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Effects of Tramadol on Electrocardiogram, Mean Electrical Axis and Respiration in Kagani Goats (Capra hircus)

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Rajinder Raina at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu
Rajinder Raina
Pawan Kumar Verma at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu
Pawan Kumar Verma
Nrip Kishore Pankaj at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu
Nrip Kishore Pankaj
Shahid Prawez at Banaras Hindu University
Shahid Prawez
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Abstract

The effects of tramadol on electrocardiogram (ECG), mean electrical axis and respiratory rates were studied in adult kagani goats after intramuscular administration of tramadol at 1 mg/kg b.wt as a prelude to its clinical use as an analgesic in veterinary practice. The ECG was monitored by standard bipolar leads and discernible electrocardiographic features were observed in lead II. The normal electrocardiographic parameters in healthy goats were; P-wave (0.04 ± 0.005 mV, 48 ± 4.29 ms), QRS complex (0.38 ± 0.037 mV, 84 ± 2.86 ms), T-wave (0.11 ± 0.005 mV, 76 ± 1.28 ms), PR, ST, QT intervals were 152 ± 5.72, 280 ± 7.29, 368 ± 18.60 ms, respectively. These parameters were not significantly different in goats up to 3h post treatment. Except significant reduction in T-wave amplitude (p<0.05) at 0.5h, no other significant change was observed. Reduction in T-wave indicates early re-polarization phenomenon and is indicative of some transient cardio-acceleratory effect of the drug. The mean electrical axis (56.74 0 ± 0.6 0) before treatment didn't show significant differences up to 3h of post-treatment. The rate of respiration prior to treatment was observed 19.6 ± 2.57min -1 and administration of tramadol didn't produce any significant change on respiration up to 3h post treatment.
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1735-2657/08/72-157-160
IRANIAN JOURNAL OF PHARMACOLOGY & THERAPEUTICS
Copyright © 2006 by Razi Institute for Drug Research (RIDR)
IJPT | July 2008 | vol. 7 | no. 2 | 157-160
IJPT 7:157-160, 2008
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Effects of Tramadol on Electrocardiogram, Mean
Electrical Axis and Respiration in Kagani Goats
(Capra hircus)
R. RAINA, P. K. VERMA, N. K. PANKAJ, S. PRAWEZ and A. K. SRIVASTAVA
For author affiliations, see end of text.
Received January 18, 2008; Revised August 10, 2008; Accepted August 25, 2008
This paper is available online at http://ijpt.iums.ac.ir
ABSTRACT
The effects of tramadol on electrocardiogram (ECG), mean electrical axis and respiratory rates were stud-
ied in adult kagani goats after intramuscular administration of tramadol at 1 mg/kg b.wt as a prelude to its
clinical use as an analgesic in veterinary practice. The ECG was monitored by standard bipolar leads and
discernible electrocardiographic features were observed in lead II. The normal electrocardiographic pa-
rameters in healthy goats were; P-wave (0.04 ± 0.005 mV, 48 ± 4.29 ms), QRS complex (0.38 ± 0.037
mV, 84 ± 2.86 ms), T-wave (0.11 ± 0.005 mV, 76 ± 1.28 ms), PR, ST, QT intervals were 152 ± 5.72, 280
± 7.29, 368 ± 18.60 ms, respectively. These parameters were not significantly different in goats up to 3h
post treatment. Except significant reduction in T-wave amplitude (p<0.05) at 0.5h, no other significant
change was observed. Reduction in T-wave indicates early re-polarization phenomenon and is indicative
of some transient cardio-acceleratory effect of the drug. The mean electrical axis (56.740 ± 0.60) before
treatment didn’t show significant differences up to 3h of post-treatment. The rate of respiration prior to
treatment was observed 19.6 ± 2.57min-1 and administration of tramadol didn’t produce any significant
change on respiration up to 3h post treatment.
Keywords: Tramadol, Electrocardiogram, Mean electrical axis, Respiration, Kagani goats
Tramadol, a codeine analog, is a centrally acting
synthetic analgesic and the drug owes its analgesic
action to its weak opioid (µ) receptor agonist activity
and inhibition of uptake of nor-epinephrine and
serotonin. Tramadol is as effective as meperidine in the
amelioration of labor pain and cause less respiratory
depression in humans. The drug is also being considered
to be a better alternative in comparison to other opioid
analgesics in humans because of high analgesic potency
and minimal respiratory depression at analgesic doses
[1]. The analgesic activity of tramadol is due to both
parent as well as its O-demethylated metabolite and this
metabolite is 4-6 times more potent than the parent [ 2 ].
