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Music & Medicine | 2014 | Volume 6 | Issue 2 | Pages 51 – 60 Kreutz | Singing and Social Bonding
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Introduction
Why do people like gathering and singing together in groups?
Some evolutionary theorists suggest that singing may have
evolved as a means to facilitate social bonding [1], group
cohesion [2], or to enhance pro-social, cooperative behaviors
as well as empathy between individuals [3]. One implication
of these theories is that singing should provoke the release of
so-called social hormones such as, for example, oxytocin [4].
The present research was designed to test this assumption in a
naturalistic setting.
Recent studies suggest that singers even without any
formal training may experience flow (a psychological concept
related to perceived happiness) during group singing [5].
Members of amateur choral societies frequently report a range
of psychological, e.g., enhanced feelings of positive affect and
energy, and physical benefits, e.g. improved posture,
breathing, or physiological arousal, in response to singing [6]
(for a recent review see [7]). In fact, psychological benefits of
group singing have been affirmed in a systematic review as
one of the robust findings of a body of research [8], which is
otherwise characterized by lack of theory-building and
frequent methodological flaws [7]. Notably, chronic illness is
not uncommon among amateur choristers [9,10]. According
to qualitative self-reports, singing is often used as a means to
manage the psychological side-effects of a range of
psychosomatic and physical disorders including arthritis, lung
problems, chronic pain, or cancer [11].
Psychoneuroendocrine responses to music have been
studied in various naturalistic settings including music
listening and singing [12,13]. For example, Beck, Cesario,
Yousefi & Enamoto [14] reported differential effects of
rehearsing and singing in public on immune and stress
responses in semi-professional singers. Some participants
showed several-fold increases of salivary Immunoglobulin A
(s-IgA) after two hours of singing. S-IgA is a protein that is
released in the mucous tissues of the upper respiratory tract
and considered the first line of defense against bacterial and
viral infections [15]. By contrast, cortisol, a stress hormone
that is key to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-system
(HPA-axis; [16] was found to increase during public choral
performance [14]. Kreutz, Bongard, Rohrmann, Hodapp, &
Grebe [17] found that increases of S-IgA were present during
singing only, but not during listening to choral music. In the
same study, cortisol concentrations decreased during the latter
condition and remained constant during singing.
Oxytocin (OT) is a hormone that is associated with
procreation in animals [18] as well as with intimate
relationships and buffering stress in humans [19,20].
Accordingly, it is considered as a biological correlate of social
!
PRODUCTION NOTES: Address correspondence to:
Prof. Dr. Gunter Kreutz, Department of Music, Carl von
Ossietzky University Oldenburg, Ammerländer Heerstr. 114-118,
26129 Oldenburg, Germany. Email: gunter.kreutz@uni-
oldenburg.de | COI statement: The author declared that no
financial support was given for the writing of this article. The
author has no conflict of interest to declare.
Copyright © 2014 All rights reserved.
International Association for Music & Medicine (IAMM).
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Full Length Article
Does Singing Facilitate Social Bonding?
Gunter Kreutz1
1Department of Music, Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg, Germany
Abstract
Psychobiological effects of amateur choral singing were studied in a naturalistic controlled within-subjects trial. A mixed group
of novice and experienced singers (N = 21) filled out brief ad hoc questionnaires of psychological wellbeing and gave samples of
saliva for measuring levels of salivary oxytocin, cortisol, and dehydroepiandrosteron (DHEA) at the beginning of 2 rehearsal
sessions and 30 minutes later. The singing condition included warm-up vocal exercises and repertoire pieces. In the chatting
condition, dyads of participants talked to each other about recent positive life experiences. Within-subjects, repeated measures
analysis of variance (ANOVA) on self-reported and physiological measures revealed significant Time X Condition interactions
for psychological wellbeing and oxytocin. Comparisons of mean scores showed patterns of changes favouring singing over
chatting. There were no significant interactions for cortisol, DHEA as well as for the cortisol-DHEA-ratio. These results suggest
that singing enhances individual psychological wellbeing as well as induces a socio-biological bonding response.
