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Mechanism of herpes simplex virus type 2 suppression by propolis extracts
Abstract
Genital herpes caused by herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) is a chronic, persistent infection spreading efficiently and silently as sexually transmitted disease through the population. Antiviral agents currently applied for the treatment of herpesvirus infections include acyclovir and derivatives. Aqueous and ethanolic extracts of propolis were phytochemically analysed, different polyphenols, flavonoids and phenylcarboxylic acids were identified as major constituents. The aqueous propolis extract revealed a relatively high amount of phenylcarboxylic acids and low concentrations flavonoids when compared to the ethanolic special extract GH 2002. The cytotoxic and antiherpetic effect of propolis extracts against HSV-2 was analysed in cell culture, and revealed a moderate cytotoxicity on RC-37 cells. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC(50)) of aqueous and ethanolic GH 2002 propolis extracts for HSV-2 plaque formation was determined at 0.0005% and 0.0004%, respectively. Both propolis extracts exhibited high levels of antiviral activity against HSV-2 in viral suspension tests, infectivity was significantly reduced by >99% and a direct concentration- and time-dependent antiherpetic activity could be demonstrated for both extracts. In order to determine the mode of virus suppression by propolis, the extracts were added at different times during the viral infection cycle. Addition of these drugs to uninfected cells prior to infection or to herpesvirus-infected cells during intracellular replication had no effect on virus multiplication. However both propolis extracts exhibited high anti-herpetic activity when viruses were pretreated with these drugs prior to infection. Selectivity indices were determined at 80 and 42.5 for the aqueous and ethanolic extract, respectively, thus propolis extracts might be suitable for topical therapy in recurrent herpetic infection.
... The main active chemical components of propolis and their percentages are represented in Table (2). Substances including polyphenols (Orsolić et al., 2004;Bhargava et al., 2021), flavonoids such as flavonols, flavones, isoflavones, and flavanones dihydroflavonols (Marcucci et al., 2000;Gardana et al., 2007), organic phenolic acids (cinammic and caffeic acid), esters of phenolic acids (terpenes and alcohols), and fatty acids (Righi et al., 2013) are also abundant in propolis (Nolkemper et al., 2010). Propolis also contains some enzymes such as dehydrogenase, glucose-6-phosphatase, adenosine triphosphate, and acid phosphatase (Yilmaz et al., 2003). ...
... Regarding the antiviral effect of propolis, both ethanol and aqueous propolis extracts exhibit a strong antiviral potential, especially against influenza viruses (Shimizu et al., 2008) and herpes simplex viruses (Schnitzler et al., 2010). ...
... Generally, the antimicrobial effects of propolis could be attributed to presence of biologically active components such as phenolic and flavonoids Tosi et al., 2007;Nolkemper et al., 2010;Haile et al., 2012;Kamboh et al., 2015;Al-Ani et al., 2018). Besides, the presence of other components such as pinocembrin, chrysin, apigenin, galangin, diterpenes, terpenes, esters, amino acids, aromatic aldehydes, vitamins, and minerals could enhance propolis antimicrobial activity (Serkedjieva et al., 1992;Bankova et al., 1995;Orsi et al., 2005). ...
The concerns about the possible adverse effects of synthetic feed additives in livestock production world-wide has led producers to search for alternative natural feed additives. Propolis (bee glue) is a mixture of natural viscous substances that are collected by honeybees from plants. This natural product consists of about 200–300 compounds with high biological and pharmacological properties. Propolis induces an improvement in growth parameters, feed utilization, and meat quality. It also exerts antioxidant, anti-stress, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory as well as immunomodulatory and hepatic and cardiac protective effects. The presence of a huge amount of polyphenols such as flavonoids, phenolic acid esters, triterpenes, aromatic acids, diterpenic acids, and lignans are responsible for the biological properties of propolis. Therefore, propolis shows potential promising effects when applied in livestock and poultry production system. Accordingly, this review article is aimed to highlight the influences of propolis on the general health conditions of poultry and rabbits regarding the performance parameters and carcass characteristics, as well as the antioxidant, anti-stress, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, and the immuno-potentiation potentials.
... There is no cure or vaccine for HSV infection, and its treatment is based on the use of analgesics, common anesthetics, and antivirals, such as acyclovir (Brady and Bernstein, 2004). In vitro studies show that honey or propolis have been successful in inhibiting the spread of HSV from infected cells and, their antiherpetic effect is probably due to the presence of phenolic compounds, such as flavonoids and caffeates (Ikeda et al., 2011;Hashemipour et al., 2014;Nolkemper et al., 2010). ...
... Ikeda et al. (2011) demonstrated that caffeic acid, a polyphenol present in propolis and honey, has potent antiviral activity against HSV. Chrysin and galangin isolated from propolis also showed significant antiviral activity, and there are indications in the literature that the antimicrobial action of propolis relies on a synergistic effect of its components, making the effect of the extracts more attractive than the isolated constituents (Lima et al., 2020;Nolkemper et al., 2010;Scheller et al., 1999). ...
... This would be a different mechanism from that proposed for acyclovir, which showed greater antiviral activity when added during the viral replication stage. These findings suggest that an association between acyclovir and propolis-based products might increase the antiviral potential by producing a synergistic effect between them (Lima et al., 2020;Nolkemper et al., 2010;Scheller et al., 1999). However, the benefits of this association need to be confirmed by randomized and controlled trials. ...
Headings ethnopharmacological relevance
Apitherapy is a branch of traditional medicine that uses bee products to manage numerous diseases. In this context, the antiherpetic effect of these bee products has been demonstrated in some studies with some controversial results.
Aim of the study
Thus, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to compare the effectiveness of honey and propolis with acyclovir, the reference drug, in the treatment of cold sores and genital herpes.
Materials and methods
The selection of eligible studies was conducted through the search in Pubmed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Cochrane Library, LILACS, and Electronic Scientific Library.
Results
This search yielded 147 articles, of which nine were considered eligible for analysis. The analysis of these studies showed that the healing property of propolis is superior to that obtained for acyclovir (95% CI: 2.70 to 8.25; p = 0.0001). Furthermore, honey also presented a better healing effect than acyclovir against HSV-induced wounds (95% CI: 3.58 to −0.19; p = 0.03), inducing complete re-epithelization of herpetic lesions after 8 days, while for acyclovir, the healing time average was 9 days. It also provoked a similar reduction of pain caused by herpetic compared to acyclovir (95% CI: 2.27 to −0.42; p = 0.18).
Conclusions
Overall, these results confirm the use of honey and propolis as potent antiherpetic agents.
... Much research has shown that in contact with the viral particle, propolis destroys the ability of the pathogen to enter the cell [28,35,36]. Virus particles with altered morphology were observed, suggesting possible damage to viral envelope proteins. ...
... We used different experimental setups, each adding the propolis extracts at different stages of the viral infection cycle. In a similar way, the data obtained by other researchers were close to ours, proving a significant influence of propolis on extracellular virions, especially in enveloped viruses, as well as on the stage of viral adsorption on susceptible cells [35,36,38]. A more detailed study of the specific mechanism of action will take place after a more detailed study of the chemical composition of the samples. ...
Propolis is a natural mixture of resins, wax, and pollen from plant buds and flowers, enriched with enzymes and bee saliva. It also contains various essential oils, vitamins, mineral salts, trace elements, hormones, and ferments. It has been found that propolis possesses antimicrobial, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory properties. We have studied the antiviral activity of six extracts of Bulgarian propolis collected from six districts of Bulgaria. The study was conducted against structurally different viruses: human coronavirus strain OC-43 (HCoV OC-43) and human respiratory syncytial virus type 2 (HRSV-2) (enveloped RNA viruses), human herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) (enveloped DNA virus), human rhinovirus type 14 (HRV-14) (non-enveloped RNA virus) and human adenovirus type 5 (HadV-5) (non-enveloped DNA virus). The influence of the extracts on the internal replicative cycle of viruses was determined using the cytopathic effect (CPE) inhibition test. The virucidal activity, its impact on the stage of viral adsorption to the host cell, and its protective effect on healthy cells were evaluated using the final dilution method, making them the focal points of interest. The change in viral infectivity under the action of propolis extracts was compared with untreated controls, and Δlgs were determined. Most propolis samples administered during the viral replicative cycle demonstrated the strongest activity against HCoV OC-43 replication. The influence of propolis extracts on the viability of extracellular virions was expressed to a different degree in the various viruses studied, and the effect was significantly stronger in those with an envelope. Almost all extracts significantly inhibited the adsorption step of the herpes virus and, to a less extent, of the coronavirus to the host cell, and some of them applied before viral infection demonstrated a protective effect on healthy cells. Our results enlarge the knowledge about the action of propolis and could open new perspectives for its application in viral infection treatment.
... Many research have shown that in contact with the viral particle, propolis destroys the ability of the pathogen to enter the cell [29,36,37]. Virus particles with altered morphology were observed, suggesting possible damage to viral envelope proteins. ...
... We used different experimental setups, each adding the propolis extracts at different stages of the viral infection cycle. In a similar way, the data obtained by other researchers were close to ours -proving a significant influence of propolis on extracellular virions, especially in enveloped viruses, as well as on the stage of viral adsorption on susceptible cells [36,37,39]. ...
Propolis, or bee glue, is a complex mixture of resins from plant buds and flowers, wax, pollen and bee saliva. It also contains various vitamins, essential oils, mineral salts, trace elements, hormones and enzymes. It has been found that propolis possesses antimicrobial, antiviral and anti-inflammatory properties. We have studied the antiviral activity of six extracts of Bulgarian propolis collected from six districts of Bulgaria. The study was conducted against structurally different viruses: Human coronavirus strain OC-43 (HCoV OC-43) and Human respiratory syncytial virus type 5 (HRSV-5) (enveloped RNA viruses), Human herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) (enveloped DNA virus), Human rhinovirus type 14 (HRV-14) (non-enveloped RNA virus) and Human adenovirus type 2 (HadV-2) (non-enveloped DNA virus). The influence of the extracts on the internal replicative cycle of viruses was determined using the cytopathic effect (CPE) inhibition test. The virucidal capacity, their influence on the adsorption stage and their protective effect on uninfected cells were also determined by the end-point dilution method. Residual viral infectivity in propolis samples was compared to untreated controls and Δlgs were calculated. When administered during viral replication, most propolis extracts demonstrated the strongest activity against HCoV OC-43. The influence of propolis extracts on the viability of extracellular virions was expressed to a different degree in the various viruses studied, and the effect was significantly stronger in those with an envelope. Almost all extracts significantly inhibited the step of herpes virus adsorption to the host cell, and some of them showed a protective effect on healthy cells before they were subjected to herpes infection. Our results enlarge the knowledge about the action of propolis and could open new perspectives for its application in viral infections treatment.
... The effect of propolis against HSV-2 has been reported in many studies. It was demonstrated that propolis extracts from the bee glue of Apis mellifera and Canadian propolis have a virucidal effect and interrupt HSV-2 activity in the virus adsorption step [14,24]. Yildirim et al., 2016, also observed the suppression of HSV-2 replication by Hatay propolis along with the combination with ACV, showing a synergetic antiviral activity that was superior to the treatment with ACV alone [25]. ...
... Moreover, the viral capsid proteins or other virus-specific proteins could be interrupted by CS or its derivatives, leading to the prevention of viral glycoproteins and the interaction with their receptors, the reduction of viral entry, and eventually the suppression of viral replication [23,34,35]. Secondly, the active constituents of EEP released from nanocarriers might directly affect the virion envelope, capsid proteins, or mask viral compounds such as glycoproteins, which are responsible for adsorption or entry into host cells, as described elsewhere [14,36]. It was stated that the constituents of propolis, galangin, and chrysin are responsible for antiviral activity by reducing the plaque formation of free HSV. ...
Herpes simplex type 2 (HSV-2) infection causes a significant life-long disease. Long-term side effects of antiviral drugs can lead to the emergence of drug resistance. Thus, propolis, a natural product derived from beehives, has been proposed to prevent or treat HSV-2 infections. Unfortunately, therapeutic applications of propolis are still limited due its poor solubility. To overcome this, a nanoparticle-based drug delivery system was employed. An ethanolic extract of propolis (EEP) was encapsulated in nanoparticles composed of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) and chitosan using a modified oil-in-water single emulsion by using the solvent evaporation method. The produced nanoparticles (EEP-NPs) had a spherical shape with a size of ~450 nm and presented satisfactory physicochemical properties, including positively charged surface (38.05 ± 7.65 mV), high entrapment efficiency (79.89 ± 13.92%), and sustained release profile. Moreover, EEP-NPs were less cytotoxic on Vero cells and exhibited anti-HSV-2 activity. EEP-NPs had a direct effect on the inactivation of viral particles, and also disrupted the virion entry and release from the host cells. A significant decrease in the expression levels of the HSV-2 replication-related genes (ICP4, ICP27, and gB) was also observed. Our study suggests that EEP-NPs provide a strong anti-HSV-2 activity and serve as a promising platform for the treatment of HSV-2 infections.
... Flavonoids, the primary ingredients of propolis, contribute significantly to the pharmacological effects of the substance. Even though they possess antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory effects [21][22][23][24][25], flavonoids derived from propolis, which are virtually entirely aglycones, are characterized by low solubility and poor bioavailability [26,27]. It has been observed that using phytochrome forms and grinding technology can boost the oral bioavailability of flavonoids, as well as their solubility [28][29][30]. ...
