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40
ATEET; Special Issue, Dec. 2012 ISSN 2249-1252
MOSQUE ARCHITECTURE IN DELHI : CONTINUITY
AND CHANGE IN ITS MORPHOLOGY
Asif Ali
*
ABSTRAC T
This paper presents the summary of a recently
completed dissertation by the author keeping in view the
objectives viz.
1) to study and identify the essential elements of the
mosque, their meanings and their functions,
2) to study the evolution of the mosque architecture in
Delhi from early Islamic period to present time and
3) to identify and establish the continuity and the
change in the morphology of the mosque in Delhi
and the factors which influenced its development
through time.
To answer the research question and to accomplish
the objectives mentioned above, following methodologies
were adopted.
In order to view the continuity and changes in the
mosque architecture in Delhi, it seemed essential to
study their historical enquiry. It was not only the survey
of the historical mosque but the approach was to
understand the future of mosque architecture through
their past. This enquiry allowed us to observe the
evolution of the mosque architecture and the study of its
different elements.
Almost 28 representative mosques were studied,
beginning from the very first mosque built in Delhi up to
the present-day mosques. The mosques were selected on
the basis of their chronology, at least one from each
dynasty of Muslim rule in Delhi or representing a
particular typology. Contemporary mosques were
selected from several clusters of Muslim population in
East, West and South Delhi. The selection criteria of a
contemporary mosque were based on a public survey of
each region. The people were asked to mention the name
* Assistant Professor, Architecture Section, University
Polytechnic, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh
Muslim University, Aligarh, India
ATEET; Special Issue, Dec. 2012 ISSN 2249-1252
41
of the attractive mosque or the name of the most
comfortable mosque they think in the region. The
elements of mosques were studied under the headings
viz. 1) Spatial elements: Ablution area, Courtyard,
Verandah, Prayer Hall, Mihrab and Minber, 2)
Decorative and Symbolic Elements: Domes, Minarets,
Arches, Calligraphy, Geometric and Arabesque Pattern,
3) Structural Elements: Arcuated, Trabeated, Load
Bearing and Framed Structure and 4) Finishing
Materials: Quartz, Red Sandstone, Marble, Lime Surkhi
and Cement Sand Plaster.
Finally, a chart of different elements of mosques in
Delhi was prepared in chronological order so that the
pattern of changes and continuity may be observed and
appreciated in the course of time of study.
INTRODUCTION
With the arrival of Muslims in India, the
amalgamation of regional and immigrated technologies
evolved a newer architectural style. North India, being a
first confronter and centre of Muslim rule, experienced
the major impact of imported technology. The fusion of
two different architectural approaches also affected the
construction of houses of worship for the new religion in
the country. Despite of some unusual structures in the
beginning of their rule, the personal interest of rulers
and their eclectic approach refined the architecture of
the mosques up to the highest levels of aesthetics. With
the declination of Muslim rule in India, the design of the
mosques became an architectural expression of common
people. Most of the mosques during British period were
built by locally influential people in which the late
Mughal style was followed. After independence, two
kinds of developments in this field may well be observed
i.e. mosques were generally constructed by the people
requiring a place of worship in their locality and very few
mosques were designed by formally trained architects or
engineers. It is observed that these contemporary
mosques also express the continuity in their
architecture from past and some changes in their
morphology due to change in technology and scarcity of
land in an urban area like Delhi.
Delhi had been an administrative centre of India
throughout the history with minor shifts at times. The
capital and its surrounding cities, being the first
confronter and epicenter of Muslim rule, experienced the
42
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major impact of political changes which consequently
affected the architecture of the region. Hence, this study
of mosque architecture is confined to the city of Delhi
only.
TRADITIONAL TYPOLOGY OF MOSQUES AROUND THE
WORLD
There are six recognized major traditional typologies
(Holod & Khan, 1997, pp. 12-14) of mosques around the
world such as Arabian, Turkish, Iranian, Indian,
Chinese and South East Asian as described in the
following paragraphs.
