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E-WASTE: ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

Authors:

Abstract

E-waste" is a popular, informal name for electronic products nearing the end of their "useful life". This includes discarded computers, televisions, VCRs, stereos, copiers, fax machines, electric lamps, cell phones, audio equipment and batteries. E-wastes are considered dangerous, as certain components of some of these electronic products contain materials; such as lead; that are hazardous, depending on their condition and density. If improperly disposed, E-wastes can leach lead and other substances into soil and groundwater posing a threat to human health and environment. Many of these electronic products can be reused, refurbished, or recycled in an environmentally sound manner so that they are less harmful to the ecosystem. This paper highlights the types and hazards of E-wastes particularly the computers' waste. The dimensions and ethicality of the problem in the third-world countries are reviewed. The needs for the appropriate management of E-waste and options that can be implemented are discussed. After reviewing the Islamic concepts for environmental protection, ethical implications for curriculum development as well research directions are highlighted. Elements for a course on e-waste as well as some across-the-curriculum topics are proposed. This is specially tailored to suit the Faculty of Engineering at the International Islamic University-Malaysia.
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E-WASTE: ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION
AND RESEARCH
M
UAZ
H
AWARI
1
AND
M
OHAMED
H.
H
ASSAN
2
1
Graduate student, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering,
International Islamic University Malaysia
2
Alexandria University, Egypt, currently on leave at King AbdulAziz University, Jeddah, Saudi
Arabia
**This work was performed when the second author was on leave, Faculty of Engineering, International
Islamic University-Malaysia
mhmheg@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT: E-waste” is a popular, informal name for electronic products nearing the
end of their “useful life”. This includes discarded computers, televisions, VCRs, stereos,
copiers, fax machines, electric lamps, cell phones, audio equipment and batteries. E-
wastes are considered dangerous, as certain components of some of these electronic
products contain materials; such as lead; that are hazardous, depending on their condition
and density. If improperly disposed, E-wastes can leach lead and other substances into
soil and groundwater posing a threat to human health and environment. Many of these
electronic products can be reused, refurbished, or recycled in an environmentally sound
manner so that they are less harmful to the ecosystem. This paper highlights the types
and hazards of E-wastes particularly the computers’ waste. The dimensions and
ethicality of the problem in the third-world countries are reviewed. The needs for the
appropriate management of E-waste and options that can be implemented are discussed.
After reviewing the Islamic concepts for environmental protection, ethical implications
for curriculum development as well research directions are highlighted. Elements for a
course on e-waste as well as some across-the-curriculum topics are proposed. This is
specially tailored to suit the Faculty of Engineering at the International Islamic
University-Malaysia.
KEYWORDS: E-Waste, Environment, Ethics and Education
1. INTRODUCTION
The life span of computers used to be decades, then years, and now often months.
Millions of computers, screens, and peripherals are being rendered obsolete after little
more than a year of active use. Just a small percentage of these are reaching the solid
waste stream. Most are stored in attics, garages, and warehouses because their owners are
unwilling to throw away something they perceive to have so much value. Most consumers
are unaware of the toxic materials in the products they rely on for word processing, data
management, and access to the internet, as well as for electronic games. In general,
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computer equipment is a complicated assembly of more than 1,000 materials, many of
which are highly toxic, such as chlorinated and brominated substances, toxic gases, toxic
metals, biologically active materials, acids, plastics and plastic additives [1].
There are two root computer and electronic waste (hereafter, E-waste) problems: (1)
The volume of computers and related e-waste improperly disposed of in landfills and (2)
The toxicity of both the computer chip manufacturing process and the computer or cathode
ray tube monitor (CRT) itself as a waste product.
E-waste contains significant quantities of toxic materials [1]. Each computer or
television display monitor contains an average of 4-8 pounds of lead. Monitor glass
contains about 20% lead by weight. About 70% of the heavy metals (including mercury
and cadmium) found in landfills come from electronic equipment discards. These heavy
metals and other hazardous substances found in electronics can contaminate groundwater
and pose other environmental and public health risks.
Three methods of disposal are currently applied [2]: (1) Incineration which generate
and disperse contaminants and toxic substances, (2) Open burning which releases many
pollutants into environment, and (3) Landfill where lead and mercury cause severe
contamination in landfills besides these contaminations can spread to ground water
resources. It is thus apparent that the environmental and health impacts are of serious
concern. While computer waste is relatively valuable when delivered to a recycler, the
high cost of transportation and handling generally makes it uneconomical. There is
insufficient infrastructure to support increased recycling of CRT/computer waste and few
economic incentives to create one.
What adds to the problem is that most developing nations lack awareness of the
dangers posed by E-waste, as well as any E-waste collection and recycling or disposal
systems or programs.