There is a significant cause for worry within the medical community over the growing resistance of microorganisms to antibiotic treatment. The use of specific probiotic strains to inhibit the growth of pathogens due to the release of bacteriocins and the use of phytochemicals that can inhibit biofilms, interfere with bacterial quorum sensing signaling pathways, or act as chelating agents and efflux pump inhibitors are two examples of the innovative strategies that have been proposed as a result of this concern. The “wait and see” strategy is less inventive but pragmatic nonetheless. A wait-and-see approach, in which antibacterial medication is postponed for 48–72 h, has been proposed to treat acute otitis media (AOM) in children. This is primarily due to the growing antibiotic resistance of bacteria that cause respiratory infections.
... It is harvested by worker bees or stingless bees for constructing or repairing their hives, along with killing pests and pathogens. Propolis contains numerous biological properties, such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer, antitumor, and wound healing activities [11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]. Multiple studies have reported on the strong and wide ranges of antimicrobial activities of propolis. ...
Malassezia globosa, a lipophilic pathogen, is known to be involved in various chronic skin diseases. Unfortunately, the available treatments have unwanted side effects and microbial drug resistance is evolving. As the antimicrobial activity of propolis is outstanding, this study aimed to examine the potential of propolis from the stingless bee Geniotrigona thoracica against the yeast. Anti-M. globosa growth activity was ascertained in agar well diffusion and broth microdilution assays and the inhibitory concentration value at 50 % (IC50) was determined. Since the yeast cannot synthesize its own fatty acids, extracellular lipase is important for its survival. Here, anti-M. globosa extracellular lipase activity was additionally investigated by colorimetric and agar-based methods. Compared to the crude hexane and crude dichloromethane extracts, the crude methanol partitioned extract (CMPE) exhibited the best anti-M. globosa growth activity with an IC50 of 1.22 mg/mL. After CMPE was further enriched by silica gel column chromatography, fraction CMPE1 (IC50 of 0.98 mM or 184.93 μg/mL) presented the highest activity and was later identified as methyl gallate (MG) by nuclear magnetic resonance analysis. Subsequently, MG was successfully synthesized and shown to have a similar activity, and a minimal fungicidal concentration of 43.44 mM or 8.00 mg/mL. However, lipase assay analysis suggested that extracellular lipase might not be the main target mechanism of MG. This is the first report of MG as a new anti-Malassezia compound. It could be a good candidate for further developing alternative therapeutic agents.
... Propolis, a naturally resinous substance produced by bees, has been widely used as natural medicine (Sforcin, 2016). It has been reported for its antiviral activity against various virus types, including influenza (Shimizu et al., 2008), SARS-CoV-2 (Aparecida, Augusto Du, Manuel Có, & De Jong, 2020), herpes simplex types (Nolkemper, Reichling, Sensch, & Schnitzler, 2010), and human immunodeficiency virus (Gekker, Hu, Spivak, Lokensgard, & Peterson, 2005), among others. Propolis is a rich source of phenolic compounds such as caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE), caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, cinnamic acid, and flavonoids (galangin, chrysin, quercetin, pinocembrin, and pinobanksin) (Huang, Zhang, Wang, Li, & Hu, 2014). ...
Prevention of COVID-19 is of paramount importance for public health. Some natural extracts might have the potential to suppress COVID-19 infection. Therefore, this study aimed to design a standardised, efficient, and safe chewable tablet formulation (with propolis and three herbal extracts) for possible prevention against two variants (Wuhan B.1.36 and Omicron BA.1.1) of SARS-CoV-2 virus and other viral infections. Green tea, bilberry, dried pomegranate peel, and propolis extracts were selected for this purpose. Cytotoxicity and antiviral activity of each component, as well as the developed chewable tablet, were examined against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus using Vero E6 cells with the xCELLigence real-time cell analyser-multiple plates system. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities, as well as mutagenicity and anti-mutagenicity of the chewable tablet were also analysed. Compared to the control, it was observed that the chewable tablet at concentrations of 110 and 55 µg/mL had antiviral activity rates of 101% and 81%, respectively, for the Wuhan variant and 112% and 35%, respectively, for the Omicron variant. The combination of herbal extracts with propolis extract were synergically more effective (∼7-fold higher) than that of individual extract. The present work suggests that a combination of herbal extracts with propolis at suitable concentrations can effectively be used as a food supplement for the prevention of both variants of the SARS-CoV-2 virus in the oral cavity (the first entry point of the SARS-CoV-2 virus).
... Chemical analysis of the different fractions used in this study revealed a composition of phenols, flavonones, flavonols, xanthones, steroids, flavonoids, triterpenoids, saponins, and alkaloids. These components are usually reported in plants from the Meliaceae family 59 , and the antiviral effect is attributed to secondary metabolites that may act alone or synergistically [76][77][78] . Furthermore, when acting in consonance, these substances present great pharmacological variability and may, in the future, be used as broad-spectrum antimicrobial agents 79,80 . ...
This study aimed to evaluate, in vitro, the use of leaf extracts of Azadirachta indica (A. indica) and Melia azedarach (M. azedarach) as antivirals against caprine lentivirus (CLV) in colostrum and milk of goat nannies. These were collected from eight individuals and infected with the standard strain of CLV. Samples were then subdivided into aliquots and treated with 150 µg/mL of crude extract, and with ethyl acetate and methanol fractions for 30, 60, and 90 min. Next, somatic cells from colostrum and milk were co-cultured with cells from the ovine third eyelid. After this step, viral titers of the supernatants collected from treatments with greater efficacy in co-culture were assessed. The organic ethyl acetate fractions of both plants at 90 min possibly inhibited the viral activity of CLV by up to a thousandfold in colostrum. In milk, this inhibition was up to 800 times for the respective Meliaceae. In conclusion, the ethanolic fraction of ethyl acetate from both plants demonstrated efficacy against CLV in samples from colostrum and milk when subjected to treatment, which was more effective in colostrum.
... Overall, the above findings led to a hypothesis that the herbal extracts of climbing num-num are endowed with strong antiviral properties against herpes simplex viruses and could serve as an alternative therapy for herpes [122]. Among the functional foods with potential as antiviral remedies, propolis, a byproduct of honeybees, is endowed with relevant biological properties and medical applications [123], including a significant anti-HSV potential [124,125]. Several standardized propolis preparations with soy oil, glycol, glycerol, and ethanol were tested against HSV-1 and HSV-2 in a study aimed at determining the chemical composition and antiviral potential of each extract, using acyclovir as the control [126]. In particular, the glycolic propolis extract demonstrated an antiviral activity higher than acyclovir towards both HSV-1 and HSV-2, whereas preparations containing ethanol, glycolic acid, and soya oil had an antiviral activity higher than acyclovir only in the case of HSV-2 [126]. ...
A complex network of processes inside the human immune system provides resistance against a wide range of pathologies. These defenses form an innate and adaptive immunity, in which certain immune components work together to counteract infections. In addition to inherited variables, the susceptibility to diseases may be influenced by factors such as lifestyle choices and aging, as well as environmental determinants. It has been shown that certain dietary chemical components regulate signal transduction and cell morphologies which, in turn, have consequences on pathophysiology. The consumption of some functional foods may increase immune cell activity, defending us against a number of diseases, including those caused by viruses. Here, we investigate a range of functional foods, often marketed as immune system boosters, in an attempt to find indications of their potential protective role against diseases caused by viruses, such as the influenza viruses (A and B), herpes simplex virus (HSV), and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), in some cases mediated by gut microbiota. We also discuss the molecular mechanisms that govern the protective effects of some functional foods and their molecular constituents. The main message of this review is that discovering foods that are able to strengthen the immune system can be a winning weapon against viral diseases. In addition, understanding how the dietary components function can aid in the development of novel strategies for maintaining human bodily health and keeping our immune systems strong.
... Longer incubation times led to a higher reduction in viral plaques. Specifically, 1-hour incubation of both extracts with HSV-2 reduced plaque formation by > 99% [54]. ...
Honey bees provide many products exerting a wide range of benefits to humans. Honey, propolis, royal jelly, beeswax, bee venom, bee pollen and bee bread have been used as natural medicines since ancient times because of their therapeutic effects. These products have demonstrated healing properties against wounds, diabetes, gastrointestinal diseases, cancer, asthma, neurological diseases, bacterial and viral infections. The antibacterial and antibiofilm activity of honey bee products is widely studied and a huge body of evidence supports it. On the other hand, their antiviral effect has not been extensively studied. However, recent research has demonstrated their potential against diverse viral infections including SARS-CoV-2. Hence, honey bee products could be alternatives to treat viral diseases, especially when there is no effective treatment available. This narrative review aims to present up to date data (including ongoing clinical trials) regarding the antiviral activity of honey bee products, aiming to elucidate how honey bee product supplementation contributes to antiviral treatment.
... Ethanol and aqueous propolis extracts were investigated against HSV-1 and -2. These propolis extracts showed a 49% viral reduction against HSV-2 infectivity [120]. Thirteen different ethanol extracts were prepared using Brazilian green propolis and tested against the influenza virus. ...
Bee products have been extensively employed in traditional therapeutic practices to treat several diseases and microbial infections. Numerous bioactive components of bee products have exhibited several antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, anticancer, antiprotozoal, hepatoprotective, and immunomodulatory properties. Apitherapy is a form of alternative medicine that uses the bioactive properties of bee products to prevent and/or treat different diseases. This review aims to provide an elaborated vision of the antiviral activities of bee products with recent advances in research. Since ancient times, bee products have been well known for their several medicinal properties. The antiviral and immunomodulatory effects of bee products and their bioactive components are emerging as a promising alternative therapy against several viral infections. Numerous studies have been performed, but many clinical trials should be conducted to evaluate the potential of apitherapy against pathogenic viruses. In that direction, here, we review and highlight the potential roles of bee products as apitherapeutics in combating numerous viral infections. Available studies validate the effectiveness of bee products in virus inhibition. With such significant antiviral potential, bee products and their bioactive components/extracts can be effectively employed as an alternative strategy to improve human health from individual to communal levels as well.
... Various propolis extracts (e.g., aqueous, ethanolic, and hydroalcholic) at controllable laboratory condition have been found to exeret substantial antiviral activity against several types of viruses such as Herpes simplex virus type 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2), Canine distemper virus, Human rhinovirus type 2, 3 and 4 (HRV-2, HRV-3 and HRV-4), Influenza virus type A and B, Parainfluenza virus, Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and Adenovirus [292,293].Research findings demonstrated that aqueous and ethanol propolis extracts exhibited a strong antiviral activity against HSV-1 [294] and HSV-2 [295] on RC-37 cells by affecting viral plaque formation and viral infection cycle. On the other hand, 0.5% aqueous extract of propolis showed potent antiviral activity against HSV-1 infected rats and rabbits thorough prevention of virus absorption into the host and inhibition of an internal step(s) during the viral replication cycle [296]. ...
Propolis, a resinous substance produced by honeybees from various plant sources, has been used for thousands of years in traditional medicine for several purposes all over the world. The precise composition of propolis varies according to plant source, seasons harvesting, geography, type of bee flora, climate changes, and honeybee species at the site of collection. This apiary product has broad clinical applications such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, analgesic, antidepressant, and anxiolytic as well asimmunomodulatory effects. It is also well known from traditional uses in treating purulent disorders, improving the wound healing, and alleviating many of the related discomforts. Even if its use was already widespread since ancient times, after the First and Second World War, it has grown even more as well as the studies to identify its chemical and pharmacological features, allowing to discriminate the qualities of propolis in terms of the chemical profile and relative biological activity based on the geographic place of origin. Recently, several in vitro and in vivo studies have been carried out and new insights into the pharmaceutical prospects of this bee product in the management of different disorders, have been highlighted. Specifically, the available literature confirms the efficacy of propolis and its bioactive compounds in the reduction of cancer progression, inhibition of bacterial and viral infections as well as mitigation of parasitic-related symptoms, paving the way to the use of propolis as an alternative approach to improve the human health. However, a more conscious use of propolis in terms of standardized extracts as well as new clinical studies are needed to substantiate these health claims.
... Regarding human consumption, propolis has been used for a long time in traditional medicine, as it exhibits numerous biological and pharmacological activities such as antioxidant (Miguel, Nunes, Dandlen, Cavaco, & Antunes, 2010), antifungal (Ota, Unterkircher, Fantinato, & Shimizu, 2001), antibacterial (Raghukumar, Vali, Watson, Fearnley, & Seidel, 2010), antiviral (Nolkemper, Reichling, Sensch, & Schnitzler, 2010), anti-inflammatory (Ramos & Miranda, 2007) or antitumor (Carvalho et al., 2011). ...
Propolis has many benefits for human health. To facilitate its oral consumption, we designed propolis-in-water dispersions to be used as nutraceuticals. Propolis was first dissolved either in ethanol or in a hydroalcoholic solution. Water being a non-solvent for propolis, its addition produced propolis precipitation. We explored the ternary phase diagram of water, propolis and ethanol to identify the line separating the one phase region where propolis is fully dissolved, and the two-phase region where a concentrated propolis solution coexists with a dilute one. Droplets rich in propolis were produced during the phase separation process under mechanical stirring induced by a rotor-stator device or a microfluidizer, and they were stabilized using gum Arabic as an emulsifier. Ethanol was finally removed by distillation under reduced pressure. Propolis dispersions in the micron and submicron size range could be obtained. They contained between 1.75 and 10.5 wt% polyphenols relative to the total mass.