1) Arabian Type
The prophet’s (SAW) mosque was constructed with
flat roof of leaves of date trees supported by date palm
trunks. It had a rectangular prayer hall facing towards
Qibla while a covered platform was located near the
entrance on the opposite side, called Suffa. The poor
companions of the prophet (SAW) used to spend their
nights on this platform. The adjacent structures to
prayer hall were the rooms for prophet’s (SAW) wives.
The prayer hall with many palm trunks was similar to
the hypostyle hall. The mosque became a model for the
later period in Arab, Africa and Spain (Fig.1). Most of the
times, the courtyard was the part of the plan of the
mosque. Mihrab and Minaret were not included in the
early mosques.
2) Turkish Type
This type of mosques are mainly characterised by
prominent use of domes and minerats with slender
proportion. These mosques were mostly built during
Otttomon period (Fig.2) . The plan is having usually
courtyard which was an integrated part of the plan. The
prayer hall was covered with hemispherical dome in the
center and half domes on each side.
Fig.1. Arabian Type Hypostyle
Mosque
Fig.2. Turkish Type Mosque
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43
3) Iranian Type
Four massive Iwan gateways around a courtyard is
the main feature of this typology (Fig.3). The prayer hall
is covered with pointed domes. The bulbous domes are
more vertical at the apex as they turn sharply towards
the centre. Pointed arches are used for the openings.
4) Indian Type
The Indian mosques were modeled on the basis of
Iranian four Iwan type with intensive courtyard and
onion shaped domes (Fig.4). The materials like red
sandstone and marble, distinguishes the Indian
mosques to the Iranians.
Fig.3.
Iranian Type Mosque
Fig.4.Indian Type Mosque
5) Chinese Type
The Chinese mosque typology is characterized by
the series of courtyards intertwined with gable roof
timber structures (Fig.5). The precedents for the form of
a Chinese mosque are the house, temples and palaces of
the region.
Fig.5. Chinese Type Mosque Fig.6. South East Asia Type
Mosque
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6) South East Asian Type
The South East Asian type mosque is very similar
to the Chinese one but it has pyramidal two tiered or
three tiered roof (Fig.6). Later, the minarets were added
to the plan of the mosques.
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS OF A MOSQUE
1) Qibla (Kaaba in Makkah)
The Muslim worshippers throughout the world face
towards the kaaba in Makkah while performing their
prayers. Quran says, “We see the turning of thy face (for
guidance to the heavens) now shall We turn thee to a
Qibla that shall please thee. Turn then thy face in the
direction of the sacred Mosque: Wherever ye are, turn
your faces in that direction” (Quran 2:144). Thus, it is
must that all the mosques in the world should be
oriented towards Qibla.
Fig.7. Mihrab and Mimber
2) Mihrab (Niche)
It is a niche placed generally in the centre of the
Qibla wall of the main prayer hall. The early mosques
and even prophet’s (SAW) mosque did not have Mihrab.
It was introduced by the Caliph Al-Walid I in the
Prophet’s (SAW) mosque later (Peterson, 2002, p. 186).
The Mihrab was always an ornamental element and
sometimes multiple Mihrabs were also included. Mihrab
points toward the Qibla (Fig.7).
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45
3) Mimber (Pulpit)
Mimber, a raised platform, placed right of the
Mihrab, is used to deliver sermon on special occasions
(Fig.7). It has few steps generally of wood, stone or brick.
In some cases, the Mimber is surmounted by dome and
has a door also. The Prophet (SAW) mosque had a
Mimber which he used to preach to the people. In India,
mostly Mimbers are finely carved and are built of stone.
4) Geometric and Arabesque Pattern
Decoration through geometric and arabesque
pattern is an important element in the mosques. Due to
prohibition of figurative representation in Islam, the
artists of Islamic world developed complex geometric
designs with the mathematical precision. Intricate
patterns on walls, ceilings, floors and furniture were
developed by using symmetry and repetition. Mostly
polygons of various sizes and colors are used to create
intricate patterns of mosaics (Fig.8). Arabesque
patterns are decorative motifs of plants, flowers and
creepers (Fig.9). These motifs symbolize gardens of
paradise mentioned in the Quran. They cover walls and
borders of calligraphic panels and arches and follow the
principles of geometry.