Tramadol is supplied as a racemic mixture, which is
more effective than either of the enantiomer alone. The
(+) enantiomer binds to the μ receptor and inhibit
serotonin uptake whereas (-) enantiomer inhibit nor-
epinephrine uptake and blocks α2 receptors [ 3 ]. In vitro
and in vivo studies also suggested that only (+)ve
enantiomer of tramadol-induce vasodilatation at high
doses indicating that tramadol can be used safely at
therapeutic dose [ 4 ]. The vasodilation induced by
tramadol is due to both nitric oxide production from
endothelium and a direct effect on smooth muscle
mediated via interaction with the μ receptors [ 4 , 5 ].
Electrocardiographic studies are infrequently
reported in animals [ 6 , 7 ]. The electrocardiographic
parameters have greatest value in recognizing and
diagnosing arrhythmias in animals [ 8 ]. Variability in
normal duration and amplitude of different
electrocardiographic parameters are useful in evaluating
the side effects of commonly used therapeutic drugs [ 9 ].
Mean electrical axis values (MEA) determine the site,
size and direction of the conduction system of the heart,
which is individual or a breed characteristic [ 10].
Studies on effects of tramadol on electrocardiographic
parameters, mean electrical axis and respiration in goats
are scarce. The study was pursued with the objective to
determine different electrocardiographic parameters in
normal goats and the effect of tramadol on these
parameters at analgesic dose.
158 | IJPT | July 2008 | vol. 7 | no. 2 Raina et al.
Fig 1 a. Electrocardiograms of Lead II of goat before (A) and after 0.5h (B) tramadol treatment, using physiograph Medicaid,
Chandigah, India. Sensitivity 500µv and chart speed, 2.5 cm per second.
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Tim e afte r tr e atm en t (m in)
Am plitude (m V)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Duration (ms)
Voltage (mV)
D u ration (m s )
Fig 1 b. Graphical representation amplitude (mV) and duration (ms) of T-wave before and after administration of
tramadol
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Healthy kagani goats (Capra hircus) of either sex
aged 2-3 years were selected for the study. The animals
were housed in the animal shed of Faculty of Veterinary
Sciences, at R.S. Pura, Jammu (INDIA). All animals
were maintained under standard condition of feeding
and management. The animals were fed green fodder
and concentrates at standard rates and free access to
water. The studies were conducted in the month April-
June when ambient temperature varied in between 35 -
400C. During recording of electrocardiogram (ECG)
goats were made to stand on wooden plane. Needle
electrodes were inserted subcutaneously proximal to the
olecranon on the caudal aspect of the right and left fore-
legs for the right and left arm wires, respectively and in
the external aspect of the stifle joint of the right and left
leg wires, respectively [ 11]. The three standard bipolar
limb leads (I, II, and III) and augmented unipolar limb
leads (aVR, aVL and aVF) were recorded on paper us-
ing a three channel physiograph (Medicaid, Chandigah,
India). A commercial human pharmaceutical prepara-
tion of Tramadol (Cadilla Health Care, Ahmadabad,
India) was administered intramuscularly at the dose rate
of 1mg kg-1body wt. Recording of ECG parameters
were done before and after the administration of drug.
Most of the opioids like pentazocine provide effective
analgesia for (1-6 h) when they are used in a dose range
of 0.4-2mg kg-1 intramuscularly [ 12]. Therefore, a dose
of 1mg kg-1 body wt. was selected. The reported half
life of drug in dogs is 0.80±0.12h [ 2 ]. Therefore the
recording of ECG parameters and respiration were done
at different pre-determined time intervals up to 3h of
post administration. The mean electrical axis was calcu-
lated by the method of described by Dragutin and co-
workers in 1999 [ 13]. The results obtained were ana-
lyzed statistically using paired t-test between mean ob-
tained before and after treatment [ 14].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Present investigation employed human technique of
Einthoven’s triangle in ventral plane quite successfully
in goats in standing position [ 15]. It was observed that
various components were quite discernible in unipolar
and bi-polar limb leads. Therefore, comparisons were
based on lead II electrocardiogram. Table 1 depicts the
recorded values during the experiments on goats on du-
ration and amplitude of P wave, duration of the QRS
complex, mean electrical axis, duration of PR and QT
intervals, S-T segment and respiration before and at
different predetermined time intervals post administra-
tion of tramadol.
Effects of Tramadol on Electrocardiogram ijpt.iums.ac.ir | 159
Table 1. Comparative electrocardiographic parameter and respiration in Kagani goat and effect of Tramadol hydrochloride @ 1mg.kg-1 intramuscu-
lar administration
After Treatment (min.)