2. DIMENSION OF THE PROBLEM
The fundamental dynamism of computer manufacturing that has transformed life since
the second half of the 20
th
century, leads to rapid product obsolescence. The average
computer platform has a lifespan of less than two years, and hardware and software
companies, especially Intel and Microsoft, constantly generate new programs that fuel the
demand for more speed, memory and power. Today, it is frequently cheaper and more
convenient to buy a new machine to accommodate the newer generations of technology
than it is to upgrade the old. The dimension of this issue can be seen in the developing
countries and the developed ones as explained below. Interested reader may refer to
references [2] and [3] for more data on E-waste problems in various countries.
2.1 Developed Countries
Three quarters of all computers ever bought in the U.S. are sitting in people’s attics and
basements because they don’t know what to do with them. Just to give an estimation of
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the size of this issue, we will consider the following numbers in the U.S. as an example
[4]. Americans are buying more computers than people in any other nation. Currently over
50% of U.S. households own a computer [4]. Because of advances in chip technology, the
life span of a computer has been reduced from perhaps 4-5 years to approaching 2 years or
less. Computer junking is also happening at a faster rate. The lifespan of computers is
decreasing. In 1997 the average lifespan of a computer tower was 4-6 years and computer
monitors 6-7 years. This has fallen to 2 years in 2005 [1, 5]. For the three years between
1997 and 1999, it is estimated that some 50 million U.S. computer towers had been
dumped, burned, shipped abroad or stored to await eventual disposal [1]. A recent US
study found that over 315 million computers became obsolete by the year 2004 [5].
Recycling of computer monitors is no better. Over 300 million computer monitors have
been sold in the U.S. since 1980. Yet, in 1997 only about 1.7 million monitors in the US
were "recycled," the majority of which - about 1 million monitors - was shipped abroad to
countries such as China or India.
E-waste represents from two to five percent of the U.S. municipal solid waste stream.
An estimated 300,000 tons of E-waste ended up in the U.S. landfills in 2000, and the
problem is expected to grow four-fold in the near future. In 1998 only 6 percent of older
computers were recycled compared to the numbers of new computers put on the market
that year. In contrast, for major appliances such as washing machines, air conditioners,
refrigerators, dryers, dishwashers and freezers, the proportion recycled in 1998 was about
70% of the number put on the market that year [5]. Of the small number of computers that
are recycled, more than three-quarters come from large-scale users of the equipment.
Individual users and small businesses contribute only a small fraction of the equipment
that is recycled because no collection or recycling program is in place [5].
Currently the cheapest E-waste recycling option in the U.S. is to send E-waste overseas.
However, how it is used or disposed of there is largely unknown [5]. The district of Guiyu
in China, for example, has become an electronic trash junkyard, with PCs and peripherals
forming mountains and overflowing into streets; with its people making a living stripping
away PC parts with their bare hands. In the mean time, in the U.S., second hand dealers
(Thrift shops, Salvation Army, Goodwill) and Waste Haulers or those in the recycling
business are unsure about how to handle equipment they are receiving and what disposal
options are legally available to them. Additionally, with no certainty about market
volume, infrastructure investment is risky.
2.2 Developing Countries
In the developing countries, the dimension of the issue is not as drastic as it is in the
developed countries. For example, Malaysia has been putting a lot of effort to eradicate
this problem before it gets persistent and out of control. The "Recycle PC" campaign,
spearheaded by the Association of the Computer and Multimedia Industry of Malaysia
(Pikom) and waste management company Alam Flora Sdn Bhd [6], is picking up steam
since its launch in March 2005. This campaign aims to create environmental awareness by
encouraging the public and organizations to recycle PCs and their peripherals. Between
the period of March 10 and April 30, 2005, Alam Flora has collected 816 computers and
peripherals. This includes 194 computer monitors, 147 central processing units (CPUs)
428 printers, and 47 miscellaneous PC components [7].
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Panasonic Malaysia Sdn Bhd was among the first corporations to answer the call to
recycle when it handed over 60 used PCs and laptops to Alam Flora within a week from
launching the PC recycling campaign [6]. The Japanese technology giant also pledged to
donate more PCs to the Recycle PC campaign each time it embarks on a PC upgrading
exercise. Alam Flora has assigned collection points and recycling centers all over the
country for people to drop off their old PCs to be recycled.
In India however, the problem is worse. The developed countries use India as a drop
point to dumb their E-waste in. India has no PC recycling program or at least not a well-
known one. Almost 50% of the PCs sold in India are products from the secondary market
and are re-assembled on old components. The remaining market share is covered by
multinational manufacturers (30%) and Indian brands (22%). PCs manufacturers are
major contributors of E-waste. The waste consists of defective IC chips, motherboards,
monitors and other peripheral items produced during the production process. Waste also
includes defective PCs under guarantee procured from consumers as replacement items
[8]. It is worth mentioning that in India, the import of E-waste is legally prohibited.