... The health-promoting properties of propolis come from its chemical composition, including antimicrobial and antiviral (Bankova et al., 2014;das Neves et al., 2016;Nolkemper et al., 2010), antioxidant properties (Azemin et al., 2018;Mello and Hubinger, 2012;Sun et al., 2015), anticancer (Markiewicz-Zukowska et al., 2013;Xuan et al., 2014), anti-inflammatory and cytostatic (Corrêa et al., 2017;Kismet et al., 2017), immunostimulants (Nassar et al., 2012), and anti-allergic (Yasar et al., 2016). The rich bioactive components are useful in their application in various fields such as medicine and dentistry, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and the food industry. ...
This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of propolis extract as a natural preservative for livestock products in term of chemical and microbiological characteristics by meta-analysis. The stages carried out in this study were identification, selection, checking suitability, and the resulting selected articles were used in the meta-analysis. The selection results obtained a total of 22 selected journal articles consisting of 9 articles for analysis of the antimicrobial activity of propolis extract and 13 articles for analysis of the chemical and mirobiological characteristics of livestock products. The articles were obtained from electronic databases, namely Science Direct and Google Scholar. The model used in this study is the random-effect model involving two groups, control and experimental. Heterogeneity and effect size values were carried out in this study using Hedge's obtained through openMEE software. Forest plot tests and data validation on publication bias was obtained using Kendall's test throught JASP 0.14.1 software. The results showed that there is a significant relationship between propolis extract with the results of the antimicrobial activity (p<0.05). In addition, the results of the application of propolis extract on the livestock products for the test microbes and the value of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs) showed significant results (p<0.05). Conclusion based on the random-effect model on the effectiveness of antimicrobial activity of propolis extract and their apllication as a natural preservative of the chemical and microbiological characteristics of livestock products is valid by Kendall's test (p>0.05). Propolis in this case effectively used as natural preservatives in livestock products.
... However, they have bactericidal activity on P. aeruginosa (Kosalec et al. 2005, Przybyłek andKarpin´ski 2019). Propolis is also active against yeasts like Candida species (Kosalec et al. 2005) and many viruses in vitro and in vivo (Berretta et al. 2020;Nolkemper et al. 2010;Schnitzler et al. 2010). The mechanism of action depends on inhibition of the virus' entry into cells and disruption of viral replication, which destroys RNA before or after its release in the cells (Búfalo et al. 2009;Sforcin 2016). ...
In recent years, there has been a continuous increase in resistance to traditional antibiotics developed by pathogenic bacteria. However, in many parts of the world, several medicinal plants are traditionally used to control infectious microorganisms. Because of this, antimicrobial agents derived from natural products have received a lot of attention, both for their effectiveness and also for being more economically accessible. Therefore, the research discussed in this chapter aims to conduct a systematic review on the use of medicinal plants and isolated compounds as a potential antimicrobial agent. The study focuses on an investigation of several electronic databases: Scopus, Web of Science, Academic Google, SciELO, PubMed, SciFinder, and ScienceDirect. The results may contribute to the increase of strategies for the treatment of infections caused by microorganisms. Since medicinal plants play an essential role in health, they may represent a significant source of new antimicrobial drugs to combat microorganisms resistant to multidrug.
... However, they have bactericidal activity on P. aeruginosa (Kosalec et al. 2005, Przybyłek andKarpin´ski 2019). Propolis is also active against yeasts like Candida species (Kosalec et al. 2005) and many viruses in vitro and in vivo (Berretta et al. 2020;Nolkemper et al. 2010;Schnitzler et al. 2010). The mechanism of action depends on inhibition of the virus' entry into cells and disruption of viral replication, which destroys RNA before or after its release in the cells (Búfalo et al. 2009;Sforcin 2016). ...
Pteridophytes constitute the primitive vascular plant group, which are found scattered all over the world. There are 580 taxa of Nepalese pteridophytes, which are most diverse and adapted in different climatic zones forming an attractive component of the vegetation showing different ecological habits such as epiphytic, lithophytic, terrestrial, tree ferns, hanging club mosses, climbers, and hydrophytic. Human beings have been using pteridophytes because of their several useful properties, including food and medicine. Some important bioactive compounds have been identified from the Nepalese pteridophytes and the chemical compounds isolated have shown antimicrobial properties, which has revealed that pteridophytes play a potential role in Nepalese pharmacopoeia and drug discovery. Finally, the challenges and opportunities of pteridophyte research are discussed.
... However, they have bactericidal activity on P. aeruginosa (Kosalec et al. 2005, Przybyłek andKarpin´ski 2019). Propolis is also active against yeasts like Candida species (Kosalec et al. 2005) and many viruses in vitro and in vivo (Berretta et al. 2020;Nolkemper et al. 2010;Schnitzler et al. 2010). The mechanism of action depends on inhibition of the virus' entry into cells and disruption of viral replication, which destroys RNA before or after its release in the cells (Búfalo et al. 2009;Sforcin 2016). ...
The Brazilian Amazon is the largest biome in the country and encompasses about 40% of the forest remnants of the humid tropic. The use of homemade medicines from medicinal plants has been practiced since the dawn of human civilization. In prehistoric age, man sought to alleviate his pain or treat his illnesses through the action of bioactive compounds present in plants, although in an intuitive way based on random discoveries. Such secondary metabolites of medicinal plants have proven to have antimicrobial activity due to the action of their bioactive compounds. The extraction of bioactive compounds is an especially important step, not only for the separation of compounds, but also during the analysis of solid materials. There are several conventional and unconventional techniques for the extraction of bioactive compounds from plant matrices, those that use a solvent. Nanotechnology emerges as a potential technology to enhance the action of bioactive compounds present in plant matrices, as it can maintain its characteristics and stability, making these compounds used in several areas. As many of the biologically active compounds have insolubility and hydrophobicity, nanoencapsulation facilitates the delivery of these poorly bioavailable compounds when applied to functional products and drugs, which increases their absorption into cellular structures through properties of favorable particles of shape, size, and surface. Nanotechnology has proved to be a great tool to potentiate the action of such bioactive compounds.
... However, they have bactericidal activity on P. aeruginosa (Kosalec et al. 2005, Przybyłek andKarpin´ski 2019). Propolis is also active against yeasts like Candida species (Kosalec et al. 2005) and many viruses in vitro and in vivo (Berretta et al. 2020;Nolkemper et al. 2010;Schnitzler et al. 2010). The mechanism of action depends on inhibition of the virus' entry into cells and disruption of viral replication, which destroys RNA before or after its release in the cells (Búfalo et al. 2009;Sforcin 2016). ...
Honey bee products have been used since ancient times as food and therapeutics. There is increasing knowledge on their content and molecular mechanism of action. Their bioactive compounds are a combination of both honey bee and plant origin. Plant immune response effectors are secondary metabolites (polyphenols, terpenes, antimicrobial peptides), and they are responsible for the antimicrobial effects of honey bee products like honey, propolis, and bee pollen. Honey bee innate immunity effectors are antimicrobial peptides, like defensin 1 and 2, apidaecins, abaecins, and hymenoptaecin, and some of them have been found in royal jelly, honey, and pollen. Plant secondary metabolites and honey bee antimicrobial peptides combine in beehive mixtures with synergistic antimicrobial activity and undoubtedly represent an interesting alternative to standard antibiotics. Further research should elucidate their interactions in honey bee products as well as their potential biotechnology applications.
... Propolis, a resinous bee product, has been reported to have antimicrobial activities, based on its content of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and esters of aromatic acids [9][10][11]. Specific to antiviral activities, propolis has been shown to inhibit varicellazoster virus, herpes virus, and human immunodeficiency virus [12][13][14]. For COVID-19, pre-clinical studies report the interaction of propolis and some target proteins of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus that causes COVID-19 [15,16]. ...
Background
Propolis and honey have been studied as alternative treatments for patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). However, no study has yet summarized the full body of evidence for the use of propolis and honey in COVID-19 prevention and treatment.
Objective
This study systematically reviews the mechanisms of propolis and honey against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and current evidence for the use of propolis and honey in COVID-19 prevention and treatment.
Search strategy: A systematic search was conducted of electronic databases including PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Cochrane Library from their inceptions to April 2021.
Inclusion criteria: Studies that evaluated the effect of propolis or bee products against SARS-CoV-2 using in silico methods, clinical studies, case reports and case series were included.
Data extraction and analysis: A standardized data extraction form was used, and data were extracted by two independent reviewers. Narrative synthesis was used to summarize study results concerning the use of propolis or honey in COVID-19 prevention and treatment and their potential mechanisms of action against SARS-CoV-2.
Results
A total of 15 studies were included. Nine studies were in silico studies, two studies were case reports, one study was a case series, and three studies were randomized controlled trials (RCTs). In silico studies, using molecular docking methods, showed that compounds in propolis could interact with several target proteins of SARS-CoV-2, including angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, the main protease enzyme, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, and spike protein. Propolis may have a positive effect for clinical improvement in mild and moderate-to-severe COVID-19 patients, according to case reports and case series. The included RCTs indicated that propolis or honey could probably improve clinical symptoms and decrease viral clearance time when they were used as adjuvant therapy to standard of care.
Conclusion
In silico studies showed that compounds from propolis could interact with target proteins of SARS-CoV-2, interfering with viral entry and viral RNA replication, while clinical studies revealed that propolis and honey could probably improve clinical COVID-19 symptoms and decrease viral clearance time. However, clinical evidence is limited by the small number of studies and their small sample sizes. Future clinical studies are warranted.
Please cite this article as: Dilokthornsakul W, Kosiyaporn R, Wuttipongwaragon R, Dilokthornsakul P. Potential effects of propolis and honey in COVID-19 prevention and treatment: A systematic review of in silico and clinical studies. J Integr Med. 2022; Epub ahead of print.
... Viral replication is not the only therapeutic goal studied, as several in vitro studies have shown that many plant extracts (eg aqueous root and bark extract of Rhus aromatica L. (Reichling et al. 2009) as well as aqueous and hydroalcoholic extracts of propolis (Nolkemper et al. 2010)) and their isolated compounds can inhibit the penetration of a virus. The authors attribute the anti-herpetic activity to the interference of the extracts with the viral envelope structures required for adsorption. ...
According to our previous investigation the total methanol extract from Graptopetalum paraguayense E. Walther demonstrates a significant inhibitory effect on herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1). To clarify what causes this inhibitory activity on HSV-1, a metabolic profile of the plant was performed. Three main fractions: non-polar substances, polar metabolites and phenolic compounds were obtained and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis was carried out. Since it is well known that phenolic compounds show a significant anti-herpes effect and that viral DNA polymerase (DNApol) appears to play a key role in HSV virus replication, we present a docking and quantum-chemical analysis of the binding of these compounds to viral DNApol amino acids. Fourteen different phenolic acids found by GC-MS analyses, were used in molecular docking simulations. According to the interaction energies of all fourteen ligands in the DNApol pockets based on docking results, density functional theory (DFT) calculations were performed on the five optimally interacting with the receptor acids. It was found that hydroxybenzoic acids from phenolic fraction of Graptopetalum paraguayense E. Walther show a good binding affinity to the amino acids from the active site of the HSV DNApol, but significantly lower than that of acyclovir. The mode of action on virus replication of acyclovir (by DNApol) is different from that of the plant phenolic acids one, probably.
... It was found that phenolic compounds from acetonic and methanolic extract of apple pomace inhibit both HSV-1 and HSV-2 replication in Vero cells by more than 50%, at noncytotoxic concentrations [10]. Viral replication is not the only therapeutic goal studied, as several in vitro studies have shown that many plant extracts (eg aqueous root and bark extract of Rhus aromatica L. [11] as well as aqueous and hydroalcoholic extracts of propolis [12]) and their isolated compounds can inhibit the penetration of a virus. The authors attribute the anti-herpetic activity to the interference of the extracts with the viral envelope structures required for adsorption. ...
According to our previous investigation the total methanol extract from Graptopetalum paraguayense E. Walther demonstrates a significant inhibitory effect on HSV-1. To clarify what causes this inhibitory activity on HSV-1, a metabolic profile of the plant was performed. Three main fractions: non-polar substances, polar metabolites and phenolic compounds were obtained and GC-MS analysis was carried out. Since it is well known that phenolic compounds show a significant anti-herpes effect and that viral DNA polymerase (DNApol) appears to play a key role in HSV virus replication, we present a docking and quantum-chemical analysis of the binding of these compounds to viral DNApol amino acids. Fourteen different phenolic acids found by GS/MS analyses, were used in molecular docking simulations. According to the interaction energies of all fourteen ligands in the DNApol pockets based on docking results, DFT calculations were performed on the five optimally interacting with the receptor acids. It was found that hydroxybenzoic acids from phenolic fraction of Graptopetalum paraguayense E. Walther show a good binding affinity to the amino acids from the active site of the HSV DNApol, but significantly lower than that of acyclovir. The mode of action on virus replication of acyclovir (by DNApol) is different from that of the plant phenolic acids one, probably.
... It was found that phenolic compounds from acetonic and methanolic extract of apple pomace inhibit both HSV-1 and HSV-2 replication in Vero cells by more than 50%, at non-cytotoxic concentrations [10]. Viral replication is not the only therapeutic goal studied, as several in vitro studies have shown that many plant extracts (eg aqueous root and bark extract of Rhus aromatica L. [11] as well as aqueous and hydroalcoholic extracts of propolis [12]) and their isolated compounds can inhibit the penetration of a virus. The authors attribute the anti-herpetic activity to the interference of the extracts with the viral envelope structures required for adsorption. ...