Parameter Control 30 60 90 120 150 180
Voltage
(mV) 0.04±0.005 0.06±0.007 0.045±0.003 0.045±0.007 0.04±0.005 0.04±0.005 0.04±0.005
P - wave Duration
(ms) 48±4.29 40±1.78 44±6.44 40±3.57 40±1.78 44±2.86 40±3.57
Voltage
(mV) 0.38±0.037 0.40±0.047 0.39±0.029 0.37±0.031 0.375±0.049 0.37±0.0375 0.37±0.044
QRS complex Duration
(ms) 84±2.86 80±1.78 76±2.86 88±5.72 82±3.22 82±3.22 82±3.22
Voltage
(mV) 0.11±0.005 0.06±0.012* 0.09±0.019 0.08±0.008 0.07±0.007 0.06±0.009 0.07±0.004
T - wave Duration
(ms) 76±7.85 64±1.76 68±10.0 72±7.87 60±7.15 60±715 64±8.58
PR interval (ms) 152±5.72 176±8.58 160±7.15 176±8.58 168±5.72 168±11.4 192±5.72
ST interval (ms) 280±7.29 292±11.4 280±7.15 284±4.65 264±8.58 284±2.86 272±5.72
QT interval (ms) 368±18.60 360±7.15 360±7.15 364±4.65 344±8.58 352±5.72 344±8.58
Mean Electrical Axis 56.74±3.6 55.52±2.64 57.1±4.6 56.9±2.46 57.3±4.4 56.36±3.02 56.52±4.78
Respiration (min-1) 19.6±2.57 18.6±3.57 17±1.71 19.8±2.28 20.2±3.50 20±3.35 20±4.17
Values are expressed as mean ± S.E. of recording six adult animals
Mean treatment values are different from the mean control values at 5% (p<0.05)
In present study prior to treatment the amplitude and
duration of P-wave signifying atrial depolarization were
0.04±0.005 mV and 48±4.29 ms, respectively which is
comparable with kids and lambs [ 5 ] but lesser than
0.229±0.06 mV reported for dogs [ 16]. The administra-
tion of tramadol didn’t produce significant changes in
the amplitude and duration of P-wave up to 3 h post
administration.
Control values of ventricular depolarization repre-
sented by amplitude of QRS complex is 0.38±0.037 mV
which is higher than the reported values of
(0.17±0.086mV) in kids but is comparable to cats
(0.427±0.25mV) [ 5 , 17]. The higher QRS amplitude in
goats in the present study indicates higher systolic pres-
sure [ 17]. In the present study duration of QRS complex
was 84±2.86ms is lower than in kids (93±7ms) but
higher than reported values in dogs (54±0.01ms), cats
(32±0.007ms) and llamas (50.0±8.00ms) [ 16, 17, 18].
Administration of tramadol didn’t effect duration and
amplitude of QRS complex. Tilley, 1985 has suggested
that longer QRS complex duration to be a resultant of a
heart block or enlargement of either of ventricle or both
ventricles.
Significant reduction in T-wave amplitude
(0.06±0.009mV) at 0.5h post administration was ob-
served as compared to control (0.11±0.005mV) and
representative recording is shown in fig.1a and b. How-
ever, no such significant reduction in duration of T-
wave was observed. The decrease prominence T-wave
indicate re-polarization phenomenon of the ventricles
particularly basal part is rather rapid and the next car-
diac cycle begins quickly thereby indicative of cardio
accelerator effect of tramadol. The control duration of
ST and QT intervals are higher than the reported values
of kids 220±12ms, 313±13ms, but comparable with
llamas 230±46, 360±60ms respectively [ 7 , 18]. How-
ever no significant change was observed in these inter-
vals up to 3h of post treatment compared to pretreat-
ment values. Determination of electrical axis of heart is
an important aid for understanding deviation of impulse
conduction in the heart and can help in diagnosis of
pathological conditions of heart. In the present study
tramadol didn’t significantly affect the mean electrical
axis values (56.740 ± 0.60) in goats. The respiration rates
reported for goats are in the range of 12-25 min-1 [ 19]
and tramadol didn’t affect significantly respiration rates
(19.6±2.57 min-1). Conversely opiate substitutes like,
pentazocine causes significant reduction in respiration
in kids [ 7 ]. Finding also suggested that tramadol also
provides a cardio-protective effect against myocardial
ischemia-reperfusion in isolated rat heart [ 20].
From the results it can be concluded that at the dose
rate 1mg kg-1 in goats, tramadol is a safe analgesic due
to its mild and transient effect on ECG events without
effecting respiration.
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CURRENT AUTHOR ADDRESSES
R. Raina, Division of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Faculty of Veteri-
nary Sciences & Animal Husbandry, SKUAST-J, R.S. Pura
181102, Jammu (J & K), INDIA. E-mial:
drpawankv@yahoo.co.in (Corresponding author)
P. K. Verma, Junior Scientist, Division of Pharmacology and Toxicol-
ogy, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, R.S.
Pura, Jammu (J&K), INDIA.
N. K. Pankaj, Junior Scientist, Division of Pharmacology and Toxi-
cology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry,
R.S. Pura, Jammu (J&K), INDIA.
S. Prawez, Junior Scientist, Division of Pharmacology and Toxicol-
ogy, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, R.S.
Pura, Jammu (J&K), INDIA.
A. K. Srivastava, Director, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal
Haryana, INDIA.
