the inhibitory potency of each compound in the Salmonella assay, and they provide further support for the hypothesis that chlorophylls in the diet might act as interceptor molecules of food-borne carcinogens and mutagens.
The anticarcinogenic activity of chlorophyllin (CHL), a water-soluble derivative of chlorophyll, was first reported in rainbow trout. This review describes certain experiments which set the stage for long-term tumor bioassays, in trout and other species, using CHL and various food-borne carcinogens. Initial work with trout and rat liver enzymes in the Salmonella assay showed that CHL was a potent antimutagen towards heterocyclic amines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, aflatoxins and other classes of mutagen. Antimutagenic activity was further demonstrated using the corresponding direct-acting mutagens in the absence of an exogenous metabolizing system. Mutagen-inhibitor interaction (molecular complex formation) was identified in spectrophotometry studies, suggesting that CHL acts as an 'interceptor molecule'. In vivo, CHL reduced hepatic AFB1-DNA adducts and hepatocarcinogenesis when the inhibitor and carcinogen were co-administered in the diet. Finally, co-injection of inhibitor and AFB1 into trout embryos established that CHL was more effective than chlorophyll a in reducing AFB1-DNA adducts 2 weeks after injection, and liver tumors after 1 year.
Because of the multiplicative interaction between dietary aflatoxins and hepatitis B virus infection in the etiology of liver cancer, efforts to reduce the consequences of either chemical or viral component are likely to have substantial public health benefit. Chlorophyllin (CHL), a water-soluble form of chlorophyll, was recently evaluated as a chemopreventive agent in a population at high risk for exposure to aflatoxin and subsequent development of hepatocellular carcinoma. CHL, which is used extensively as a food colorant and has numerous medicinal applications, is an effective anticarcinogen in experimental models including aflatoxin-induced hepatocarcinogenesis. CHL is thought to form molecular complexes with carcinogens, thereby blocking their bioavailability. In the clinical trial, administration of CHL three times a day led to a 50% reduction in the median level of urinary excretion of aflatoxin-N(7)-guanine compared to placebo. This excreted DNA adduct biomarker is derived from the ultimate carcinogenic metabolite of aflatoxin B(1), aflatoxin-8,9-epoxide, and is associated with increased risk of developing liver cancer in prospective epidemiologic studies. Compliance in the intervention was outstanding and no toxicities were observed. Thus, CHL has been found to be a safe and effective agent suitable for use in individuals unavoidably exposed to aflatoxins.
Exposure to dietary aflatoxins is considered to be an important risk factor for the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in certain regions of the world. Significant advances have recently been made in understanding the clinical toxicology of aflatoxins. These include the development and validation of biomarkers of exposure and genotoxic effect. These biomarkers are currently being utilized to explore the potential that pharmaceutical interventions may have in modifying the toxicokinetics of dietary aflatoxin exposure. Preliminary results of clinical trials with the drug oltipraz suggest that it may modify the genotoxic effects of aflatoxin B1 by inhibiting bioactivation pathways and stimulating detoxification pathways. More recent results of a clinical trial with chlorophyllin suggest that this drug may have a role in preventing dietary exposure to aflatoxin B1 by reducing its oral bioavailability. The preliminary results of these chemoprevention studies may ultimately have implications for cancer prevention in high-risk populations in the future.
To develop a natural fungicide against aflatoxigenic fungi, to protect stored rice, using the essential oil of lemongrass.
Aspergillus flavus Link. was isolated from stored rice and identified as an aflatoxigenic strain. Lemongrass oil was tested against A. flavus and the test oil was fungistatic and fungicidal against the test pathogen at 0.6 and 1.0 mg ml(-1), respectively. Aflatoxin production was completely inhibited at 0.1 mg ml(-1). The results obtained from the thin layer chromatographic bioassay and gas chromatography indicated citral a and b as the fungicidal constituents in lemongrass oil. During the fumigant toxicity assay of lemongrass oil, the sporulation and the mycelial growth of the test pathogen were inhibited at the concentrations of 2.80 and 3.46 mg ml(-1), respectively.
Lemongrass oil could be used to manage aflatoxin formation and fungal growth of A. flavus in stored rice.
Currently, fungicides are not used to control fungal pests or mycotoxin production on stored rice. Rice treated with the essential oil of lemongrass could be used to manage fungal pests as well as the insect pests in stored rice. The essential oil is chemically safe and acceptable to consumers, as synthetic chemical fungicides can cause adverse health effects to consumers.
Chlorophyllin (CHL) is a sodium copper derivative of chlorophyll that is capable of forming strong non-covalent complexes with several known carcinogens. Antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic effects, including reduced DNA adduct and tumor formation have been demonstrated for CHL against aflatoxin B(1) (AFB(1)), dibenzo(a,l)pyrene (DBP) and 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo-[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP). Alterations in uptake and/or metabolism of planar molecules with at least partial ring structure have been proposed as mechanisms of action for CHL chemoprevention. The Caco-2 cell model of intestinal epithelial transport was used to evaluate the absorption of 1 microM DBP, AFB(1) and PhIP across cell monolayers in the presence of 0, 1, 10, and 100 microM CHL. No significant differences were observed in the permeability (P(e)) of DBP and AFB(1) from the basolateral-to-apical (BL --> AP) compared to apical-to-basolateral (AP --> BL) compartments for DBP and AFB(1), however, the P(e) of PhIP from BL --> AP, 1.26 x 10(5) +/- 2.10 x 10(6) cm/s, was significantly higher than AP --> BL, 5.83 x 10(6) +/- 7.56 x 10(7) cm/s, (P<0.001) suggesting an active efflux pathway. Transport of DBP from AP --> BL compartments was significantly reduced at all CHL concentrations (P<0.05). AP --> BL transport of AFB(1) was significantly reduced by the addition of 100 microM CHL (P<0.05) while 1 microM or 10 microM CHL had no effect. Complexation studies revealed a higher binding affinity (K(b)) for DBP to CHL compared to AFB(1) to CHL in transport buffer. AP --> BL transport of PhIP, which has a lower binding affinity for CHL than AFB(1) or DBP, was not significantly altered by the addition of CHL. These data suggest that the transport of AFB(1) and DBP can be inhibited by CHL, which supports a model of direct binding in the intestinal tract of CHL to these carcinogens with resultant reduction of bioavailability as one mechanism of action as a cancer chemopreventive agent.