Keywords: Amateur singing, Psychological wellbeing, Oxytocin, Cortisol,
Dehydroepiandrosteron
multilingual abstract
| mmd.iammonline.com
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affiliation throughout life [21,22]. Increases of OT were found
in patients after open-heart surgery, when they listened to
soothing music [23]. In one study, which is most similar to the
present endeavor, Grape, Sandgren, Hansson, Ericson, &
Theorell [24] found that OT increased in both amateur and
professional singers after 30 minutes of a singing lesson. In the
same study, the amateur singers only reported increasing joy
and elatedness after singing.
Dehydroepiandrosteron (DHEA) is an androgen
produced by the adrenal cortex affecting various bodily
functions. Recently, DHEA has been implicated as anti-ageing
[25,26]. Because DHEA functions as antagonistic to cortisol,
increase in the cortisol/DHEA ratio is associated with higher
infection risk in older adults [27]. Positive effects of exercise
on immunity using this measure have been observed in older
adults [28]. Music-related studies on DHEA have remained
inconclusive. Whereas DHEA was found unchanged,
decreased cortisol/DHEA ratios have been observed in at least
three studies [29-31].
In sum, these various strands of research converge in
suggesting positive psychological effects of amateur singing on
individual health. Therefore, it was hypothesized that singing
in groups leads to significant increases in individual self-
reported measures of wellbeing and in decreases of negative
affect. Moreover, it was expected that group singing would
induce significant increases of oxytocin. Finally, it was
expected that singing leads to significant decrease of the
cortisol-DHEA ratio, which is considered a biological marker
of psychophysiological wellbeing. Contrary to singing, it is
expected that talking to each other does not evoke similar
psychologically beneficial and/or hormonal effects as does
singing.
Materials and methods
Recruitment of Participants
Participants were recruited by advertisement via television
(Westdeutscher Rundfunk, WDR, Cologne). There were no
limitations as to which individuals might apply for
participation in terms of demographic variables, ethnicity,
health status, or the like. However, individuals with little or no
prior singing experience were particularly encouraged to be
interviewed for the study. The interviews were conducted in
small groups and involved informal questioning of the
prospective choristers about their motivations and prior
singing experiences. In addition, they were asked to reproduce
a musical scale played by the choir master by singing a few
tones, in order to see, if prospective participants would show a
minimum of motivation for singing at all. There were no
rejections on the basis of the interviews, because all applicants
met these requirements. However, the recruitment procedure
ceased with the inclusion of the 40th chorister for logistic
reasons as well as to ensure a sufficient sample for the
prospective research study. Participants attended a series of 10
rehearsals in which a pre-selected repertoire of pieces was
prepared for public performance at the end of the rehearsal
period. Participation was free of charge and subject to varying
numbers of attendees between rehearsals.
Participants
A total of 40 choristers originally took part in the study. 10
individuals dropped out over the rehearsal period, but gave no
reason for leaving the choir, except for a few individuals who
indicated a conflict with other obligations. The 2 experimental
sessions were attended by 24 and 25 individuals, respectively.
Within this cohort 21 participants (16 female, 5 male; age
groups: 18-24: 1; 25-49: 7; 50-65 years: 14) were identical in
both sessions. The arbitrarily selected age groups suggest a
median age of over 50 years in this cohort. 9 participants
reported no previous experience in choral singing at all. The
other 12 participants had been singing at least for one year
with a maximum of 40 years (Median = 5.5 years). None of
the singers were currently enrolled in any other chorus. 12
individuals reported to be taking pharmaceutical medication.
Of these, 9 were suffering from chronic illness, whereas 4
indicated other reasons for their prescriptions. To respect
individual integrity and privacy, participants were not
required to provide more detailed health information. Thus,
to explore the potential influences of these between-subjects
measures, choral experience and taking medication were
considered in the ANOVA model.
Questionnaires
General questionnaires on basic demographics (sex, age
group), music and singing background as well as health status
and medication were administered. They were designed to
inform about previous experiences in instrumental and
singing lessons as well as the years of singing activities,
particularly memberships in choral societies.
To assess psychological changes during the different
conditions, an ad hoc questionnaire of subjective feelings was
developed. It consisted of four target items, two positive: (“I
am feeling well” [“Ich fühle mich wohl.”]; “I am in good
spirits.” [“Ich fühle mich guter Dinge.”]; and two negative: “I
am feeling tired” [“Ich fühle mich müde.”]; “I am feeling
bored.” [“Ich fühle mich gelangweilt.”]. In addition, four filler
items were included, which were not considered in the
analyses. Each item was rated on a 7-point Likert-type rating
scale, with 1=”not at all” [“trifft gar nicht zu”] and 7=”very
much so” [“trifft völlig zu”].