According to our previous investigation the total methanol extract from Graptopetalum paraguayense E. Walther demonstrates a significant inhibitory effect on HSV-1. To clarify what causes this inhibitory activity on HSV-1, a metabolic profile of the plant was performed. Three main fractions: non-polar substances, polar metabolites and phenolic compounds were obtained and GC-MS analysis was carried out. Since it is well known that phenolic compounds show a significant anti-herpes effect and that viral DNA polymerase (DNApol) appears to play a key role in HSV virus replication, we present a docking and quantum-chemical analysis of the binding of these compounds to viral DNApol amino acids. Fourteen different phenolic acids found by GS/MS analyses, were used in molecular docking simulations. According to the interaction energies of all fourteen ligands in the DNApol pockets based on docking results, DFT calculations were performed on the five optimally interacting with the receptor acids. It was found that hydroxybenzoic acids from phenolic fraction of Graptopetalum paraguayense E. Walther show a good binding affinity to the amino acids from the active site of the HSV DNApol, but significantly lower than that of acyclovir. The mode of action on virus replication of acyclovir (by DNApol) is different from that of the plant phenolic acids one, probably.
... Both extracts showed high antiviral activity against HSV-2 in viral suspension tests, with >99% reduction of infectivity, exerting a direct concentration-and time-dependent activity when viruses were pretreated before incubation with cells. 84 These results demonstrate that flavonoids produce a synergistic, or at least additive, effect together with phenylcarboxylic acids and other phenolic compounds, achieving lower effective concentrations. Nonetheless, flavonoids appear not to be primarily responsible for the activity. ...
Propolis is a complex natural product that possesses antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anti-bacterial, and antiviral properties mainly attributed to the high content in flavonoids, phenolic acids, and their derivatives. The chemical composition of propolis is multifarious, as it depends on the botanical sources from which honey-bees collect resins and exudates. Nevertheless, despite this variability propolis may have a general pharmacological value , and this review systematically compiles, for the first time, the existing preclinical and clinical evidence of propolis activities as an antiviral and immunomodulatory agent, fo-cusing on the possible application in respiratory diseases. In vitro and in vivo assays have demonstrated propolis broad-spectrum effects on viral infectivity and replication, as well as the modulatory actions on cytokine production and immune cell activation as part of both innate and adaptive immune responses. Clinical trials confirmed propolis undeniable potential as an effective therapeutic agent; however , the lack of rigorous randomized clinical trials in the context of respiratory diseases is tangible. Since propolis is available as a dietary supplement, possible use for the prevention of respiratory diseases and their deleterious inflammatory drawbacks on the respiratory tract in humansis considered and discussed. This review opens up newperspectives on the clinical investigation of neglected pro-polis biological properties which, now more than ever, areparticularly relevant with respect to the recent outbreaks of pandemic respiratory infections.
... However, they have bactericidal activity on P. aeruginosa (Kosalec et al. 2005, Przybyłek andKarpin´ski 2019). Propolis is also active against yeasts like Candida species (Kosalec et al. 2005) and many viruses in vitro and in vivo (Berretta et al. 2020;Nolkemper et al. 2010;Schnitzler et al. 2010). The mechanism of action depends on inhibition of the virus' entry into cells and disruption of viral replication, which destroys RNA before or after its release in the cells (Búfalo et al. 2009;Sforcin 2016). ...
According to WHO and FAO, the current global problem in public health/environmental which is of high economic impact is the lack of effectiveness/resistance to "antimicrobials” by many pathogens (e.g., Staphylococcus spp., Mycobacterium spp., Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp., Helicobacter spp., Listeria spp., Salmonella spp., Acinetobacter spp., Aspergillus spp., Candida spp.) that cause disease in humans (e.g., septicemia, nosocomial, respiratory, STD) and food-producing animals (e.g., cattle, goats, poultry), which could be related to food security. Nonetheless, since 1990s, new antimicrobials (new chemical libraries or structures/scaffolds) have not been found in the pharmaceutical industry, but their “new agents” (commercially available drugs) were redesigned from earlier times and prospecting for new discoveries was no longer relevant. In that sense, the WHO has mentioned/emphasized the need to research/develop new antimicrobials since the available therapeutic options are limited, due to the low investment in development and research of new drugs, as well as the few incentives to search/isolate/synthesize new molecules that allow to combat/control/reduce the problem of resistance. Among this search for therapeutic options, the WHO itself has recommended the inclusion of traditional and complementary medicine as a potential/promising alternative that, if it does not completely solve the problem of resistance, at least temporarily contributes to the solution as a new treatment. Thus, nature has provided from some plants certain constituents (isolated/in mixture) with a high biological potential against particular pathogenic microorganisms that cause human/animal diseases. In this chapter, specific cases of molecules/essential oils/extracts of certain medicinal plants from some Latin American countries (Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru) that have been effective against disease-causing
pathogens in humans and/or animals are described.
... These therapeutic effects may arise from masking of viral proteins necessary for adsorption or entry into host cells [13]. Aqueous and ethanolic propolis extracts also reduced HSV-2 proliferation with efficacy comparable to acyclovir when applied at different intervals during the viral infection cycle, again likely by masking viral molecules responsible for entrance or adsorption into host cells [46]. ...
Propolis, a resin produced by honeybees, has long been used as a dietary supplement and folk remedy, and more recent preclinical investigations have demonstrated a large spectrum of potential therapeutic bioactivities, including antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, immunomodulatory, anticancer, and antiviral properties. As an antiviral agent, propolis and various constituents have shown promising preclinical efficacy against adenoviruses, influenza viruses, respiratory tract viruses, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Over 300 chemical components have been identified in propolis, including terpenes, flavonoids, and phenolic acids, with the specific constituent profile varying widely according to geographic origin and regional flora. Propolis and its constituents have demonstrated potential efficacy against SARS-CoV-2 by modulating multiple pathogenic and antiviral pathways. Molecular docking studies have demonstrated high binding affinities of propolis derivatives to multiple SARS-CoV-2 proteins, including 3C-like protease (3CLpro), papain-like protease (PLpro), RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the spike protein (S-protein), and helicase (NSP13), as well as to the viral target angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). Among these compounds, retusapurpurin A has shown high affinity to 3CLpro (ΔG = −9.4 kcal/mol), RdRp (−7.5), RBD (−7.2), NSP13 (−9.4), and ACE2 (−10.4) and potent inhibition of viral entry by forming hydrogen bonds with amino acid residues within viral and human target proteins. In addition, propolis-derived baccharin demonstrated even higher binding affinity towards PLpro (−8.2 kcal/mol). Measures of drug-likeness parameters, including metabolism, distribution, absorption, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET) characteristics, also support the potential of propolis as an effective agent to combat COVID-19.
... 4 CAPE is one of the active compounds of propolis and it has analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, anti-viral, anti-oxidant and anti-cancer properties have been investigated in various in vitro and in vivo studies. [5][6][7][8] CAPE has been shown to induce apoptosis in different cancer cell lines. [9][10][11][12] International Journal of Hematology and Oncology However, the molecular mechanisms of how CAPE inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis are not well understood. ...
... Table 2 showed carboxylic acids were identified in both H. fimbriata and T. apicalis extracts, but none in T. binghami extracts. A study on aqueous propolis extract from Czech Republic showed that it was mainly consisted of carboxylic acids and gave off effective antiviral activity against herpes simplex virus (Nolkemper et al. 2010). Besides, tricosadiynoic acid identified in H. fimbriata propolis extract had also been proven to be able to treat obesity and high-fat diet related diseases by reducing weight gain and insulin level in rats studied successfully Zeng et al. 2017). ...
Propolis is a resinous substance collected by stingless bees containing bioactive compounds which exert various biological properties. The present study focused on the evaluation of chemical profiles produced by three Indo-Malayan stingless bee propolis extracted using water. Fresh propolis was collected from the same area and ecosystem conditions in Selangor, Malaysia, namely Tetrigona apicalis, Tetrigona binghami, and Heterotrigona fimbriata. The bioactive compounds and chemical composition of propolis extracts were then analyzed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Results showed that propolis from the three different stingless bee species consisted of major groups such as sugar (31.4%), carboxylic acid (17.1%), terpenoid (14.3%), sugar alcohol (11.4%), hydrocarbon (5.7%), aldehyde (5.7%) amino acid (2.9%) and other constituents (11.4%). Heterotrigona fimbriata displayed the highest amount for both total phenolics (13.21 mg/mL) and flavonoids (34.53 mg/mL) compared to other propolis extracts. There is also no significant difference detected between all samples since p ≤ 0.05. In conclusion, this study shows that Malaysian stingless bee propolis contain bioactive components that have great potential to be used for their therapeutic and medicinal benefits. However, more investigations and analysis of stingless bee propolis need to be carried out in order to enhance the understanding and applications of propolis in the future.
... It is rich in vitamins, minerals, enzymes and fatty acids (Lotfy, 2006;Wagh, 2013;Kurek-Górecka et al., 2014). The main ingredients it contains are phenolic compounds, flavonoids and their terpenes and esters (Nolkemper et al., 2010). Besides propolis is used in traditional medicine, it is also used as a dietary supplement in poultry diets. ...
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of addition of different levels of propolis to the layer quail diets on performance, egg quality and blood parameters. In the experiment, a total of 120 quails at the age of 22 weeks were randomly distributed to six treatments groups, each with four subgroups. There were 5 quails in each subgroup and the trial lasted 12 weeks. Treatments diets were prepared by adding 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 or 10 g/kg propolis to the basal diet. Body weight change, egg production, egg weight and feed intake were not affected by the addition of propolis to the diet (P>0.05). The egg mass (P<0.01) and feed conversion ratio (P<0.05) linearly improved by addition of propolis. The eggshell breaking strength (P<0.05),eggshell thickness (P<0.01) and Haugh unit (P<0.01) improved by the addition of propolis but other egg quality parameters were not affected (P>0.05).The haematological parameters of the blood were not affected of propolis to the diet (P>0.05), except for the neutrophil content, which was quadrati-cally affected by the addition of propolis, and increased at doses up to 6 g/kg but decreased at the levels of 8 or 10 g/kg (P<0.05). The addition of propolis to the diet did not affect the serum parameters (P<0.05), except cholesterol (P<0.01) and calcium (P<0.05) contents in layer quails. The cholesterol content of serum was linearly affected by the addition of propolis and minimized at the dose of 8 g/kg. The calcium level increased when propolis was supplemented at the dose of 2 g/kg but linearly decreased with higher dose levels. According to these results, it can be said that the addition of 8 g/kg propolis to laying quail diets positively affected the egg mass, eggshell breaking strength, eggshell thickness and cholesterol concentration of serum, however, calcium metabolism was negatively affected by propolis levels.
... High antiherpetic activity for both the extracts when viruses were pre-treated prior to infection [25] Isopentylferulate (isolated fromPEE) Influenza Virus A Suppression of influenza virus A [26] PEE Influenza Virus A Reduction of body weight loss of infected mice and virus yields in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluids of lungs [22] Melliferone, moronic acid, and betulonic acid (isolated from Brazilian propolis) ...
The emerging coronavirus disease (COVID-19) swept across the world, affecting more than200 countries and territories. The effect of SARS-CoV-2 on humans is clearly age related. So far, very few deaths from COVID-19 have been recorded in people under the age of 20, while the elderly have high mortality rate. We hypothesize that, the increased sensitivity to coronavirus in the elderly is due to their reduced immunity. Propolis is a natural resinous mixture produced by honeybees. The presence of carboxylic acid, terpenoids, steroids, hydrocarbons, sugars, alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols, ketones, amino acid, vitamins, volatile oils and other compounds fortifies its nutraceutical value. Its formulations have been already utilized for cold syndrome (upper respiratory tract infections, common cold, and severe flu-like infections), as well as dermatological preparations useful in wound healing, treatment of burns, acne, herpes simplex and genitalis, and neurodermatitis. Thus, exploring propolis components for immunity building and the development of novel therapeutics for covid-19 can be an economically feasible option worldwide.
... Both propolis decreased the infection and exhibited a concentration-and time-dependent antiviral effect. Additionally, the two propolis showed a high antiviral effect when viruses were pretreated prior to infection; thus, both propolis could be used to treat recurrent herpetic infection topically [188]. ...
Simple Summary
Propolis is a beekeeping product with a complex and highly variable chemical composition. Many beneficial health properties have been reported. In this review, we will be focusing on compiling the studies carried out with propolis on infectious diseases of greater medical relevance. Likewise, the promises and challenges that propolis has to consolidate itself as a complementary therapy for the treatment of these diseases are analyzed.
Abstract
Infectious diseases are a significant problem affecting the public health and economic stability of societies all over the world. Treatment is available for most of these diseases; however, many pathogens have developed resistance to drugs, necessitating the development of new therapies with chemical agents, which can have serious side effects and high toxicity. In addition, the severity and aggressiveness of emerging and re-emerging diseases, such as pandemics caused by viral agents, have led to the priority of investigating new therapies to complement the treatment of different infectious diseases. Alternative and complementary medicine is widely used throughout the world due to its low cost and easy access and has been shown to provide a wide repertoire of options for the treatment of various conditions. In this work, we address the relevance of the effects of propolis on the causal pathogens of the main infectious diseases with medical relevance; the existing compiled information shows that propolis has effects on Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, fungi, protozoan parasites and helminths, and viruses; however, challenges remain, such as the assessment of their effects in clinical studies for adequate and safe use.