Fig.8.Geometric Pattern Fig.9. Arabesque Patten
5) Calligraphy
Calligraphy is also a significant decorative element
in the mosques because of the prohibition of figurative
presentation. Apart from their aesthetic value these,
sacred Qu'ranic writings have their symbolic meaning
too.
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6) Ablution Area
It is obligatory to wash the hands, feet and face for a
Muslim before prayer which is called ablution (Wudu). In
historical mosques, a water tank (Haud) generally was
provided in the centre of the courtyard. In modern times,
water taps in the ablution area are provided for the same
purpose.
7) Court Yard
Courtyard is not only a climatic element but a spill
out space of prayer hall in the traditional mosques
required during Fridays and Eid Prayers. Courtyard of
the mosque, as a social element, also provides a
gathering space for the community.
8) Minarets
It is a tall tower built inside the mosque campus
(Fig.10). Earlier, perhaps it was built for the Muezzin (a
person who calls for the prayers) to call the devotees to
the prayers. Located generally at the corner of the
mosque, the minarets may be one, two or many in
numbers. The minaret is the top most point of the
mosque so that the mosque can easily be recognized in a
locality. However, the early Arab mosques did not have
any minarets.
9) Arches
An arch is a curved structure to support the
superstructure and generally to have an opening
underneath (Ching, 1995, pp. 12-14). The topmost block
is called keystone and placed in the last. Since
prehistoric times, the arches have been used by the
ancient Egyptians, Babylonians and Greeks. Muslim
architects modified the Roman arch and developed
pointed and horseshoe arches (Fig.11). These arches
were frequently used for the construction of mosques.
In India, the earlier arches were corbelled in nature,
influenced by Hindu Architecture, later pointed arches
were used during Sultanate period and a four centered
arches were frequently used by Mughals.
10) Domes
The domes, primarily are roofing solution and
generally placed directly above the main prayer hall of
the mosques, symbolize heaven and the sky.
The Mughals built the onion-shaped double domes,
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47
inspired from contemporary Iranian
architecture. Sometimes, there were multiple domes in
the mosques, often a few smaller with a larger dome in
the centre of prayer hall.
Fig.10.Minaret Fig.11. Arches
HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND CONTEMPORARY
MOSQUE ARCHITECTURE IN DELHI
Although the stylistic development of mosque
architecture in the history does not correspond to the
beginning and the termination of dynasties but the
discerning morphological changes in architecture of
mosques in Delhi shall be studied in their chronological
order.
1) Mamluk’s Period
Quwwatul Islam mosque is the first survived mosque
in Delhi. Qutubuddin Aibak conquered the fortress and
laid the foundation of Quwwatul Islam mosque
(Warraich, 2008, p. 165). There is a four aisled deep
prayer hall on the west and the verandahs on three sides
around a courtyard. To add Islamic character to the
building, a wall with arched gateways was constructed
in 1999 on the western Hindu style sanctuary (A. &
Desai, 1979). The prayer hall and verandah’s corbelled
shallow domes are supported on Hindu pillars due to no
familiarity of the local craftsman to the technology of
new rulers. The verses from Quran were engraved in
relief work. A mosque with the same features was
constructed at Ajmer in 1200 AD (Brown, 1956), but
with some improved features. The isolated minarets are
as victory towers rather than symbolic elements of the
mosque. Although, it was an era of conflict between two
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technologies in the beginning and the immigrated
technology was accepted only after almost a century.
2) Khilji’s Period
Ala-al-Din added new space to the Quwwatul Islam
Mosque. He also started to construct a minaret almost
double to the size of Qutub Minar which could never be
completed. However, the one of the four gateways to the
extended plan of Quwwatul Islam mosque shows the
refinement of the beginning of the mosque architecture
in medieval India. Tohfewala Gumbad at Shahpur Jat is
also the mosque of Khilji’s period, only central part with
dome is survived on date (Fig.12). Jamat Khana mosque
at Nizamuddin in Delhi has a rectangular plan and three
arches on the façade, resembles the Alai Darwaza, later
two wings were added by Mubarak Khilji (Alfieri, 2000,
p. 33). A migration of many artists from Persia during
Mongol’s devastation influenced the contemporary
Indian Architecture.