... This variation is expected to be reflected in ECG parameters (Andrassy et al., 2005) [2] . The P voltage in lead II was oriented in the positive direction and the mean value was almost similar to those obtained by (Mohan et al., 2005) [12] but higher than observed in the studies for Black Bengal goats [1] , Kagani goats (Raina et al., 2008) [16] , cross-bred goats (Kant et al., 2010) [11] and Markhoz goats (Fakour et al., 2013) [5] . This might be due to breed difference in the goats studied. ...
... This variation is expected to be reflected in ECG parameters (Andrassy et al., 2005) [2] . The P voltage in lead II was oriented in the positive direction and the mean value was almost similar to those obtained by (Mohan et al., 2005) [12] but higher than observed in the studies for Black Bengal goats [1] , Kagani goats (Raina et al., 2008) [16] , cross-bred goats (Kant et al., 2010) [11] and Markhoz goats (Fakour et al., 2013) [5] . This might be due to breed difference in the goats studied. ...
... The low amplitude QRS deflection might be due to high degree of synchronized ventricular depolarization. The T wave was observed positive for lead II, amplitude was similar to the mean values presented by (Ahmed & Sanyal 2008 [1] and Fakour et al., 2013) [5] , for Black Bengal and Markhoz goats, and lower than the values found by (Kant et al., 2010) [11] for cross-bred goats and higher than the mean values found by (Mohan et al., 2005 andRaina et al., 2008) [12,16] for Jamunapari and Kagani goats, respectively. Wave variability (form and amplitude) of the ECG may be attributed determining factor like difference in the topographic anatomy of the heart within thorax, position of heart in relation to the limbs and mechanism of activation of ventricles as reported by (Szabuniewicz M and Clark DR., 1967) [18] . ...
View
... However, most of the literature on the electrocardiogram among domestic animals is related to dogs and horses (Mohan et al 2005) and the ECG has been rarely applied in caprine medicine (Smith & Sherman 2009). Few studies relate the process of ventricular activation (Hamlin et al. 1984), variability of QRS complex (Szabuniewicz & Clark 1967), values for few leads (Upadhyay & Sud 1977), ionophore toxicity (Howard 1993), fluoride intoxication (Kant et al. 2010), poisoning by oleander (Barbosa et al. 2008), ECG values for a specific breed (Mohan et al. 2005;Ahmed & Sanyal, 2008, Fakour et al. 2013) and with a specific age (Montes et al. 1994), heart monitoring for pharmacology evaluation of drugs (Raina et al. 2008, Staffieri et al. 2009) and as an experimental model for the study of arrhythmias commonly found in humans such as atrial fibrillation (Shan et al. 2004, Blaauw et al. 2007, Van Brakel et al. 2009, Verheule et al. 2010, Liu et al. 2012). ...
... To our knowledge, this is the first description of Saanen goats ECG parameters in the veterinary literature. Therefore, we could only use our results to compare them with a limited number of researches, with goats without specific breed (Szabuniewicz & Clark 1967) and with Jamunapari goats (Mohan et al. 2005), Black Bengal goats (Ahmed & Sanyal 2008), Kagani goats (Raina et al. 2008) and Markhoz goats (Fakour et al. 2013). Montes et al. (1994) studied the ECG parameters in Murciano-Granadina goats, however, were evaluated the influence of age in those values by using animals with 1-30 days old. ...
... Likewise, a wide range among goats was reported by Mohan et al. (2005) for Jamunapari goats (+7.5 o to +58.5 o ) and Ahmed & Sanyal (2008) for Black Bengal goats (-166 o to +168 o ). Changes in electrical axis were no significant to monitor fluorine intoxication (Kant et al. 2010) and show no significant alteration in goats treated with tramadol (Raina et al. 2008). Even in conditions with induced heart failure, such as poisoning by oleander (Barbosa et al. 2008), the electrical axis didn´t show significant changes. ...
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... For instance the goat has a small body size, reproduces easily, and costs little in monetary terms, which makes it preferable to other ruminants for biological research (23). Recently studies have been performed to investigate the normal ECG values in different goat breeds (1,13,16,17) and the effect of various chemicals on the goat heart (9,10,12,19). ...
... In the present study, the mean electrical axis ranged between -178° and +170°, similar to that of black Bengal goats (-187° to +158°) (1). It was reported in previous studies that the value of the mean electrical axis was 37.34° for Jamunapari goats (13) and 56.74° for Kagani goats (19). This difference in the mean electrical axis values can be explained by breed diversity. ...