Nevertheless, there are reports of E-waste imports from abroad. Analyses by the ministry
of environment showed no results concerning import of E-waste, but the ministry admits
that a 100% control of the borders is not possible [8]. What complicates the problem is
that computer waste, which does not have any resale or reuse value, is openly burnt or
disposed off in landfills.
In Africa, Nigeria is undergoing rapid and massive growth in cell phone and computer
technology. The city of Lagos in Nigeria is believed to be representative of developments
rapidly taking place in other port cities of Africa. While no official figures exist, it is
apparent that a very significant portion of this growth is fueled by the importation of
second-hand equipment from rich developed countries. Experts stated that 500 containers
of used computers come into the port of Lagos each month imported primarily from
Europe and North America [9]. Many of the exporters were identified by institutional
asset tags left on the equipment. Additionally, private data from exported hard drive
memory systems were extracted, raising questions about a new form of irresponsibility
which is the privacy of information. While some of the imported material to Lagos is fully
functional and is directly re-used, or can be repaired, there is nevertheless a significant
quantity of the imported computer equipment or parts, estimated by local experts to be
between 25-75% that is considered junk. It is unmarketable due to either its lack of
computing effectiveness, or due to the fact that it is un-economic to repair. Local experts
complain that of the estimated 500 40-foot containers shipped to Lagos each month, as
much as 75% of the imports are “junk” and are not economically repairable or marketable.
Consequently, this e-waste is being discarded and routinely burned in what the
environmentalists call yet “another” cyber-age nightmare now landing on the shores of
developing countries” [9].
Because most of the exports/imports are not pre-tested for functionality, it is not
possible to know whether these exports are legally defined as hazardous waste (i.e.
requiring disposal whole or in part, and being hazardous) under the Basel Convention.
From a regulatory standpoint, diligent enforcement discretion would demand testing be
performed prior to allowing export. The Basel Convention is an international treaty that
sets up controls, enforcement mechanisms, and requirements that signatories agree to
follow, including preventing and monitoring illegal traffic in hazardous waste, promoting
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cleaner technologies and production, and focusing specifically on helping developing
nations [10].
3. TECHNICAL ASPECTS AND SIDE EFFECTS OF DUMPING E-
WASTE
To have an idea about the materials involved in the E-waste, the following table shows
composition of a typical desktop PC weighing ~ 60 lbs [11]:
Name
Content
(% of total
weight)
Weight of
material in
computer
(lbs.)
Use/Contents
Plastics 22.9907 13.8 includes organics, oxides other than silica
Lead 6.2988 3.8 metal joining, radiation shield/CRT, PWB
Aluminum 14.1723 8.5 structural, conductivity/housing, CRT, PWB,
connectors
Germanium
0.0016 < 0.1 Semiconductor/PWB
Gallium 0.0013 < 0.1 Semiconductor/PWB
Iron 20.4712 12.3 structural, magnetivity/(steel) housing, CRT,
PWB
Tin 1.0078 0.6 metal joining/PWB, CRT
Copper 6.9287 4.2 Conductivity/CRT, PWB, connectors
Barium 0.0315 < 0.1 in vacuum tube/CRT
Nickel 0.8503 0.51 structural, magnetivity/(steel) housing, CRT,
PWB
Zinc 2.2046 1.32 battery, phosphor emitter/PWB, CRT
Tantalum 0.0157 < 0.1 Capacitors/PWB, power supply
Indium 0.0016 < 0.1 transistor, rectifiers/PWB
Vanadium 0.0002 < 0.1 red phosphor emitter/CRT
Beryllium 0.0157 < 0.1 thermal conductivity/PWB, connectors
Gold 0.0016 < 0.1 Connectivity, conductivity/PWB, connectors
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Europium 0.0002 < 0.1 phosphor activator/PWB
Titanium 0.0157 < 0.1 pigment, alloying agent/(aluminum) housing
Ruthenium 0.0016 < 0.1 resistive circuit/PWB
Cobalt 0.0157 < 0.1 structural, magnetivity/(steel) housing, CRT,
PWB
Palladium 0.0003 < 0.1 Connectivity, conductivity/PWB, connectors
Manganese 0.0315 < 0.1 structural, magnetivity/(steel) housing, CRT,
PWB
Silver 0.0189 < 0.1 Conductivity/PWB, connectors
Antinomy 0.0094 < 0.1 diodes/housing, PWB, CRT
Bismuth 0.0063 < 0.1 wetting agent in thick film/PWB
Chromium 0.0063 < 0.1 Decorative, hardener/(steel) housing
Cadmium 0.0094 < 0.1 battery, glu-green phosphor emitter/housing,
PWB, CRT
Selenium 0.0016 0.00096 rectifiers/PWB
Niobium 0.0002 < 0.1 welding allow/housing
Yttrium 0.0002 < 0.1 red phosphor emitter/CRT
Mercury 0.0022 < 0.1 batteries, switches/housing, PWB
Arsenic 0.0013 < 0.1 doping agents in transistors/PWB
Silica 24.8803 15 glass, solid state devices/CRT,PWB
3.1 Risks Related to Some Toxic Substances in PCs
The following is a more detailed description of the hazards of E-waste based on the
different material involved [11].