Design and Procedure
2 out of 10 subsequent rehearsal sessions (sessions 7 and 8)
were selected to implement the research protocol. Each
involved one baseline and one follow-up measurement after
30 minutes. At these points of time each participant filled out
the psychological feelings questionnaire and gave saliva. All
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participants provided informed consent individually before
the study began.
In the singing condition (session 7), which was led by the
choir master, every attempt was made to preserve the
naturalistic character of this intervention. Importantly, no
interruptions by the experimenter or changing tasks took
place in the 30-minute period between the baseline and
follow-up measurements. The rehearsal began with
approximately 10 minutes of warm-up exercises that was
followed by rehearsing sections of pre-selected repertoire
pieces. The rehearsed music was chosen by the television
producers as part of a preconceived programme for a public
performance of the choir in a philharmonic concert hall in
Cologne, which took place after the last session of the
rehearsal period had been completed. However, the television
crew documenting the development of the project in other
rehearsal sessions and at the concert was not present during
the data collection sessions. The programme included three
pieces in four-part choral arrangements for soprano, alto,
tenor, and bass. Indeed, the particular piece that was rehearsed
during the remaining approximately 20 minutes after the
warm-up was a four-part version of California Dreamin’, a
well-known pop song composed by John Phillips and first
performed by The Mamas and the Papas in 1965 (see
Appendix). The two pieces that were rehearsed at other
occasions were Irgendwo auf der Welt [Somewhere in this
world], composed by Werner Richard Heymann in 1932, and
Falling Slowly, composed by Glen Hansard and Markéta
Irglová in 2006.
The rehearsal was conducted in sections from individual
as well as combinations of parts of the song such that – with
some intermission in which the choir master gave instructions
on technical and expressive aspects of the performance – all
choristers were engaged in singing for at least 10 minutes
before the second measurement took place.
By contrast, in the chatting condition (session 8), the
participants were instructed to have a chat with their neighbor
sitting next to them about recent positive life events for 10
minutes. To model the exposure to the choir master’s verbal
instructions at the time of the singing rehearsal, a short
paragraph on the origins of singing were read aloud to the
participants, before they swapped seats with their neighbors in
order to form new pairs to continue chatting about recent
positive life events for another period of ten minutes. Then
again, a short paragraph was read aloud about the origins of
singing. The whole procedure was repeated a third time such
that for each ten-minute pairwise chats, novel pairs of chatters
were formed.
Participants were asked to remain seated throughout in
the singing and chatting conditions. The conductor ensured
by appropriate gestures that the loudness level during chatting
should not exceed a certain limit. Participants reported no
complaints or difficulties while chatting to each other.
Hormone collection and analysis
Saliva was collected by Salivetts® (Sarstedt, Germany).
Participants were asked to spit into the tubes until filled with
about 10-15mm of saliva from the bottom. Salivettes were
kept ice-chilled and sent to the lab1 via express mail. Saliva
samples were centrifuged at 4 °C at 1500g for 15 min, and the
liquid samples stored at −20 °C until assayed. The dry samples
were reconstructed in the assay buffer immediately before
analysis. Trained medical personnel conducted all
preparations and processing of the saliva samples in strict
accordance to the instruction manuals of the respective ELISA
kits (see below). In particular, routines to guard against
potential inference effects were installed where appropriate
and multiple measurements were performed and the
concentrations of samples were calculated according to
relevant standard curves.
Determination of Hormone concentrations
Determination of hormones was performed using commercial
ELISA kits (DRG Instruments GmbH, Marburg, Germany).
The use of the specific kits (Oxytocin: EIA-3117; cortisol:
SLV-2930, Dehydroepiandrosterone: SLV-3012) was
consistent with previous research (e.g., [19]). Details
concerning the assay procedures, norms, and quality control
measures are presented in the respective user’s manuals.