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Full-text available
  • Mar 2019
A balanced anesthesia protocol is called perfect when it has fast induction, excellent recovery, the least effect on the cardiopulmonary system and sufficient analgesia. Many of anesthetic combinations have an analgesic effect without opioids. However, at the end of anesthesia, analgesia decreases or is incomplete. The purpose of this study was to evaluate anesthesia times, electrocardiogram (ECG) and analgesic effect of tramadol when administrated with ketamine, ketamine-diazepam, ketamine-midazolam, and ketamine-xylazine and selected a balanced anesthesia protocol in buzzards. Ten adult common buzzards (Buteo buteo) received seven different anesthetic protocols (with or without tramadol). In each protocol, anesthesia times, electrocardiograph parameters and analgesic effect were recorded. Excluding ketamine-tramadol, all protocols produced deep anesthesia in all buzzards. Among of all protocols, no significant differences regarding the amplitude and duration of waves (P, QRS and T) was found. By adding tramadol to anesthetic protocols, response duration to thermal sense increased up 3 hr after recovery. Tramadol did not make considerable effects on anesthesia times and ECG and made analgesic effect up to 3 hr when used with ketamine-benzodiazpins or ketamine-xylazine. Therefore, tramadol can be used with injectable anesthetics to make suitably balanced anesthesia in buzzards.
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... The highest amplitude for P wave was recorded in lead II and lowest in leads aVR and aVL. The QRS amplitudes of Muzaffarnagari sheep were lower than those reported in Jamunapari goats (Mohan et al., 2005) but higher than those reported in Kagani goats (Raina et al., 2008). Altogether QRS complex amplitudes in various leads were lower than values reported for dogs (Atmaca and Emre, 2010). ...
Electrocardiographic reference values of Muzaffarnagari sheep
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2017
The aim of this study was to determine the normal electrocardiographic and serum biochemical values of healthy adult female Muzaffarnagari sheep. Standard bipolar and augmented unipolar limb lead electrocardiograms were recorded in 20 sheep and analyzed wave forms. Harvested sera were subjectedto biochemical analysis. Positive Pwaves were dominant in all leads except for aVR and aVLleads. The rS pattern of QRS complex predominated in lead aVL, QR pattern in leads II, III and aVF and qRs pattern in leads I and aVR. Overall, amplitudes (mV) of P, QRS and T wave forms were 0.074±0.029, 0.246±0.182 and 0.164±0.088, respectively. T wave amplitude differed significantly (P<0.05) between leads II and aVL. Durations (s) of P, QRS and T wave forms were 0.036±0.010, 0.050±0.013 and 0.070±0.025, respectively. The PR, RR and QT intervals (s) were 0.102±0.014, 0.699±0.140 and 0.333±0.033, respectively. The mean heart rate was 89.479±18.830 beat/min. Values of serum cholesterol, triglyceride, high-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein, calcium, sodium, potassium, lactate dehydrogenase, creatine kinase (CK), and CK-MB concentrations were 71.52±13.04 mg/dl, 13.56±7.33 mg/dl, 25.92±12.94 mg/dl, 42.88±13.51 mg/dl, 2.53±0.39 mmol/L, 138.68±21.16 mmol/L, 3.32±0.85 mmol/L, 266.83±55.02 U/L, 147.56±104.52 U/L and 60.75±43.03 U/L, respectively. Established electrocardiographic and biochemical reference values for Muzaffarnagari sheep in the study could serve as a reference for further studies in this breed.
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... The highest amplitude for P wave was recorded in lead, I and lowest in aVF. The QRS amplitude (mV) of studied goats were lower than those reported in Jamunapari goats (Mohan et al., 2005) but higher than those observed in Kagani goats (Raina et al., 2008). Altogether, QRS complex amplitudes of studied goats in various leads were lower than those reported for dogs (Atmaca and Emre, 2010). ...
Electrocardiographic and serum biochemical reference values of Black Bengal goats
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2017
Abstract Electrocardiographic and serum biochemical reference values were established for healthy, adult, female, Black Bengal goats (Capra hircus). The standard bipolar and augmented unipolar limb leads electrocardiograms were recorded in 20 goats, and wave forms were analyzed. Harvested sera were subjected to biochemicals analyses. Positive P waves were dominant except for aVR and aVL leads. The rS in I and aVL, and qR in II, III and aVF leads were dominant QRS patterns. Positive T waves in I, II and aVL, whereas, negative T waves in III and aVR leads were dominant. The amplitudes and the durations of P, QRS complex and T waves remained unchanged (P > 0.05) among leads. PR, RR and QT intervals were also unchanged (P > 0.05) among leads. Recorded heart rates (per minutes) were 93.403±19.815, 96.673±18.687, 93.518±23.654, 89.602±19.601, 89.561±17.171 and 91.456±20.203 inleads I, II, III, aVR, aVL and aVF respectively. Heart rates were unchanged (P > 0.05) among leads. Cholesterol, triglyceride, HDL, LDL, calcium, sodium, potassium, LDH, CK and CKMB concentrations were 91.24±20.91 mg/dl, 31.02±10.71 mg/dl, 19.20±4.45 mg/dl, 65.833±19.34 mg/dl, 2.031±0.25 mmol/L, 129.032±24.33 mmol/L, 3.616±0.74 mmol/L, 202.535±74.14 U/L, 75.221±54.16 U/L and 25.124±20.98 U/L.