This study aimed to evaluate the in vitro antiviral activity of ethanolic extracts from Azadirachta indica and Melia azedarach during the replication cycle of the CAEV-Cork and MVV-K1514 strains, both part of the small ruminant lentivirus (SRLV) group, in ovine third eyelid (OTE) cells. The crude extracts (CE), along with the ethyl acetate (EAF) and methanol (MF) organic fractions from these plants, were tested in treatments applied before, during, and after viral inoculation of the CAEV-Cork and MVV-K1514 strains in separate OTE cell cultures. Following these treatments, the most effective results were subjected to viral titration analysis. The findings indicate that the EAF of A. indica and M. azedarach may have reduced the viral titer of the CAEV-Cork strain by 316-fold after inoculation and by 1.995-fold when applied concomitantly with inoculation, respectively. For the MVV-K1514 strain, the EAF of A. indica achieved a 1,000-fold inhibition when applied simultaneously with viral inoculation. These results suggest that extracts from Meliaceae plants influenced all phases of the SRLV replication cycle, significantly inhibiting the activity of both viral strains, although complete viral elimination was not achieved.
Propolis to naturalny produkt żywiczny wytwarzany przez pszczoły z materiału roślinnego zmieszanego z woskiem pszczelim oraz enzymami z gruczołów ślinowych tych owadów. Zawiera on wiele substancji bioaktywnych, które mają pozytywne znaczenia dla zdrowia człowieka. Niniejszy przegląd ma na celu zwrócenie uwagi na najnowsze badania naukowe związane z właściwościami przeciwbakteryjnymi, przeciwgrzybiczymi i przeciwwirusowymi propolisu i jego składników. Propolis działa hamująco na wzrost bakterii zarówno Gram- ujemnych, jak i Gram-dodatnich, różnych gatunków grzybów oraz wirusów. Ponadto warto podkreślić, że zróżnicowane działanie przeciwdrobnoustrojowe wynika ze zmienności składu w zależności od pochodzenia geograficznego. Propolis, jako produkt naturalny o szerokim działaniu, może być bezpiecznie wykorzystywany w medycynie i kosmetologii.
Caffeic acid (CA) and caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) are natural compounds that have been found in various foods and plants. These compounds have attracted much attention in recent years due to their potential health benefits, including their ability to protect against natural and chemical toxins. This article comprehensively reviews the promising effects of caffeic acid and CAPE against natural and chemical toxins. Mechanisms sup- porting the protective effects of these compounds, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties, are discussed. Studies have shown that caffeic acid and CAPE can protect against a wide range of toxins, including mycotoxins, heavy metals, and environmental toxins. These compounds have also been shown to protect against chemical toxins such as pesticides, industrial chemicals, and pharmaceuticals. Overall, the promising effects of caffeic acid and CAPE against natural and chemical toxins make them potential candidates for developing novel therapeutics and functional foods
Viruses are inert intracellular material and their survival mainly depends on the host cell products or host cell protein machinery. Antiviral agents employ their effect by disrupting this host-virus interaction to target different events of the viral life cycle. These antiviral agents mainly restrict virus infection by interfering with the transcription or replication of the viral genome, interrupting viral protein synthesis, or modulating the host response to infection. Currently approved antiviral agents demonstrated efficacy for the management of infections caused by the herpes viruses including herpes simplex type 1 and type 2, varicella zoster virus, and cytomegalovirus. But long-term use of these antiviral drugs frequently develops drug-resistant strains with severe side effects and thus are completely unsafe for pregnant women and neonates. Moreover, antiviral agents act against actively replicating viruses and have no effect on latent viruses. Ethnomedicines provide us the alternative antiviral agents that can solve the problems of viral resistance, latency, and reactivation along with the shorter effective life span of most synthetic antivirals. This chapter not only focuses on current FDA-approved antiherpes viral agents but also revealed the treasure of nature in the form of ethnomedicines that can serve as major lead molecules in the development of new antiherpes virus agents in near future.
Active pullulan films with the addition of 3, 5 or 10% propolis extract produced by the casting method were tested in the study. Propolis extracts from Bochnia County, Siedlce County and Ełk County (Poland) were used. The appearance of the films was characterized, as well as physical parameters (thickness, moisture content, water solubility), tensile strength (TS), elongation at break (EB), optical characteristics (light transparency, UV barrier, color) and antifungal properties. The antifungal activity of the films was tested by the disc diffusion method against yeast (Candida albicans, C. krusei, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Rhodotorula mucilaginosa) and mold (Alternaria solani, Fusarium solani, Rhizopus stolonifer, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, C. cladosporioides, Aspergillus niger, A. ochraceus, Mucor mucedo, Penicillium expansum, P. chrysogenum). The origin of propolis influenced the color and water solubility of the films. The addition of increasing concentrations of propolis extract increased the film thickness and the intensity of the yellow color, extended the water dissolution time of the film and reduced the values of TS and EB. The addition of propolis extract in the pullulan film improved UV radiation protection but decreased light transparency. The antifungal activity increased significantly with the increasing concentration of propolis extract in the film, regardless of the origin of propolis. Molds showed greater sensitivity to pullulan films containing propolis extract than yeasts. In general, films made of pullulan with the addition of propolis extract can be considered as natural active packaging to protect against the growth of fungi in food.
Propolis has gained wide popularity over the last decades in several parts of the world. In parallel, the literature about propolis composition and biological properties increased markedly. A great number of papers have demonstrated that propolis from different parts of the world is composed mainly of phenolic substances, frequently flavonoids, derived from plant resins. Propolis has a relevant role in increasing the social immunity of bee hives. Experimental evidence indicates that propolis and its components have activity against bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Mechanisms of action on bacteria, fungi, and viruses are known for several propolis components. Experiments have shown that propolis may act synergistically with antibiotics, antifungals, and antivirus drugs, permitting the administration of lower doses of drugs and higher antimicrobial effects. The current trend of growing resistance of microbial pathogens to the available drugs has encouraged the introduction of propolis in therapy against infectious diseases. Because propolis composition is widely variable, standardized propolis extracts have been produced. Successful clinical trials have included propolis extracts as medicine in dentistry and as an adjuvant in the treatment of patients against COVID-19. Present world health conditions encourage initiatives toward the spread of the niche of propolis, not only as traditional and alternative medicine but also as a relevant protagonist in anti-infectious therapy. Production of propolis and other apiary products is environmentally friendly and may contribute to alleviating the current crisis of the decline of bee populations. Propolis production has had social-economic relevance in Brazil, providing benefits to underprivileged people.
Bee products such as honey, propolis, bee pollen, royal jelly, beeswax, and bee venom constitute important pharmaceutical and cosmetic components. Each bee product is characterized by the content of the active substance, which differentiates one bee product from another, and causes that each of them is worth using for a different skin problem. In addition, flavonoids and phenolic acids play a crucial role in influencing those products on the skin. For example, honey, propolis, and pollen are used to heal burn wounds.
Moreover, bee venom called apitoxin contains active peptides and amines used in the wound’s healing process. Therefore, findings connected with wound dressing containing honey, propolis, or bee venom can be applied during wound healing therapy. Furthermore, the advantages of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics based on bee products are high effectiveness with minimal side effects. Therefore, bee products may become a new strategy in skin therapy.
AIM: The aim of this in vitro study was to investigate the effectiveness of Sodium Fluoride, Propolis and Er,Cr:YSGG laser alone and in combination with laser applications on dentin tubules by SEM and to examine the effects of these applications on the shear bond strength (SBS) of a universal adhesive to dentin. METHODS: Dentin samples obtained by removing the buccal enamel of 72 caries-free permanent, mandibular third molars were randomly divided into six groups (n:12): Control, Sodium Fluoride (Enamelast, Ultradent), Propolis (Fanus Propolis), Er,Cr:YSGG Laser (Biolase, Waterlase), Enamelast-Er,Cr:YSGG Laser, Propolis-Er,Cr:YSGG Laser. While the agents were applied to the dentin surfaces in the agents alone groups, laser was applied after the agent applications in the combination groups. No application was performed to the control group. After storing the samples in artificial saliva for 14 days, Clearfil Tri-S Bond Universal (Kuraray) and composite resin (Estelite Sigma Quick, Tokuyama) were applied to their surfaces. SBS tests were conducted using the Universal Tensile-Compression Test System (Instron 3382, USA). The tubule plugging efficiencies of the agents were examined on two dentin samples from each group by SEM. One-way analysis of variance (One-way ANOVA) was performed for statistical analysis of the data. For p<0.05, the results were considered statistically significant. RESULTS: No statistically significant difference was found in any comparison between all the test groups (p>0.05). In SEM examinations, occluded dentinal tubules were observed more frequently in the groups where the applications were performed in combination with laser, compared to the application of the agents alone. In the propolis group too, the tubules were usually closed, as well as open dentin tubules. CONCLUSIONS: Although combination applications of Er,Cr:YSGG Laser with Sodium Fluoride and Propolis showed greater dentin tubule plugging efficiency, these applications did not have a negative effect on the SBS of Clearfil Tri-S Bond Universal compared to the control group. The changes caused by the laser application on the dentin surface and the content of adhesive system may have prevented the SBS from being adversely affected.
The paper aims to review the current clinical evidence of various herbal agents as an adjunct treatment in the management of chronic periodontitis patients. Gingivitis and periodontitis are two common infectious inflammatory diseases of the supporting tissues of the teeth and have a multifactorial etiology. An important concern about chronic periodontitis is its association with certain systemic disease. New treatment strategies for controlling the adverse effects of chronic periodontitis have been extensively assessed and practiced in sub-clinical and clinical studies. It has been shown that the phytochemical agents have various therapeutic properties such as anti-inflammatory and antibacterial effects which can be beneficial for the treatment of periodontitis. The findings of this review support the adjunctive use of herbal agents in the management of chronic periodontitis. Heterogeneity and limited data may reduce the impact of these conclusions. Future long-term randomized controlled trials evaluating the clinical efficacy of adjunctive herbal therapy to scaling and root planing are needed.
The health emergency unleashed by the COVID-19 disease in Mexico and worldwide urges health professionals to find effective strategies to mitigate this serious problem. The present manuscript explores the potential use of bio-molecules contained in food as adjuvant agents in the prevention and treatment of this disease. An extensive bibliographic review was carried out to identify scientific evidence available to date regarding the preventive and therapeutic potential of consuming vitamins C and D, the minerals zinc, magnesium, and selenium, and other nutraceutical substances such as melatonin, omega-3 fatty acids, and quercetin. The use of herbs such as ginseng, ginger, and turmeric, as well as the consumption of bee products and probiotics, is also explored. This manuscript aims to highlight the potential of these natural products to be used in the combat and prevention of the disease caused by SARS-CoV-2, with special emphasis on the particular public health situation in Mexico concerning nutritional deficiencies and comorbidities, which increase the risk of contagion, the complication of the COVID-19 disease, and death. The information provided should be considered as a suggestion to complement the pharmacological or other medical treatments and recommendations. The consumption of the nutrients or supplements discussed is not intended as a substitute for appropriate medical therapy.
Propolis is rich in bioactive compounds like phenols and flavonoids, which make it a promising alternative as a natural preservative. However, the use of propolis in the food industry is limited due to its strong, characteristic flavor. To overcome this problem, several strategies such as the combination with other ingredients or propolis microencapsulation have been studied. In this work, the addition of honeydew (no floral honey) to, and the elimination of the ethanol from, the propolis extract solution were used to mitigate this sensorial defect. Thus, the effect of these propolis solutions on beef quality during refrigerated storage were evaluated. Throughout storage, a decrease in the pH and the a*, indicative of microbial growth and oxidation, respectively, was observed in the control samples. Both deterioration processes were slowed down in the treated samples, demonstrating the antioxidant and antibacterial properties of the propolis and the honeydew. What is more, neither ethanol evaporation nor the addition of honeydew impaired the antimicrobial activity of the solutions, with the greatest microbial reductions observed in the former. With this solution, a reduction of 0.77 and 1.45 logarithmic units were observed for the mesophiles and the Enterobacteria, respectively. Finally, the propolis and honeydew solution presented the highest scores in all the sensory attributes analyzed. In conclusion, the strategies applied in this study were effective at enhancing propolis extract flavor whilst maintaining its antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. This could be a promising starting point for a wider use of propolis as a natural preservative in the food industry.
Because of many real problems are better characterized using fractional-order models, fractional calculus has recently become an intensively developing area of calculus not only among mathematicians but also among physicists and engineers as well. Fractional oscillator and fractional damped structure have attracted the attention of researchers in the field of mechanical and civil engineering [1-6]. This study is dedicated mainly a pendulum with fractional viscous damping. The mathematic model of pendulum is a cubic nonlinear equation governing the oscillations of systems having a single degree of freedom, via Riemann-Liouville fractional derivative. The method of multiple scales is performed to solve the equation by assigning the nonlinear and damping terms to the ε-order. Finally, the effects of the coefficient of a fractional damping term on the approximate solution are observed.