Fig.12.Tohfewala Gumbad at Shahpur Jat
3) Tughlak’s period
During this period, grey sandstone was replaced to
red sand stone and mosques were having less
ornamentation (Chandra, 2012). Begumpuri mosque
based the Iranian model has a prayer hall on the
western side of the courtyard and domed arcades on rest
of the three sides with an entrance at the centre (Fig.13).
The prayer hall consists of a projected Iwan with
tapering turrets and flanked by two domed aisles. Khirki
mosque and Kalan Mosque at Hazrat Nizamuddin have
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49
cruciform plan and both are raised by one storey. The
domed arcades divide the courtyard into four parts. The
unusual plan of these mosques are having split
courtyard approachable through entrances flanking by
sharply tapering turrets. One storey high Tughlaq
mosques generally have basement which probably was
used as living rooms for mosque attendants and
pilgrims, however, it improved the elevation of courtyard
by necessitating the flights of steps leading to the
entrance (Grover, 2006).
Fig.13.Plan of Begumpuri Mosque
4) Lodi’s Period
A single nave prayer hall was evolved during Lodi’s
period. It was a departure from the previous hypostyle
prayer hall type mosque. Bara Gumbud Mosque is the
one of the earliest models of these kinds of mosques.
This characteristic was continued till the late Mughal
period and the reason was advancement in the
development of an unusual type of arch which was
evolved during late Tughlaq’s period. Moth ki Masjid has
a similar plan as that of Sikander Lodi’s mosque but has
a façade with better proportions.
5) Mughal’s Period
Jamali Kamali Mosque built by Sheikh Fazal al Allah
in 1528-29 AD is one of the most beautiful mosques of
Babur’s period. The early mosques of Mughal’s period
are single domed, two aisles on both the sides with
projected Pishtaq from the wings and fluted small
circular towers are framing the central Pishtaq having
calligraphic inscription of Qur’an. Sometimes, the
mosques have a separate entrance for royal family
members but the architectural characteristics of these
50
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early mosques of Mugha’sl period are more of Lodi’s style
(Fig.14). The dominance of Lodi’s style in the design of
the mosques was continued till the Humayun’s tomb
came into being as the first significant building of
Mughal’s architecture. Later, the transition of red sand
stone to white marble added another milestone to the
Mughal’s architecture. During Shahjahan’s period, the
mosque architecture in Delhi reached at its zenith and
Jama Masjid in the city of Shahajahanabad was
constructed.
Fig.14. Mosque at Old Fort
Fig.15.Moti Masjid, Qutub
Enclave
Jami Masjid Delhi was constructed on a raised
platform with extensive courtyard approachable through
pyramids of steps on its three sides. On the other hand,
Moti Masjid in Red Fort is an example of private worship
place for the emperor, Aurangzeb. The white marble
structure has three bulbous domed prayer hall with
small courtyard having ablution tank in the centre. The
whole building is enclosed by high walls to enhance the
sense of separation and seclusion from physical world.
The front of the prayer hall is headed with curved
Bengali cornice. Prominent sinuous lines are used on
the surface for decoration which became a significant
feature for later buildings. The parapet is decorated with
small minarets. The mosque has its prototype in the Red
Fort, Agra, Nagina Masjid built by Shahjahan. This
structure remained as an inspiration for the late Mughal
rulers for next centuries and a mosque with the same
name was built with similar material and architectural
features but without sinuous lines (Fig.15).
6) British’s Period
After the declination of Mughal’s empire in Delhi,
mosque patronization was shifted from rulers to rich
people of the society. Thus, deterioration in the quality of
materials used in the construction of mosques is clearly
ATEET; Special Issue, Dec. 2012 ISSN 2249-1252
51
visible during this period. The British influence rose in
the south and eastern part of India while the northern
region was not influenced much during early colonial
period. Later, when Delhi became the new capital of
British rule, a little impact over mosques architecture
can be observed. Any innovative design was not observed
during this period. However, the style of later Mughal’s
period, the three domed structure with projected pishtaq
and turrets was continued. One of the examples of this
period is the Lal Masjid (Fig.16). The mosque is finished
with red sandstone, has a mezzanine floor over
verandah. The projected double storey pishtaq is flanked
by three cusped arches. Two minarets at the end of
façade are not well proportioned with the central mass.