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... The highest amplitude for P wave was recorded in lead, I and lowest in aVF. The QRS amplitude (mV) of studied goats were lower than those reported in Jamunapari goats (Mohan et al., 2005) but higher than those observed in Kagani goats (Raina et al., 2008). Altogether, QRS complex amplitudes of studied goats in various leads were lower than those reported for dogs (Atmaca and Emre, 2010). ...
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Contribution to standardisation of heart rate and electrocardiographic values in Doberman pinschers
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 1999
In this study electrocardiographic values of 44 Doberman pinschcr dogs (11 months to 8.5 years old and with body masses of 34.4±4.9 kg) were measured. After clinical examination no signs of any disease were found, and anamnestic data indicated no cardiac disorders. After data analysis values of heart rate (127.9±23.6 beats per minute, with a range of 70 to 176 min 4), P wave amplitude (0.211±0.072 mV, with a range of 0.1 to 0.35 mV), P wave duration (0.04±0.003 s, with a range of 0.03 to 0.05 s), ORS complex duration (0.053±0.01 seconds, with a range of 0.02 to 0.07 s), R wave amplitude (1.66±0.56 mV, with a range of 0.6 to 3 mV), Q wave amplitude (0.65±0.4 mV, with a range of 0.05 to 1.8 mV), Q-T interval duration (0.187±0.024 s, with a range of 0.14 to 0.26 s) and S-T segment level (-0.049±0.068 mV, with a range of -0.2 to 0.1 mV) were similar to published standard values, but values of mean electrical axis (50.9°±26°, with a range of -42° to 101°) were considerably aberrant.
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Comparison of Tramadol and Pethidine for Postanesthetic Shivering in Elective Cataract Surgery
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2004
  • J Res Med Sci
Background: Postoperative shivering is a common event of unknown etiology with an incidence of 5-65%. This study intended to compare the efficacy of tramadol with that of pethidine in controlling postanesthetic shivering. Methods: This double-blind clinical trial was performed on 300 consecutive patients underwent general anesthesia for elective cataract surgery. Intravenous tramadol 1 mg/kg or pethidine 0.5 mg/kg was administered for alternate subjects who developed postanesthetic shivering. They were monitored in the recovery room for 1 hour and the cessation time of shivering, recurrence of the event, duration of recovery, respiratory depression, nausea, vomiting, and arterial O2 saturation were recorded. Results: One hundred and twenty patients (40%) had postanesthetic shivering. In the tramadol group, shivering terminated within 8 minutes after injection (mean 5 min). They had not recurrence of shivering, respiratory depression, reduction in SpO2 and nausea or vomiting during recovery. In the pethidine group, shivering terminated within 13 minutes (mean 9 min) after injection, but in 10 patients it recurred after 30 minutes. In this group 28 patients had respiratory depression, reduction in SpO2, nausea and vomiting but none of them needed any medication. Conclusion: Tramadol is superior to pethidine as it induced a faster termination of postanesthetic shivering and did not entail adverse effects on the respiratory system and SpO2, recurrence of shivering or nausea and vomiting. Easy availability and minimum monitoring requirements are other advantages of tramadol. Keywords: Postoperative Shivering, General Anesthesia, Postoperative Complications, Tramadol, Pethidine.
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Corrected formula for the calculation of the electrical heart axis
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 1999
The calculation of the heart axis in the frontal plane can be performed with the combination of any two leads. The use of combination of bipolar (I, II, III) and unipolar leads (aVR, aVL and aVF) can produce wrong results. Calculation of the electrical axis from leads I and aVF without correction (sometimes used in ECG recorders): EA= Arctan (aVF/I) results in lower values (in our study: 34 4 , n = 48) as compared to the values obtained with formula that uses leads I and II: EA= Arctan ((2*II-I)/(Sqr(3)*I)) (axis = 33+/-7 degrees, n=48; p<0.005, paired t-test with Bonferroni correction) or with corrected formula which uses leads I and aVF: EA=+/-Arctan ((2*aVF)/(Sqr(3)*I)) (axis = 374 degrees, n=48; p<0.005, paired t-test with Bonferroni correction). The correction factor 2/Sqr(3) is required because the unipolar and bipolar leads have different strengths. Although the difference rarely reach clinical significance, our results suggests that the ECG recorders should be proofed on formulas used for the calculation of the electrical axis.
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Comparative eletrocardiographic studies and differing effects of pentazocine on ECG, heart and respiratory rates in young sheep and goats
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2000
  • SMALL RUMINANT RES
The effects of pentazocine on electrocardiogram (ECG) heart and respiratory rates were studied in young sheep and goats as a prelude to its clinical use as an opioid analgesic in the two species. The ECG was monitored by standard bipolar leads that provided discernible electrocardiographic features only in Lead I. Electrocardiograms of lambs differ significantly from those of kids with respect to QRS complex, P-R interval and T wave. Higher basal heart rate in lambs is apparently due to shorter P-R interval and shorter interval between successive cardiac cycles (p<0.05). Pentazocine, 3mgkg(-1) i.m., appears safer for lambs than kids as it significantly decreased P-R interval, Q-T interval, cardiac cycle duration, interval between successive cardiac cycles, respiration rate, and increased heart rate in kids but not in lambs (p<0.05).