Low plasticity, high bearing capacity, low settlement, etc. are the preferred properties for most engineering projects. Alluvial soils are problematic soils because of low bearing capacity, high organic matter content, and high void ratio so they do not meet the preferred condition for engineering projects. It has been necessary to improve unsuitable materials to make them acceptable for construction. Fly ash (FA) has earlier been used for stabilizing roads due to its high content of calcium and silicate oxides which give puzzolanic properties and thus high compression strength. In this research, fundamental engineering properties, compaction behaviors of three types of (fine, medium, and coarse) alluvial deposits, and the effect of fly ash on compaction behavior of these alluvial soils are presented. Alluvial soil is taken from Çiğli, Balatçık (Izmir, Turkey). To determine geotechnical index properties; wet sieve analysis, plastic limit, liquid limit, specific gravity, standard compaction tests were conducted. In order to determine the effect of fly ash on compaction behavior of alluvial deposits, three different samples (fine < 0.425mm, medium < 2mm, and coarse < 4.75 mm) are prepared and 10%, 15%, 20% fly ash by dry weight of soil is mixed and standard proctor test is performed. As a result of laboratory tests, the liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index values obtained as 38.3%, 25.7%, and 12.6%, respectively. The specific gravities for fine, medium, and coarse samples are 2.68, 2.67, and 2.66, respectively. According to the results of wet sieve analysis and consistency limit tests, it was stated that the soil contains large amounts of sand and clay. The washed sieve analysis and consistency limit tests results were evaluated according to USCS. The conducted test results have shown that maximum dry unit weight for fine, medium, and coarse soils are 16.9, 19.35, and 19.55 (kN/m3), and optimum moisture content for fine, medium, and coarse samples are 17, 11, 10.5% respectively. Generally, by increasing the content of FA, maximum dry unit weight decreased and optimum moisture content increased for all three types of alluvial soil. By increasing FA to 20%, maximum dry unit weight of medium and coarse soils decreases 1.5% and 2%, respectively.
Candida albicans is part of the healthy flora in the oral cavity. It can also cause opportunistic infection, which can be deleterious. The most typical type of chronic oral candidiasis is denture stomatitis, and C. albicans is identified as the most crucial organism in this situation. Due to the development of the resistant form of candida, using conventional drugs can sometimes be ineffective. Herbs and naturally imitative bioactive compounds could become a new source for antimycotic therapy. Several review studies suggest that herbal medicine and natural bioactive compounds have antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal effects. Thus, it is hypothesized that these natural products might have beneficial effects on pathogenic oral fungal flora such as C. albicans. Although the effects of herbs have been investigated as antifungal agents in several studies, to the best of our knowledge, the effects of these natural products on C. albicans have not yet been reviewed. Thus, the aim of this study was to review the anti-candida activity (especially C. albicans in oral candidiasis) of herbal medicines and natural bioactive compounds. It is concluded that, in general, medicinal plants and nutraceuticals such as garlic, green tea, propolis, curcumin, licorice root, cinnamon, resveratrol, ginger, and berberine are useful in the treatment of C. albicans in oral candidiasis and could be considered as a safe, accessible, and inexpensive management option in an attempt to prevent and treat oral diseases. However, most of the evidence is based on the in vitro and animal studies, so more clinical trials are needed.
The present study was conducted to evaluate the hepatoprotective effects of the Centella asiatica extract in carbon tetrachloride-induced liver injury in rats. Sprague Dawley rats were treated with alcohol extract of Centella asiatica orally in two doses (20 and 40 mg/kg/day) for 3 mo along with intraperitoneal injection of carbon tetrachloride (1 ml/kg). Biochemical parameters such as serum total protein, albumin and marker enzymes (aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase and alkaline phosphatase) were estimated both before and after the experiment. Histopathological studies of liver were also carried out to confirm the biochemical changes. Carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxic effects were evident by a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the serum marker enzymes and a decrease in the total serum protein and albumin. Administration of extract of Centella asiatica effectively inhibited these changes in a dose-dependent manner; maximum effect was with 40 mg/kg. Histopathological examination of liver tissue corroborated well with the biochemical changes. Hepatic steatosis, hydropic degeneration and necrosis were observed in carbon tetrachloride-treated group, while these were completely absent in the treatment group. Centella asiatica extract exhibited hepatoprotective action against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver injury. This effect is attributed to the presence of asiaticoside (14.5%) in the extract.
The effect of five propolis flavonoids on the infectivity and replication of some herpesvirus, adenovirus, coronavirus and rotavirus strains has been studied. Experiments were performed in vitro in cell cultures using the viral plaque reduction technique. The cytotoxicity of flavonoids, including chrysine, kaempferol, acacetin, galangin and quercetin, was evaluated on uninfected monolayers to determine their effect on cell growth and viability. Chrysine and kaempferol caused a concentration-dependent reduction of intracellular replication of herpes-virus strains when monolayers were infected and subsequently cultured in a drug-containing medium. However, virus infectivity was not significantly affected. Acacetin and galangin had no effect on either the infectivity or replication of any of the viruses studied. Quercetin reduced infectivity and intracellular replication, but only at the highest concentrations tested.
Four samples of Brazilian propolis were investigated by GC/MS of different fractions. 32 volatile compounds, (10 of them new for propolis), as well as 12 more polar compounds (one of them new for propolis) were identified. Antibacterial activity was found in some propolis fractions.
Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) infection is usually transmitted sexually and can cause recurrent, painful genital ulcers. In neonates the infection is potentially lethal. We investigated the seroprevalence and correlates of HSV-2 infection in the United States and identified changes in HSV-2 seroprevalence since the late 1970s.
Serum samples and questionnaire data were collected during the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) II (1976 to 1980) and III (1988 to 1994). HSV-2 antibody was assessed with an immunodot assay specific for glycoprotein gG-2 of HSV-2.
From 1988 to 1994, the seroprevalence of HSV-2 in persons 12 years of age or older in the United States was 21.9 percent (95 percent confidence interval, 20.2 to 23.6 percent), corresponding to 45 million infected people in the noninstitutionalized civilian population. The seroprevalence was higher among women (25.6 percent) than men (17.8 percent) and higher among blacks (45.9 percent) than whites (17.6 percent). Less than 10 percent of all those who were seropositive reported a history of genital herpes infection. In a multivariate model, the independent predictors of HSV-2 seropositivity were female sex, black race or Mexican-American ethnic background, older age, less education, poverty, cocaine use, and a greater lifetime number of sexual partners. As compared with the period from 1976 to 1980, the age-adjusted seroprevalence of HSV-2 rose 30 percent (95 percent confidence interval, 15.8 to 45.8 percent). The seroprevalence quintupled among white teenagers and doubled among whites in their twenties. Among blacks and older whites, the increases were smaller.
Since the late 1970s, the prevalence of HSV-2 infection has increased by 30 percent, and HSV-2 is now detectable in roughly one of five persons 12 years of age or older nationwide. Improvements in the prevention of HSV-2 infection are needed, particularly since genital ulcers may facilitate the transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus.
Ethanolic extract of propolis exerts a strong anti-bacterial activity, in addition to antifungal, antiviral and antiprotozoal properties. In previous studies from these laboratories we have demonstrated that the intensity of the bactericidal activity of EEP is correlated with the virulence of the mycobacteria tested, and that EEP has a synergistic effect with antibiotics on growth of staphylococcus aureus. In the present study we investigated whether the same synergism and correlation exists between EEP and some anti-tuberculosis drugs on tuberculosis mycobacteria with different degrees of virulence. Six standard strains and 11 wild strains of mycobacteria were exposed for 30 days to EEP, with or without streptomycin, rifamycin, isoniazid or ethambutol. Out of the 17 strains, 8 were resistant to at least two standard antibiotics, and were considered "multi-resistant strains". The rest were either susceptible or resistant to only one of the antimycobacterial drugs. Antagonism was recorded only in one case, when Staphylococcus aureus were treated with a mixture of EEP and ethambutol, suggesting that a chemical bond could have been formed between this anti-tuberculosis antibiotic and one of the active components of the ethanol extract of propolis.
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is frequently shed after infection of the genital or perianal area. HSV shedding, as determined by culture, occurs on about 3% of days for immunocompetent women and men, and more for persons with HIV infection or if measured by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Most horizontal and vertical transmission of HSV occurs during unrecognized or asymptomatic shedding, and the majority of HSV-2-infected persons are unaware of their infection. Many persons with 'asymptomatic' HSV-2 infection can learn to recognize genital signs and symptoms as recurrences of HSV-2 infection. However, some shedding episodes remain truly asymptomatic even after patient education. Antiviral therapy dramatically reduces asymptomatic shedding, and trials to evaluate its effect on HSV transmission are underway.
Three propolis samples from East Nile Delta, Egypt were collected. Propolis samples were investigated by GC/MS,103 compounds were identified, 20 being new for propolis. Dakahlia propolis was a typical poplar propolis but it contained two new caffeate esters and two new triterpenoids. Ismailia propolis was characterized by the presence of new triterpenic acid methyl esters and it did not contain any aromatic acids, esters and flavonoids. Sharkia propolis was characterized by the presence of caffeate esters only, some di- and triterpenoids. The antiviral (Infectious Bursal Disease Virus and Reo-Virus) and antimicrobial (Staphylococcus aureus; Escherichia coli and Candida albicans) activities of propolis samples were investigated. Dakahlia propolis showed the highest antiviral activity against Infectious Bursal Disease Virus (IBDV) and the highest antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and the highest antifungal activity against Candida albicans. While Ismailia propolis had the highest antiviral activity against Reo-virus. Sharkia propolis showed the highest antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and moderate antiviral activity against infectious bursal disease virus and reovirus.
This study estimated the regional and age- and gender-specific seroprevalences of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and HSV-2 in Ontario, Canada. Stored serum specimens from subjects aged 15 to 44 years, including men (n = 979), women not under prenatal care (n = 638), and women under prenatal care (n = 701) submitted for routine viral serology were randomly selected according to regional population size from public health laboratories. HSV-1 and HSV-2 testing was done with the MRL enzyme immunoassay (EIA) (Focus Technologies), and HSV-2 was also tested by the Gull/Meridian EIA. Specimens discordant for HSV-2 antibodies between the two EIAs were resolved by a recombinant immunoblot assay (Focus Technologies). The overall age- and gender-standardized seroprevalences of HSV-1 and HSV-2 were 51.1% (95% confidence interval [CI], 50.1 to 52.1) and 9.1% (95% CI, 8.6 to 9.7), respectively. The seroprevalence of HSV-1 antibodies increased from 26.9 to 54.7% in men between 15 to 16 and 40 to 44 years of age, from 32.0 to 88.7% in women not under prenatal care, and from 55.2 to 69.2% in women under prenatal care. The seroprevalence of HSV-2 increased from 3.8 to 21.3% in men between 15 to 16 and 40 to 44 years of age, from 0 to 18.9% in women not under prenatal care, and from 3.4 to 23.1% in women under prenatal care. HSV-2 results were discordant for 3.3% (76 of 2,318) of specimens. Both types of HSV antibodies appeared to be acquired earlier among women under prenatal care than among men and women not under prenatal care. Antibodies were more prevalent among people in northern Ontario (72.9% of subjects [range, 68.4 to 77.4%] for HSV-1 and 13.7% of subjects [95% CI, 10.2 to 17.2%] for HSV-2) than elsewhere.
Antimicrobial activity of two propolis samples from Kazan and Marmaris regions in Turkey were investigated by the disc diffusion method. Antimicrobial activity was tested with four different ethanolic extracts (30, 50, 70, and 96% ethanol) of each sample against seven Gram positive, four Gram negative bacteria and one fungus culture. The activity was found to be mainly due to caffeic acid and its esters. An isomeric mixture containing 3,3-dimethylallyl caffeate, and isopent-3-enyl caffeate was isolated from Kazan propolis samples.
Acyclovir-resistant clinical isolates of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) were analyzed in vitro for their susceptibilities
to essential oils of ginger, thyme, hyssop, and sandalwood. All essential oils exhibited high levels of virucidal activity
against acyclovir-sensitive strain KOS and acyclovir-resistant HSV-1 clinical isolates and reduced plaque formation significantly.
To evaluate the effectiveness and safety of a preparation containing echinacea, propolis, and vitamin C in the prevention of respiratory tract infections in children during a 12-week winter period.
Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study.
Four hundred thirty children, aged 1 to 5 years, were randomized to an herbal extract preparation (n = 215) or a placebo elixir (n = 215).
Administration of an herbal preparation (Chizukit) containing 50 mg/mL of echinacea, 50 mg/mL of propolis, and 10 mg/mL of vitamin C, or placebo (5.0 mL and 7.5 mL twice daily for ages 1 to 3 years and 4 to 5 years, respectively) for 12 weeks.
Significant mean +/- SD reductions of illnesses were seen in the Chizukit group in the number of illness episodes, 138 vs 308 (55% reduction); number of episodes per child, 0.9 +/- 1.1 vs 1.8 +/- 1.3 (50% reduction, P<.001); and number of days with fever per child, 2.1 +/- 2.9 vs 5.4 +/- 4.4) (62% reduction, P<.001). The total number of illness days and duration of individual episodes were also significantly lower in the Chizukit group. Adverse drug reactions were rare, mild, and transient.
A preventive effect of a product containing echinacea, propolis, and vitamin C on the incidence of respiratory tract infections was observed.