Fig.16.Lal Masjid
7) Post Independence Period
In 1947, with the independence, India was divided in
to two countries, India and Pakistan. Many influential
Muslims migrated to Pakistan which further led the
mosques architecture to poor condition. Today, the most
of the mosques are erected by common people and the
funds for construction are contributed by the
commoners even for the construction of a small mosque
without any proper technical support. This resulted into
the deterioration of the architectural features and
morphology of mosques in India. In 1997,Renata Holod
and Hasan-Uddin Khan compiled a survey of mosques
worldwide built during 1950s and 1990s, no mosque of
India found an architecturally significant place (Holod &
Khan, 1997). Only few mosques were designed by
formally trained architects for instance Markaz Mosque,
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Okhla (Fig.17). In Delhi, the vertical expansion has
become the necessity of time due to scarcity of land. The
multi storey mosques are mere boxes with some
unattractive arches on the façade surmounted by domes
and minarets. The reason behind is the noninvolvement
of technical skills and availability of funds in stages and
installments. Jami Masjid Karol Bagh is a four storey
mosque erected on framed structure with arches and
minarets as identifiable elements though not
proportioned with the rest of the building (Fig.18).
Fig.17. Markaz Mosque, Okhla
Fig.18.Jami Masjid, Karol
Bagh
CONCLUSION
The author observed the following salient findings of
the dissertation.
1) In Delhi, the glory of mosque architecture reached at
its zenith under the sovereignty of Mughals during
medieval period. With the declination of Mughals,
the patronage of mosques passed on from the rulers
to the influential people of the society.
2) During British period, the artisans continued the
architectural style of later Mughal period. However,
they seemed to be experimenting with comparatively
smaller mosques built in inexpensive materials.
3) In modern time, the mosque architecture has been
developed generally by common people without
involvement of formally trained architects and
technical advisors. The haphazard construction due
to lack of funding and absence of supervision led the
mosque architecture into a poor state in the region
with few exceptions. The mere act of applying arches
on the façade which even are sometimes not well
proportioned with the whole structure has been a
ATEET; Special Issue, Dec. 2012 ISSN 2249-1252
53
typical characteristic of the mosques in modern
India.
Though even the mosque architecture in Delhi in
present time has reached to a very sympathetic stage in
comparison to the earlier centuries but the elements
studied here found repetitive in their morphology. Apart
from the most essential spatial elements like, ablution
area, prayer hall mihrab and minber, the decorative and
symbolic elements like, arches, calligraphy, domes and
minarets are found repetitive in high percentage. The
interesting finding of this research is that, the arches are
the part of each and every mosque from the beginning to
the end, whether true or false, proportionate or
disproportionate. The reason might be its symbolic and
identifiable character. The structural as well as finishing
materials are majorly changing elements with the
change in conventional technology.
Table-1 reflects the overall changing pattern of the
morphology of the mosque in Delhi. Though the study
was limited to the 28 representative mosques from
different periods in a single city but it was enough to
suggest a pattern of change and continuity in their
morphology. The author suggests the study on the same
pattern in different cities so that an overall development
of mosque architecture may be recognized and this will
help the designers to establish the guidelines for
designing mosques in the contemporary world with
regional accent.
.
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SPATIAL ELEMENTS DECORATIVE AND SYMBOLIC
ELEMENTS
STRUCTURAL
SYSTEM
FINISHING
MATERIALS
S. No
NAME OF THEMOSQUE
Period
Ablution Area
Courtyard
Verandah
Prayer Hall
No. of Bays in
No. of Aisle
Mihrab(Niche)
Mimber(Pulpit)
Toilet
Muezzin’s Room
Imam’sRoom
Domes
No. Of Domes
Minerates
No. Of Minarets
Finial
Arches
Calligraphy
Arabasque Pattern
Jaali
Geometric Pattern
Arcuated
Trabeated
Framed Structure
Load Bearing
Red Sand Stone
Delhi Quartzite
Marble
Lime Surkhi
Cement Plaster
1
Quwwatul Islam
Mosque, Mehrali, New
Delhi
L
La
at
te
e
1
12
2
t
th
h
C
Ce
en
nt
t.