Data analysis
The IBM SPSS Statistics® package 20.0 was used for all
descriptive and inferential statistics. A series of 2 x 2 repeated
measures analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were run with
condition (singing/chatting) as the within-subjects and time
(baseline/30 minutes later) as the repeated measure. With a
given minimum sample of n=21 and an expected effect size
f=.4 (“large effect”) the critical F-value required to detect
significant interactions was determined at F(1,20)=3.861.
Results
Table 1 shows the mean scores of the self-reported positive
and negative feelings at the beginning of each session and 30
minutes later. A significant Time X Condition interaction
emerged for positive feelings [F(1,20)=9.655, p<0.01,
η2=.326], and this effect was robust after the inclusion of
either taking medication or choral experience as a between-
subjects factors. Subsequent comparisons of means show that
positive feelings increased significantly after both singing
[t(21)=5.593, p<.01] and chatting [t(20)=2.400, p<.01]. A
significant interaction was also observed for negative feelings
[F(1,20)=4.735, p<.05, η2=.191]. This interaction dropped to
a trend (p<.1) after the inclusion of either taking medication
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1HIB Blutanalyselabor UG, Postfach 24 24, 38014 Braunschweig
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or choral experience as a between-subjects factor. Subsequent
comparisons of means show that negative feelings decreased
significantly after singing [t(21)=3.0448, p<.01], but not after
chatting [t(20)=.336, p=.741].
Table 2 shows the mean scores of the biological markers
at the beginning of each session and 30 minutes later. A
significant Time X Condition interaction emerged for
oxytocin (OT) [F(1,21)=7.988, p<0.05, η2=0.276], and this
interaction was unchanged by the inclusion of taking
medication and choral experience as between-subject factors.
Subsequent comparisons of means show that OT increased
significantly after singing [t(21)=12.300, p<.001], but not after
chatting [t(21)=1.289, p=.21]. The median of oxytocin
concentration increases was 39.46 % (SD=29.13) with the
lowest at 15.97 and highest individual increase at 142.62 %. It
should be noted, however, that high relative increases do not
necessarily reflect high absolute levels of concentrations. In
other words, although no single decrease of OT
concentrations was observed across subjects in the singing
condition, the absolute levels varied considerably from
individual to individual.
A final set of ANOVAs was run for cortisol, DHEA, and
for the cortisol/DHEA ratio. No significant interactions
emerged in any of these analysis. The direction of changes of
mean cortisol/DHEA values, which were of greatest interest in
the present study, was contradictory to the hypothesis being
tested. However, these differences did not even mark a trend.
These findings remained unaffected by logarithmic
transformation of the hormone measures.
Discussion
It was hypothesized that singing in groups leads to significant
increases of behavioral as well as of biological indicators of
psychophysiological wellbeing. In particular, we expected
higher values in these measures after singing as compared to
chatting. These hypotheses were confirmed for self-reported
positive and negative feelings as well as for oxytocin, a
hormone that is associated with stress reduction as well as
social bonding [3,4]. No changes were found with respect to
the cortisol/DHEA ratio. The implications of these findings
will be discussed below.
The finding that psychological measures of wellbeing
increased during singing is in line with previous research
using different measurement instruments such as the Positive
and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; [17]), the Profile of
Mood States (POMS; [34]), or visual analogue scales [24].
Thus the present findings corroborate the view that half an
hour of singing is sufficient to enhance perceived
psychological wellbeing. It is of note that in our study chatting
in dyads also led to relatively smaller amounts but still
significant increases in positive feelings. Chatting, however,
was not associated with reduced negative feelings as
represented in a combined measure of tiredness and boredom,
whereas singing did show such a significant decrease at group
Condition
Singing
Chatting
M
SEM
M
SEM
Positive feelings
Before session
3.705
0.276
3.952
0.241
30 minutes later
5.386
0.267
4.546
0.273
Negative feelings
Before session
2.727
0.252
2.762
0.277
30 minutes later
1.864
0.201
2.796
0.349
Table 1: Positive and negative feelings before and after singing and chatting; M = Mean; SEM = Standard Error of Mean.