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Pharmacokinetics of tramadol and the metabolite O-desmethyltramadol in dogs
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2004
Tramadol is an analgesic and antitussive agent that is metabolized to O-desmethyltramadol (M1), which is also active. Tramadol and M1 exert their mode of action through complex interactions between opiate, adrenergic, and serotonin receptors. The pharmacokinetics of tramadol and M1 were examined following intravenous and oral tramadol administration to six healthy dogs, as well as intravenous M1 to three healthy dogs. The calculated parameters for half-life, volume of distribution, and total body clearance were 0.80 +/- 0.12 h, 3.79 +/- 0.93 L/kg, and 54.63 +/- 8.19 mL/kg/min following 4.4 mg/kg tramadol HCl administered intravenously. The systemic availability was 65 +/- 38% and half-life 1.71 +/- 0.12 h following tramadol 11 mg/kg p.o. M1 had a half-life of 1.69 +/- 0.45 and 2.18 +/- 0.55 h following intravenous and oral administration of tramadol. Following intravenous M1 administration the half-life, volume of distribution, and clearance of M1 were 0.94 +/- 0.09 h, 2.80 +/- 0.15 L/kg, and 34.93 +/- 5.53 mL/kg/min respectively. Simulated oral dosing regimens at 5 mg/kg every 6 h and 2.5 mg/kg every 4 h predict tramadol and M1 plasma concentrations consistent with analgesia in humans; however, studies are needed to establish the safety and efficacy of these doses.
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Effects of Maturational Changes Upon the Orientation of Auricular Activation Vector in Sheep
Article
  • Feb 1987
The consequences of physical maturation on the orientation of the mean vector of auricular activation in Merino Precoz sheep at different ages has been analysed. The results show that the vectorial magnitudes of ǍP and SAP undergo a significant decrease at 20 days and between 3 months and 1 year of age. Conversely, physical maturation does not seem to have any effect on the sequence of auricular activation, since the P mean spatial vector takes a sinistrocaudal and slightly ventral orientation in all ages analysed. Zusammenfassung Einflüsse der körperlichen Entwicklung auf den Richtungsverlauf des Vectors der Vorhofaktivierung beim Schaf: Die Auswirkungen der körperlichen Entwicklung auf die Richtung des mittleren Vectors der Vorhofaktivierung wurde bei Merino‐Precoz‐Schafen unterschiedlichen Alters untersucht. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, daß die Vectorgrößen in der Horizontalebene und im Raum bei den 20 Tage alten Tieren gegenüber den jüngeren Tieren verkleinert war und, daß im Altersabschnitt von 3–9 Monaten eine weitere Abnahme dieser Größe erfolgte. Demgegenüber schien die körperliche Entwicklung keinen Einfluß auf den Ablauf der Vorhofaktivierung zu haben, da der mittlere räumliche P‐Vector in allen Altersabschnitten eine Ausrichtung nach links, caudal und geringgradig ventral zeigte.
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Retrospective Analysis of the Clinical Utility of Ambulatory Electrocardiographic (Holter) Recordings in Syncopal Dogs: 44 Cases (1991-1995)
Article
  • Mar 1999
The objective of this study was to evaluate retrospectively the clinical utility of ambulatory (Holter) electrocardiographic monitoring in syncopal dogs and to compare the Holter recording with the clinic electrocardiogram (ECG) in these animals. Fifty Holter reports and 44 medical records from 44 dogs were evaluated. A syncopcal episode occurred during monitoring in 24% of the recordings. No obvious relationship was found between the frequency of syncope occurring before Holter recording and the likelihood of a dog having an episode during recording. Holter recordings were helpful in establishing a diagnosis 42% of the time, but no relationship was detected between the frequency of episodes occurring before Holter recording and the likelihood of a diagnostically useful Holter. An arrhythmia was ruled out as the cause of syncope in 12% of the recordings and was implicated as the cause of syncope in 30% of recordings. Of these, 20% were ventricular tachyarrhythmias and 10% were bradyarrhythmias including pacemaker failure. Ambulatory electrocardiographic recordings led to a therapeutic change in 38% of cases. A comparison of the Holter recordings and clinic ECGs documented the expected increased sensitivity for Holter detection of arrhythmias. The average clinic ECG heart rate consistently exceeded the average Holter heart rate with a mean difference between the average heart rates recorded by the two techniques of 31 bpm (range — 8–87 bpm).