The effects of an ethanolic extract of Cuban red propolis were examined using the model of acute hepatotoxicity induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCL4) in rats. Propolis extract at doses of 5, 10 and 25 mg/kg i.p. decreased significantly the activity of alanine aminotransferase and the concentration of malondialdehyde in rat serum as well as the concentration of triglycerides in liver which were increased in CCI4-treated animals. An ethanol extract of red propolis also reduced liver damage induced by CCI4 in rats. This effect was observed by electron microscopy. According to our results it is concluded that ethanolic extract of red propolis exerts hepatoprotective effects in this experimental model which are probably caused by antioxidative properties (e.g. scavenging action against oxygen radicals) of this extract.
Propolis is a resinous hive product collected by honeybees from various plant sources. It is a popular folk medicine possessing a broad spectrum of biological activities. It has also been used as a health drink in various Asian, European and American countries. Several groups of researchers have focused their attention on the biological activity of propolis and its active principles. Many scientific articles are published every year in different international journals related to the pharmacological properties of propolis. This review article compiles recent findings (since 1995) on the pharmacological properties of propolis focusing on its antihepatotoxic, antitumour, antioxidative, antimicrobial and antiinflammatory properties. The possible mechanism of action of propolis as well as the active compounds are discussed. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
While superinfection with different herpes simplex virus (HSV) types has been demonstrated in animals, the ability of the
two HSV types to colonize and reactivate in the same anatomic region in humans has not been well demonstrated. In 6 patients,
both HSV-1 and HSV-2 was recovered from genital lesions. In 4 of them, who initially acquired genital HSV-1 infection, subsequent
HSV-2 infection presented as a prolonged episode of genital lesions and a marked increase in the frequency of genital recurrences.
While most of the subsequent clinical reactivations were HSV-2, in 2 patients the recurrence rate of genital HSV-1 increased
after the acquisition of HSV-2. These data demonstrate the ability of a second HSV type to infect the same anatomic region
and illustrate the difference in reactivation frequency of the two types in the same person. Typing of HSV isolates may be
useful in persons with recent alteration in recurrence rates of genital HSV.
The in vitro effect of propolis on several DNA and RNA viruses including herpes simplex type 1, an acyclovir resistant mutant, herpes simplex type 2, adenovirus type 2, vesicular stomatitis virus and poliovirus type 2, was investigated. The inhibition of poliovirus propagation was clearly observed through a plaque reduction test and a multistep virus replication assay with a selectivity index equal to 5. At the concentration of 30 μg/ml, propolis reduced the titer of herpes simplex viruses by 1 000, whereas vesicular stomatitis virus and adenovirus were less susceptible. In addition to its effect on virus multiplication, propolis was also found to exert a virucidal action on the enveloped viruses HSV and VSV.
The plant sources and chemical composition of propolis are reviewed. The chemical constituents that may be relevant to its biological and therapeutic activity are discussed. The cytotoxic activity and antimicrobial and pharmacological properties of propolis are presented. Propolis components, which cause allergy and are responsible for anticancer activity, eg, caffeic acid derivatives, are reported. The therapeutic efficacy of propolis in treating diseases caused by microorganisms is described. Some recent concepts about propolis and its use in medicine are presented.
Aqueous and ethanol extracts of propolis were analysed phytochemically and examined for their antiviral activity in vitro. Different polyphenols, flavonoids and phenylcarboxylic acids were identified as major constituents. The antiviral effect of propolis extracts and selected constituents, e.g. caffeic acid (1), p-coumaric acid (2), benzoic acid (3), galangin (4), pinocembrin (5) and chrysin (6) against herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) was analysed in cell culture. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC(50)) of aqueous and ethanol propolis extracts for HSV-1 plaque formation was determined at 0.0004% and 0.000035%, respectively. Both propolis extracts exhibited high levels of antiviral activity against HSV-1 in viral suspension tests, plaque formation was significantly reduced by >98%. In order to determine the mode of antiviral action of propolis, the extracts were added at different times during the viral infection cycle. Both propolis extracts exhibited high anti-HSV-1 activity when the viruses were pretreated with these drugs prior to infection. Among the analysed compounds, only galangin and chrysin displayed some antiviral activity. However, the extracts containing many different components exhibited significantly higher antiherpetic effects as well as higher selectivity indices than single isolated constituents. Propolis extracts might be suitable for topical application against herpes infection.
The in vitro activity against herpes simplex virus type 1 of the major flavonoids identified in propolis was investigated. Flavonols were found to be more active than flavones, the order of importance being galangin, kaempferol, and quercetin. The efficacy against HSV-1 of binary flavone-flavonol combinations has been also investigated. The synergy demonstrated by all combinations could explain why propolis is more active than its individual compounds.
The antiviral activity of six synthetic substances, esters of substituted cinnamic acids, identical with or analogous to some of the constituents of the Et2O fraction of propolis was studied in vitro. One of them, isopentyl ferulate, inhibited significantly the infectious activity of influenza virus A/Hong Kong (H3N2) in vitro and the production of hemagglutinins in ovo. By the use of diverse experimental patterns, it was found that the maximal inhibition of viral reproduction was observed when test substances were present in the medium during the whole infectious process.
The frequency, pattern, and anatomical sites of subclinical shedding of herpes simplex virus (HSV) in the genital tract, along with factors that predict such shedding, have not been well characterized.
We studied prospectively the clinical and virologic course of genital herpes in 110 women. The women kept symptom diaries and provided daily samples from the vulva, cervix, and rectum for viral culture.
During a median follow-up of 105 days, subclinical shedding of virus was identified in 36 of 65 women (55 percent) with HSV type 2 (HSV-2), in 16 of 31 women (52 percent) with HSV type 1 (HSV-1) and HSV-2, and in 4 of 14 women (29 percent) with only HSV-1. Among women with genital HSV-2 infection, subclinical shedding occurred on a mean of 2 percent of the days. The mean duration of viral shedding during subclinical episodes was 1.5 days, as compared with 1.8 days during symptomatic episodes. HSV was isolated from several sites in the genital tract and rectum in 17 percent of subclinical episodes and 22 percent of symptomatic episodes. Half the episodes of subclinical shedding of HSV occurred within seven days of a symptomatic recurrence. The risk of subclinical shedding increased with the frequency of symptomatic recurrences. Subclinical shedding was more frequent among women with more than 12 recurrences per year than among those with no symptomatic recurrences (odds ratio, 3.3; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.4 to 7.9); it was also more frequent among women who had recently acquired genital herpes (odds ratio for women with HSV acquired in the past year as compared with those who had had the infection for a year or more, 1.85; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.1 to 3.1).
Among women with a history of genital herpes infection, subclinical shedding of HSV is common and accounts for nearly one third of the total days of reactivation of HSV infection in the genital tract. Women with frequent symptomatic recurrences also have frequent subclinical shedding and may be at high risk for transmitting HSV.
The in vitro activity against herpes simplex virus type 1 of 3-methyl-but-2-enyl caffeate isolated from poplar buds or prepared by synthesis was investigated. Under conditions of one or multiple multiplication cycles, this compound, which is a minor constituent of propolis, was found to reduce the viral titer by 3 log10, and viral DNA synthesis by 32-fold.
Microcalorimetric and electron microscopic studies on the mode of the antibacterial action of propolis were performed on Streptococcus agalactiae. It was shown that propolis inhibits bacterial growth by preventing cell division, thus resulting in the formation of pseudo-multicellular streptococci. In addition, propolis disorganized the cytoplasm, the cytoplasmic membrane, and the cell wall, caused a partial bacteriolysis, and inhibited protein synthesis. It was evident that the mechanism of action of propolis on bacterial cells is complex and a simple analogy cannot be made to the mode of action of any classic antibiotics.
The present study was undertaken to assess and compare the in vitro cytotoxic effects of three resin acid analogues: dehydrobietic acid, podocarpic acid, O-methylpodocarpic acid; an essential oil from Australia (tea tree oil); and tapped oleoresin from Thailand, on human epithelial and fibroblast cells, using a quantitative neutral red spectrophotometric assay. All of the investigated compounds except for tea tree oil exhibited a cytotoxic activity which was proportional to their concentrations and time of exposure up to 24 h, i.e. higher concentrations and longer time of exposure caused increased cell death. Dehydroabietic acid and the oleoresin were the most toxic compounds followed by O-methylpodocarpic acid, whereas podocarpic acid and tea tree oil showed a lower level of toxicity. On the basis on these findings it is concluded that an isopropyl group on the aromatic C-ring is of great importance for the cytotoxicity of the tested abietane resin acids, thus indicating that the cytotoxic activity of oleoresins most probably is caused by synergistic or additive effects of resin acids. The results from this work support the view that antibacterial activity parallels cytotoxic activity which suggests a similar mode of action, most probably exerted by membrane-associated reactions.
Propolis samples from different geographic origins were investigated for their antibacterial (against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli), antifungal (against Candida albicans) and antiviral (against Avian influenza virus) activities. All samples were active against the fungal and Gram-positive bacterial test strains, and most showed antiviral activity. The activities of all samples were similar in spite of the differences in their chemical composition. In samples from the temperate zone, flavonoids and esters of phenolic acids are known to be responsible for the above mentioned activities of bee glue; tropical samples did not contain such substances but showed similar activities. Obviously, in different samples, different substance combinations are essential for the biological activity of the bee glue. It seems that propolis has general pharmacological value as a natural mixture and not as a source of new powerful antimicrobial, antifungal and antiviral compounds.
Arnica and propolis have been used for thousands of years in folk medicine for several purposes. They possess several biological activities such as anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antiviral and tissue regenerative, among others. Although the antibacterial activity of propolis has already been demonstrated, very few studies have been done on bacteria of clinical relevance in dentistry. Also, the antimicrobial activity of Arnica has not been extensively investigated. Therefore the aim here was to evaluate in vitro the antimicrobial activity, inhibition of adherence of mutans streptococci and inhibition of formation of water-insoluble glucan by Arnica and propolis extracts. Arnica montana (10%, w/v) and propolis (10%, w/v) extracts from Minas Gerais State were compared with controls. Fifteen microorganisms were used as follows: Candida albicans--NTCC 3736, F72; Staphylococcus aureus--ATCC 25923; Enterococcus faecalis--ATCC 29212; Streptococcus sobrinus 6715; Strep. sanguis--ATCC 10556; Strep. cricetus--HS-6; Strep. mutans--Ingbritt 1600; Strep. mutans--OMZ 175; Actinomyces naeslundii--ATCC 12104, W 1053; Act. viscosus OMZ 105; Porphyromonas gingivalis; Porph. endodontalis and Prevotella denticola (the last three were clinical isolates). Antimicrobial activity was determined by the agar diffusion method and the zones of growth inhibition were measured. To assess cell adherence to a glass surface, the organisms were grown for 18 h at 37 degrees C in test-tubes at a 30 degree angle. To assay water-insoluble glucan formation, a mixture of crude glucosyltransferase and 0.125 M sucrose was incubated for 18 h at 37 degrees C in test-tubes at a 30 degree angle. Arnica and propolis extracts (20 microl) were added to these tubes to evaluate the % of inhibition of cell adherence and water-insoluble glucan formation. The propolis extract significantly inhibited all the microorganisms tested (p < 0.05), showing the largest inhibitory zone for Actinomyces spp. The Arnica extract did not demonstrate significant antimicrobial activity. Cell adherence and water-insoluble glucan formation were almost completely inhibited by the propolis extract at a final concentration of 400 microg/ml and 500 microg/ml, respectively. The Arnica extract showed slight inhibition of the adherence of the growing cells (19% for Strep. mutans and 15% for Strep. sobrinus) and of water-insoluble glucan formation (29%) at these same concentrations. Thus, the propolis extract showed in vitro antibacterial activity, inhibition of cell adherence and inhibition of water-insoluble glucan formation, while the Arnica extract was only slightly active in those three conditions.
Unlabelled:
Ninety men and women with recurrent genital HSV type 2 participated in a randomized, single-blind, masked investigator, controlled multi-centre study comparing the efficacy of ointment of Canadian propolis containing natural flavonoids with ointments of acyclovir and placebo (vehicle) on healing ability and capacity to remedy symptoms. Thirty individuals were randomized to each group. Treatment was intended to start in the blister phase. All participants had HSV type 2 isolated, confirmed by serum immunoglobulin levels. The participants were examined on the 3rd, 7th and 10th days of treatment by gynaecologists, dermatovenerologists or urologists at seven different medical centres. Apart from clinical symptoms the number and size of the herpetic lesions were noted. At each examination the lesions were classified into four stages: vesicular, ulcerated, crusted and healed. The study ointments were applied to affected areas four times daily. In women with vaginal or cervical lesions a tampon with the appropriate ointment was inserted four times daily for 10 days. Endpoint variables were healing time and time until loss of symptoms.
Results:
On Day 10, 24 out of 30 individuals in the propolis group had healed. In the acyclovir group 14 out of 30 and in the placebo group 12 out of 30 had healed. (p = 0.0015). The healing process appeared to be faster in the propolis group. In the propolis group 15 individuals had crusted lesions on Day 3 compared to 8 individuals in the acyclovir group and none in the placebo group (p = 0.0006). On Day 7, 10 participants in the propolis group, 4 in the acyclovir group and 3 in the placebo group had healed. At the initial examination all patients had local symptoms and 28% general symptoms. At Day 3, 3 patients in the propolis group had local symptoms compared to 8 and 9 in the acyclovir and placebo groups respectively. Of the women, 66% had vaginal superinfections of microbial pathogens at the initial examination. In the acyclovir and placebo groups no change in the vaginal flora was found following treatment whereas in the propolis group the incidence of superinfection was reduced by 55%. (p = 0.10 n.s.).