Condition
Singing
Chatting
M
SEM
M
SEM
Oxytocin (pg/mL)
Before session
13.044
1.141
14.282
1.404
30 minutes later
18.083
1.316
15.898
1.392
Cortisol (ng/mL)
Before session
2.611
.135
2.233
.134
30 minutes later
2.997
.110
3.017
.308
DHEA (pg/mL)
Before session
217.41
35.86
197.11
27.96
30 minutes later
184.30
41.77
139.07
21.44
Cortisol/DHEA
Before session
28.051
64.114
16.880
13.951
30 minutes later
33.262
27.042
29.350
21.056
Table 2: Oxytocin, cortisol, dehydroepiandrosteron (DHEA) and cortisol/DHEA ratios before and after singing and chatting; M = Mean; SEM
= Standard Error of Mean; ng/mL were converted to pg/mL for cortisol before calculating the cortisol/DHEA ratio.
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level. Note that baseline values in both conditions were
already in a more positive range for positive feelings and in a
more negative range for negative feelings. This means that
participants showed little indication of irritation or stress at
the beginning of each session. In a previous study, in which
singing was compared to listening to choral music, a quite
different pattern of psychological changes was found. In
particular, positive affect was unchanged after listening,
whereas negative affect increased [17]. Therefore, listening to
music may not always be superior to induce positive affect as
compared to other vocal interventions such as chatting about
pleasant life events.
To our knowledge, this is the first study to reveal that
concentrations of salivary oxytocin (OT) increased during
singing but not during chatting in the same group of
individuals. A previous study also has shown increases of OT
after singing [24]. However, that study looked at singers
receiving individual singing lessons and did not include a
control condition. The present findings thus confirm the main
hypothesis that singing induces a sociobiological bonding
response that is similar to those elicited during intimate social
relationships [22]. Interestingly, such social bonding
responses are not evoked by verbal communication, even
when positive topics during conversations are encouraged.
These patterns of findings thus offer support to evolutionary
theories suggesting that singing and music emerged to
enhance social bonding and mutual attachment in larger
groups of individuals. Informal follow-up questioning of the
choristers in this study indicated a high interest in sustaining
the choral activities in the same group. In fact, a previous
survey among 3145 choristers [35] revealed an average
experience of 19.5 years of singing. This means that since the
first commencement in singing activities (mostly during
childhood and adolescence), singing was absent for only 4 to 5
years in the choristers’ lives as adults. In other words, amateur
choristers often ascribe high priority to singing as their main
long-standing leisure activity in adulthood. In light of the
present finding, such strong attachment to group singing may
be explained, at least in part, by sociobiological bonding
responses as observed in the present study.
An important facet of OT responses in social relationship
is so-called affect synchrony. According to one study, the
”temporal coordination between the parent and infant’s
affective behavior is an important component of sensitive
parenting that contributes to infant development” (p. 753)
[38]. In fact, these authors observed that OT accounted for a
significant amount of variance in predicting parental affect
synchrony with their infants. However, affect synchrony also
occurs in intimate relationships among adults with the
implication of reducing attachment anxieties and buffering
stress.
Finally, there was no effect observed with respect to
changes of the cortisol/DHEA ratio. Determination of this
ratio is considered an improvement over measuring these
hormones in isolation. Previous research has shown this ratio
to decrease in response to music, while DHEA was unchanged
(see [36] for a summary). The change of means in the present
study did not point into this direction. Clearly, further
research is needed that should include extensive baseline
measurements and a longer intervention period to uncover
patterns of changes of this ratio in a more systematic fashion.
Limitations
One obvious limitation of the present study arises from the 2
conditions, in which singing in a group was compared to
chatting in dyads only. Although an attempt was made to
model the choirmaster’s instructions in the singing condition
as short oral presentations in the chatting condition, there
cannot be certainty whether the collaborative use of the
singing voice is the only remaining difference between the two
conditions. For example, the song lyrics could have induced
more positive feelings than the verbal exchange of positive life
events.
With respect to the ad hoc measures of positive and
negative feelings in this study, it is of interest that both
quantitative and qualitative responses of different kinds have
produced converging evidence by showing that positive
emotions might increase after singing [6]. For example,
reduction of tiredness after both singing and listening to
music occurred in another study on group singing [34]. The
present findings confirm that singing is effective in inducing
positive changes in these psychological variables.
Although positive feelings were assessed, there were no
direct behavioural measures taken with respect to social
bonding. In fact, it seems feasible to ask about the degree of
enjoyment of participating in the respective activities.