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High-concentration tramadol-induced vasodilation in rabbit aorta is mediated by both endothelium-dependent and -independent mechanisms
Article
  • May 2003
The mechanism of tramadol-induced vasodilation was investigated using isolated rabbit thoracic aortic rings. Aortic rings from 8 rabbits were placed in organ bath and precontracted with phenylephrine (10(-5) mol/L) before addition of tramadol. Relaxation responses by tramadol were evaluated in the presence and absence of endothelium, indomethacin (an inhibitor of cyclooxygenase), NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, a specific inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase), glibenclamide (an inhibitor of ATP-sensitive potassium channels), tetraethylammonium chloride (TEA, an inhibitor of calcium-sensitive potassium channels), and naloxone (an antagonist of opioid receptors). Tramadol (10(-4) mol/L and 3 x 10(-4) mol/L) caused significant vasodilation in endothelium-intact and endothelium-denuded aortic rings (P<0.05). The relaxation response to tramadol was significantly greater in endothelium-intact rings than in endothelium-denuded rings. Pretreatment of aortic rings with indomethacin (10(-5) mol/L), glibenclamide (10(-5) mol/L), TEA (10(-3) mol/L), and naloxone (10(-4) mol/L) had no effect on the tramadol-induced relaxation. In endothelium-intact rings, L-NAME (10(-4) mol/L) pretreatment caused marked inhibition of the relaxation induced by tramadol, but not endothelium-denuded rings. In the rabbit aorta, vascular relaxation induced by tramadol is due to both nitric oxide production from endothelium and a direct effect on smooth muscle.
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Effects of propofol on the electrocardiogram and systolic blood pressure of healthy cats pre-medicated with acepromazine
Article
  • Aug 2004
To obtain and analyze the electrocardiogram and systolic blood pressure of cats before, during, and after a continuous infusion of propofol. Prospective, uncontrolled experimental trial. Twenty healthy adult crossbred male and female cats aged between 3 and 5 years, weighing 2.8-5.0 kg (mean 3.9 kg). Cats were pre-medicated with acepromazine 0.1 mg kg(-1) subcutaneously and anesthesia was induced with intravenous (IV) propofol 6 mg kg(-1) and maintained with a continuous infusion of propofol at 0.5 mg kg(-1) minute(-1) for 60 minutes. Electrocardiographic parameters and systolic blood pressure obtained by Doppler ultrasound were recorded before pre-medication (T0), 30 (T30), and 60 (T60) minutes after beginning the continuous infusion, and 30 minutes after its cessation (T90). Repeated measures anova was used to perform statistical analysis. A significant decrease in heart rate was observed at all time points when compared with T0 values. The PR interval increased significantly at T60 and T90. Systolic blood pressures during anesthesia were significantly lower than at T0 and T90. The changes seen were not clinically important in normal cats but given the reduction in heart rate and systolic blood pressure, careful consideration should be given before using this technique in patients in which hypotension or a reduction in heart rate would be poorly tolerated.
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QT interval measurement in the dog: Chest leads versus limb leads
Article
  • Nov 2004
  • J Pharmacol Toxicol Meth
An accurate measurement of the QT interval is dependent on the accurate identification of the end of the T wave. Although chest leads have been recommended in dog toxicology studies, their use has not been widely put into practice, as shown by a recent survey on methodology for ECG collection in the pharmaceutical industry. Therefore, there is little published data on dog QT measurement from chest leads. Electrocardiograms (ECGs) were taken from 100 beagle dogs (50 males, 50 females), with the dogs restrained in a sling. On the day of recording, measurements were performed at time zero and 1 h later. Recordings were repeated 7 to 10 days later. QT interval measurements were taken simultaneously from Lead II and the chest Lead CV5RL. Heart rate was taken from Lead II. Statistical analyses included the calculation of a QT correction formula, comparison of the mean values and variability of QT and QTc measurements from Leads II and CV5RL, the comparison of T-wave polarity from both leads, and a power analysis for QT and QTc. The T wave was positive in almost all dogs (99/100) in the Lead CV5RL at all measurement periods, while it was either positive or negative in Lead II (64-75/100), and the incidence of positive T wave varied between measurement periods. The QT interval was significantly shorter (194+/-11 to 197+/-12 vs. 197+/-13 to 200+/-12 ms) when measured from the CV5RL lead at all recording periods and in both sexes. In addition, the standard deviation for QT measurement within each individual ECG record demonstrates less intra-animal variation when QT is measured from Lead CV5RL compared with Lead II (3.8 vs. 13.2 ms). The linear regression between QT and heart rate was improved when QT measurements were taken from CV5RL, as shown by the percentage of variability R2. Estimates of the sample sizes showed that fewer animals would be required to detect a change at both the high and the mid-doses when using the chest Lead CV5RL. Using Lead II, we are able to detect within-animal changes of 10% in either QT or QTc; with Lead CV5RL, we are able to detect 10% change in QT and 5% change in QTc.
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