Conclusion:
An ointment containing flavonoids appeared to be more effective than both acyclovir and placebo ointments in healing genital herpetic lesions, and in reducing local symptoms.
A new triterpenoid named melliferone (1), three known triterpenoids, moronic acid (2), anwuweizonic acid (3), and betulonic acid (4), and four known aromatic compounds (5-8) were isolated from Brazilian propolis and tested for anti-HIV activity in H9 lymphocytes. Moronic acid (2) showed significant anti-HIV activity (EC(50) <0.1 microg/mL, TI >186) and was modified to develop more potent anti-AIDS agents.
Information on age- and sex-specific prevalence of herpes simplex virus (HSV) types 2 and 1 infections is essential to optimize
genital herpes control strategies, which increase in importance because accumulating data indicate that HSV-2 infection may
increase acquisition and transmission of human immunodeficiency virus. This review summarizes data from peer-reviewed publications
of type-specific HSV seroepidemiologic surveys. HSV-2 prevalence is, in general, highest in Africa and the Americas, lower
in western and southern Europe than in northern Europe and North America, and lowest in Asia. HSV-2 and -1 prevalence, overall
and by age, varies markedly by country, region within country, and population subgroup. Age-specific HSV-2 prevalence is usually
higher in women than men and in populations with higher risk sexual behavior. HSV-2 prevalence has increased in the United
States but national data from other countries are unavailable. HSV-1 infection is acquired during childhood and adolescence
and is markedly more widespread than HSV-2 infection. Further studies are needed in many geographic areas
Propolis, a natural product from beehives, comprises a complex of chemicals, the most important group being flavinoids, which play a role in antiviral protection.
To test the inhibitory effect of propolis extract against herpes simplex viruses in vitro and in vivo.
In vitro: propolis was added to Vero cells at various times and concentrations before, at or after infection with HSV-1. In vivo: the effect of propolis was tested in newborn rats infected s.c. or i.p. and on rabbit come as infected with HSV-1.
In vitro: 0.5% propolis extract caused 50% inhibition of HSV infection. There was indirect evidence for a strong interaction between the propolis extract and the surface of the Vero cells, but there was no direct interaction with HSV-1 particles. Administration of propolis before or at the time of infection yielded the most significant inhibitory effect, but even when 10% propolis extract was added 2 hours post-infection it gave 80-85% protection. In vivo: as little as 5% propolis prevented the appearance and development of symptoms of local and i.p. HSV-1 infection in rats and of corneal HSV-1 infection in rabbits. There were no cytotoxic effects at a concentration of 10% in vitro or 20% in vivo.
The potent antiviral activity of propolis against HSV-1 infection in vitro and In vivo is probably due to prevention of virus absorption into the host cells and/or inhibition of an internal step(s) during the viral replication cycle.
Two ethanolic propolis extracts (EPE) with and without the caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE), CAPE and galangin (major components of propolis) were investigated for anti-inflammatory activity in rats using carrageenin foot oedema, carrageenin pleurisy and adjuvant arthritis. In our experiments, EPE with CAPE and CAPE alone significantly inhibited carrageenin oedema, carrageenin pleurisy and adjuvant arthritis. In contrast EPE without CAPE and galangin did not exhibit anti-inflammatory effects in acute and chronic inflammation. These results suggest that the anti-inflammatory activity of propolis is due to CAPE.
Propolis, a natural product produced by the honeybee, has been used for thousands of years in folk medicine for several purposes. The extract contains amino acids, phenolic acids, phenolic acid esters, flavonoids, cinnamic acid, terpenes and caffeic acid. It possesses several biological activities such as antiinflammatory, immunostimulatory, antiviral and antibacterial. The exact mode of physiological or biochemical mechanisms responsible for the medical effects, however, is yet to be determined. In this work, we have investigated the antioxidant activity of a propolis extract deprived of caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE). In addition, the activity of CAPE and galangin was also examined. Propolis extract (with and without CAPE) and its active components showed a dose-dependent free radical scavenging effect, a significant inhibition of xanthine oxidase activity, and an antilipoperoxidative capacity. Propolis extract with CAPE was more active than propolis extract without CAPE. CAPE, used alone, exhibited a strong antioxidant activity, higher than galangin. The experimental evidence, therefore, suggests that CAPE plays an important role in the antioxidant activity of propolis.
Propolis has numerous biologic activities including antibiotic, antifungal, antiviral and anti-inflammatory properties. The present work is aimed to study the effect of crude Egyptian propolis on tumor in mice induced by Ehrlich ascitis carcinoma (EAC) cell line.
The administration of propolis (160 mg/kg body weight), by gastric intubation 2 h before the intraperitoneal injection of EAC, effectively inhibited tumor growth and the proliferation of EAC. The tumor volume was markedly reduced from 7+/-0.9 ml in EAC-infected mice to 1.6+/-0.95 ml in propolis-treated mice. Also, the lipid peroxide level which was 13.3+/-1.24 nmol malodialdehyde (MDA)/mg protein in EAC infected mice was significantly decreased to 3.3+/-2.1 nmol MDA/mg protein. Reduced glutathione (GSH) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) concentrations were markedly increased in propolis-treated mice. This effect was associated with inhibition of cell cycle progression and induction of apoptosis. Administration of propolis 2 h before injection of EAC arrested cells in G0/G1 phase and resulted in a decrease in the viability, DNA, total RNA and protein level of tumor cells.
Crude Egyptian propolis has a strong inhibitory activity against tumors. The anti-tumor mechanism may be mediated by preventing oxidative damage and induction of apoptosis.
The current armamentarium for the chemotherapy of viral infections consists of 37 licensed antiviral drugs. For the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections, 19 compounds have been formally approved: (i) the nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) zidovudine, didanosine, zalcitabine, stavudine, lamivudine, abacavir and emtricitabine; (ii) the nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NtRTI) tenofovir disoproxil fumarate; (iii) the non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) nevirapine, delavirdine and efavirenz; (iv) the protease inhibitors saquinavir, ritonavir, indinavir, nelfinavir, amprenavir, lopinavir (combined with ritonavir at a 4/1 ratio) and atazanavir; and the viral entry inhibitor enfuvirtide. For the treatment of chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infections, lamivudine as well as adefovir dipivoxil have been approved. Among the anti-herpesvirus agents, acyclovir, valaciclovir, penciclovir (when applied topically), famciclovir, idoxuridine and trifluridine (both applied topically) as well as brivudin are used in the treatment of herpes simplex virus (HSV) and/or varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infections; and ganciclovir, valganciclovir, foscarnet, cidofovir and fomivirsen (the latter upon intravitreal injection) have proven useful in the treatment of cytomegalovirus (CMV) infections in immunosuppressed patients (i.e. AIDS patients with CMV retinitis). Following amantadine and rimantadine, the neuraminidase inhibitors zanamivir and oseltamivir have recently become available for the therapy (and prophylaxis) of influenza virus infections. Ribavirin has been used (topically, as aerosol) in the treatment of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections, and the combination of ribavirin with (pegylated) interferon-alpha has received increased acceptance for the treatment of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections.
Twelve infants suffering from diaper dermatitis were treated four times daily for 7 days with a mixture containing honey, olive oil and beeswax. The severity of erythema was evaluated on a five-point scale. Three infants had severe erythema and ulceration, four had moderate erythema, and five had moderate erythema with maceration. The initial mean lesion score of 2.91 +/- 0.79 declined significantly (p < 0.05) to 2.0 +/- 0.98 (day 3), 1.25 +/- 0.96 (day 5) and 0.66 +/- 0.98 (day 7). Candida albicans was isolated initially from four patients, but from only two patients after treatment. This topical treatment was safe and well-tolerated, and demonstrated clinical and mycological benefits in the treatment of diaper dermatitis.
Propolis exhibits antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and other biological effects. The aim of this study was to evaluate the activity of 30 % ethanolic extract of Bulgarian propolis against 94 Helicobacter pylori strains by three methods. By the agar-well diffusion method, only 13.8 % of the strains exhibited no inhibition by 30 microl propolis extract (containing 9 mg propolis) and all isolates were inhibited to some extent by 90 microl of the extract (27 mg propolis) per well. The mean diameters of growth inhibition by 30, 60 or 90 microl propolis extract or 30 microl 96 % ethanol per well were 16.8, 19.2, 27.5 and 8.3 mm, respectively. The propolis extract was more active than the ethanol (P < 0.001). With 90 microl propolis extract per well, 69.4 % of the strains exhibited large diameters of growth inhibition (> or =20 mm) versus 26.6 % with 30 mul per well (P < 0.001). With moist propolis discs, inhibition was detected in more strains (92.1 %) than with dried discs (78.2 %, P < 0.05), with mean inhibitory diameters of 18.7 and 13.8 mm, respectively. By the agar dilution method, 100 and 300 microg propolis ml(-1) inhibited the growth of 57.1 % and 76.2 %, respectively, of the 21 strains tested. In conclusion, Bulgarian propolis had a strong and dose-dependent activity against most of the H. pylori strains tested. Although the effect of propolis on H. pylori in vitro is promising, further microbiological, pharmacological and clinical trials are required.
The antibacterial activity of propolis from different regions of Turkey was studied, accompanied by TLC and GC-MS analyses of its chemical composition and spectrophotometric quantification of the most important active principles. All six samples were active against the bacterial test strains used; however, samples 1 (Yozgat), 2 (Izmir) and 3 (Kayseri) were more active than samples 4 (Adana), 5 (Erzurum) and 6 (Artvin). By TLC comparison all samples were found to contain poplar taxonomic markers but in samples 4 (Adana), 5 (Erzurum) and 6 (Artvin), different substances were observed, which were not present in P. nigra L. bud exudate. The typical poplar samples 1 (Yozgat), 2 (Izmir) and 3 (Kayseri) displayed very similar phenolic and flavonoid content. Samples 4 (Adana), 5 (Erzurum) and 6 (Artvin) were characterized by low phenolic and very low flavonoid concentrations. Qualitative analysis by GC-MS revealed that sample 4 (Adana) contained diterpenic acids and high percent of cinnamyl cinnamate, sample 5 (Erzurum)-significant amounts of hydroxy fatty acids and triterpenic alcohoLs, and sample 6 (Artvin)-phenolic glycerides, characteristic for the bud exudate of Populus euphratica Oliv. The results confirm the importance of phenolics for propolis antibacterial activity, and the significance of P. nigra L. as a propolis source, which provides the hive with the best defense against microorganisms.
We investigated whether water extract of Brazilian green propolis (WEP) and its main constituents [caffeoylquinic acid derivatives (3,4-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid, 3,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid, chlorogenic acid) and cinnamic acid derivatives (p-coumaric acid, artepillin C, drupanin, baccharin)] exert neuroprotective effects against the retinal damage induced by oxidative stress. Additionally, their neuroprotective effects were compared with their antioxidant effects. WEP, 3,4-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid, 3,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid, chlorogenic acid, and p-coumaric acid (but not artepillin C, baccharin, or drupanin) concentration-dependently inhibited oxidative stress-induced neurotoxicity [achieved using L-buthionine-(S,R)-sulfoximine (BSO) to deplete glutathione in combination with glutamate to inhibit cystine uptake] in cultured retinal ganglion cells (RGC-5, a rat ganglion cell line transformed using E1A virus). At their effective concentrations against oxidative stress-induced retinal damage, WEP, 3,4-di-caffeoylquinic acid, 3,5-di-caffeoylquinic acid, and chlorogenic acid (but not cinnamic acid derivatives) inhibited lipid peroxidation (LPO) in mouse forebrain homogenates. Thus, the neuroprotective effects of WEP and caffeoylquinic acid derivatives paralleled those against LPO. These findings indicate that WEP and caffeoylquinic acid derivatives have neuroprotective effects against retinal damage in vitro, and that these effects may be partly mediated via antioxidant effects.
Essential oils from anise, hyssop, thyme, ginger, camomile and sandalwood were screened for their inhibitory effect against herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) in vitro on RC-37 cells using a plaque reduction assay. Genital herpes is a chronic, persistent infection spreading efficiently and silently as sexually transmitted disease through the population. Antiviral agents currently applied for the treatment of herpesvirus infections include acyclovir and its derivatives. The inhibitory concentrations (IC50) were determined at 0.016%, 0.0075%, 0.007%, 0.004%, 0.003% and 0.0015% for anise oil, hyssop oil, thyme oil, ginger oil, camomile oil and sandalwood oil, respectively. A clearly dose-dependent virucidal activity against HSV-2 could be demonstrated for all essential oils tested. In order to determine the mode of the inhibitory effect, essential oils were added at different stages during the viral infection cycle. At maximum noncytotoxic concentrations of the essential oils, plaque formation was significantly reduced by more than 90% when HSV-2 was preincubated with hyssop oil, thyme oil or ginger oil. However, no inhibitory effect could be observed when the essential oils were added to the cells prior to infection with HSV-2 or after the adsorption period. These results indicate that essential oils affected HSV-2 mainly before adsorption probably by interacting with the viral envelope. Camomile oil exhibited a high selectivity index and seems to be a promising candidate for topical therapeutic application as virucidal agents for treatment of herpes genitalis.
Antiviral drugs in current clinical use
- De Clercq