However, an even stronger indicator of attachment obviously
is commitment. A large proportion of members of the chorus
subscribed to continue singing with their choirmaster beyond
the official termination of the choir. This continued interest in
singing with the same group of people suggests that social
bonding was successfully evoked during the sequence of 10
rehearsal sessions.
Another limitation arises from the fact that in the
previous study on oxytocin-increasing effects of singing, OT
was measured in plasma while the present study used saliva
samples instead. However, previous studies suggest significant
correlations between plasma and salivary OT at the level of
r=.46 ([37], p. 673), and r=.41 ([38], p. 756). Since both
measures were also associated with behavioural variables in
each of the cited studies, they appear to reflect relevant
biological activity of this hormone.
Conclusions
The present study shows that group singing may lead to
increases in positive feelings, decreases in negative feelings as
well as to increases in the release of the hormone oxytocin,
which has previously been implicated in intimate social
bonding [32,33,38]. By contrast, the cortisol-DHEA ratio
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remained unaffected. Taken together, these findings support
the theory that singing facilitates social bonding.
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Biographical Statement
Gunter Kreutz, PhD, is professor for systematic musicology at the
Carl von Ossietzky University in Oldenburg, Germany. His research
interests include playing music, singing, dancing and listening to
music in every-day life.
Music & Medicine | 2014 | Volume 6 | Issue 2 | Pages 51 – 60 Kreutz | Singing and Social Bonding
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Appendix
Frauen
All the leaves are brown -
Tenor
3
All the leaves are brown and the sky is grey
Bass
3
All the leaves are brown -
and the sky is grey. I've been for a walk
I've been for a walk
and the sky is grey. I've been for a walk
on a win- ter's day.
on a win- ter's day, I'd been save and
on a win- ter's day.
I'd be safe and warm if I was in L. A.
wa - rm, if I was in L. A.
I'd be safe and warm if I was in L. A.
California Dreamin'
Singgemeinschaft Hard John Phillips/Michelle Phillips
Arr. Axel Girardelli
© Axel Girardelli
Music & Medicine | 2014 | Volume 6 | Issue 2 | Pages 51 – 60 Kreutz | Singing and Social Bonding
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MMD | 2014 | 6 | 2 | Page 58
Ca - li - for nia,- Ca - li - for nia- dream - in
California Dreamin' Seite 2
on such a win- ter's
Ca - li - for nia- dream - - in' -
Ca - li - for nia- dream - in' -
day.
day. Stepped in - to a church
day.
get down on my knees
I passed a long-the way. Oh, I get down on my knees,
get down on my knees
Ipre- tend to pray.
and I pre - tend to pray, you know theprea-cher likes the
Ipre- tend to pray.
Prea - cher likes the cold - knows I'm gon- na stay
cold, he knows I'm gon- na stay,
Prea - cher likes the cold - knows I'm gon- na stay
Music & Medicine | 2014 | Volume 6 | Issue 2 | Pages 51 – 60 Kreutz | Singing and Social Bonding
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MMD | 2014 | 6 | 2 | Page 59
Ca - li - for nia- Ca - li - for nia dream- -
California Dreamin' Seite 3
in' on such a win ter's-
Ca - li - for nia- dream - in' -
Ca - li - for nia- dream - in' -
day. 15
day.
day.
15
All the leaves are brown -
All the leaves are brown, and the sky is grey.
All the leaves are brown -
and the sky is grey - , I've been for a walk
I've been for a walk
and the sky is grey - I've been for a walk
- on a win- ter's day.
on a win-ter's day, If I di dn't-
- on a win- ter's day.
Music & Medicine | 2014 | Volume 6 | Issue 2 | Pages 51 – 60 Kreutz | Singing and Social Bonding
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If I did - n't tell her I
California Dreamin' Seite 4
could leave to - day
tell her I could leave to day.-
If I did - n't tell her I could leave to day-
Ca - li - for nia,- Ca - li for- nia- dream - in',
Ca - li - for nia- dream - in' on such a win - ter's
Ca - li - for nia,- Ca - li for- - nia dream - in',
Ca - li for- nia- dream - in', Ca - li for- nia- dream
day, on such a win ter's- day,
Ca - li for- nia- dream - in', Ca - li for- nia- dream
- in' day.
on such a win - ter's day.
- in' day.