.
•
•
•
•
•
•
1
•
•
•
•
•
2
Tohfewala Gumbad
Mosque, ShahpurJat,
New Delhi
13
th
Cent
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1
•
•
•
3 Jamat Khana Mosque,
Nizamuddin, New Delhi 14
th
Cent.
•
•
•
•
•
•
3
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
4 Jami Masjid Kotla Firoz
Shah, New Delhi 14
th
Cent.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1
•
1
•
•
•
5 Begumpur Mosque,
Jhapanah, New Delhi
Late 14
th
Cent. •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
6 Khirki Mosque, New
Delhi
Late 14
th
Cent
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
3
•
•
•
•
7 Bara Gumbad Mosque,
Lodi Garden ,New Delhi
Late 15
th
Cent. •
•
•
3
•
•
•
3
•
•
•
•
•
•
8 Moth Mosque, New
Delhi
Early 16
th
Cent.
•
•
•
•
•
•
3
•
•
•
•
9 Jamali Kamali mosque, Early 16
th
•
•
•
5
•
•
•
1
•
•
•
•
•
ATEET; Special Issue, Dec. 2012 ISSN 2249-1252
55
New Delhi Cent.
10
Qila-e-kohna mosque,
New Delhi 16
th
Cent.
•
•
•
5
•
•
•
1
•
•
•
•
•
11
Khairul Manazil
mosque, New Delhi 16
th
Cent.
•
•
•
3
•
•
•
1
•
•
•
•
12
Jami Masjid, Delhi 17
th
Cent.
•
•
•
11
5
•
•
•
3
•
2
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
13
Moti Masjid, Delhi 17
th
Cent.
•
•
•
3
•
•
•
3
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
14
Zinat al Nisa Mosque,
Delhi
Early 18
th
Cent. •
•
•
7
•
•
•
3
•
2
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
15
Moti Masjid, Qutub
Area, Delhi 18
th
Cent.
•
•
•
5
•
•
•
3
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
16
Sunheri Mosque, Delhi 18
th
Cent.
•
•
•
3
•
•
•
3
•
2
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
17
Masjid Baoli Wali,
Karol Bagh, New Delhi Late 19
th
•
•
•
•
3
2
•
•
•
•
•
•
2
•
•
•
•
•
18
Lal Masjid, Karol Bagh,
New Delhi
Early 20
th
cent. •
•
•
•
7
4
•
•
•
•
•
•
2
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
19
Khajoor Wali Masjid,
Karol Bagh, New Delhi
Early 20
th
cent. •
•
•
•
5
4
•
•
•
•
•
•
2
•
•
•
•
20
Masjid Nai Walan,
Karol Bagh, New Delhi 1990s •
•
•
•
3
7
•
•
•
•
•
•
2
•
•
•
•
•
21
Masjid Nabi, Okhla,
New Delhi 1990s •
•
•
7
8
•
•
•
•
•
•
1
•
•
•
•
•
22
Masjid Kahkashan,
Okhla Vihar, New Delhi •
•
•
7
5
•
•
•
•
•
•
1
•
•
•
•
•
23
BilalMasjid,
Seelampur, Delhi 1990s •
•
3
8
•
•
•
•
•
•
1
•
•
•
•
•
56
ATEET; Special Issue, Dec. 2012 ISSN 2249-1252
24
Mohammadi Masjid,
Seelampur, Delhi 1990s •
•
16
•
•
•
•
•
•
1
•
•
•
•
•
25
Madina Masjid,
Jafrabad, Delhi 1990s •
•
•
•
5
8
•
•
•
•
•
•
1
•
•
•
•
•
•
26
Masjid Markaz, Okhla,
New Delhi 1990s •
•
•
9
9
•
•
•
•
1
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
27
Jami Masjid, Karol
Bagh, New Delhi 2000s •
•
•
3
4
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
28
Mosa Masjid, Okhla,
New Delhi 2010 •
•
•
3
6
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Table-1
Ateet; Special Issue, Dec. 2012 ISSN 2249-1252
57
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