Lead:
Lead can cause damage to the central and peripheral nervous systems, blood system
and kidneys in humans. Effects on the endocrine system have also been observed and its
serious negative effects on children’s brain development have been well documented.
Lead accumulates in the environment and has high acute and chronic toxic effects on
plants, animals and microorganisms [12].
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Cadmium:
Cadmium compounds are classified as toxic with a possible risk of irreversible effects
on human health. Cadmium and cadmium compounds accumulate in the human body,
particularly in kidneys. Cadmium is absorbed through respiration but is also taken up with
food.
Mercury:
When inorganic mercury spreads out in the water, it is transformed to methylated
mercury in the bottom sediments. Methylated mercury easily accumulates in living
organisms and concentrates through the food chain particularly via fish. Methylated
mercury causes chronic damage to the brain.
Hexavalent Chromium:
Chromium VI can easily pass through membranes of cells and is easily absorbed
producing various toxic effects within the cells. It causes strong allergic reactions even in
small concentrations. Asthmatic bronchitis is another allergic reaction linked to chromium
VI. Chromium VI may also cause DNA damage [12].
Plastics:
It is estimated that the largest volume of plastics used in electronics manufacturing (at
26%) was polyvinyl chloride (PVC), which creates more environmental and health
hazards than most other type of plastic. PVC is a difficult plastic to recycle and it
contaminates other plastics in the recycling process. Of more importance, however, the
production and burning of PVC products generates dioxins and furans.
Brominated Flame Retardants:
Brominated flame-retardants are a class of brominated chemicals commonly used in
electronic products as a means for reducing flammability. In computers, they are used
mainly in four applications: in printed circuit boards, in components such as connectors, in
plastic covers and in cables. They are also used in plastic covers of TV sets and in
domestic kitchen appliances.
Various scientific observations indicate that Polybrominated Diphenylethers (PBDE)
might act as endocrine disrupters. Research has revealed that levels of PBDEs in human
breast milk are doubling every five years and this has prompted concern because of the
effect of these chemicals in young animals [13]. Researchers in the US found exposure to
Polybrominated Biphenyls (PBBs) may cause an increased risk of cancer of the digestive
and lymph systems [14]. The presence of polybrominated flame-retardants in plastic
makes recycling dangerous and difficult [15].
4. ISLAMIC ASPECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Islam is considered a comprehensive way of life whose teachings cover, directly or
indirectly, every possible human relationship including that with the environment. These
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teachings are primarily available in the revealed knowledge which comprises the Qur’an
and prophet Muhammad’s tradition (Sunnah). Islam emphasizes strongly on preserving the
environment. Basically, the relationship between human beings and the environment is of
three categories [16]:
Vicegerency:
The human being in the Islamic world-view is considered a vicegerent. In her/his
capacity as a vicegerent, the human being is perceived as the trustee of the earth. She/he is
not supposed to cause corruption in any form on earth (i.e. the environment). Life on earth
entails great responsibilities. It is a test with accountability. It is followed by either reward
or punishment.
Subjection:
The earth is made available for human use, without abuse or misuse. The circle of
things available for the benefit of humanity is much greater than that of the environment.
Inhabitation:
The Qur’an, moreover, makes it clear that the earth is our habitat and that we are
required to dwell on it, work it out and establish a balanced way of life without excesses or
deficiencies. The meaning of inhabitation (I’mar) includes spreading and settling all over
the earth, inhabiting every livable quarters, building …etc. In short, it includes every
positive activity that would make life on earth prosperous. If an activity diverts humanity
from the right path (i.e. against the Shari`ah), then it cannot be considered as I`mar. The
I`mar of the earth should be in areas and projects that could benefit humanity and not
harm it. This means that projects and activities that destroy the environment are excluded.
Protecting the Environment:
It should be known that Islam advocates the protection of the environment, though not
in name, for the word ‘environment’ (bi’ah), along with its connotations, evolved in recent
times [16]. The fact that to protect the environment is considered an act of worship does
not mean that every component of the environment should be saved. In fact, it is
sometimes to the contrary. The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, stated that a
person who uprooted a tree [which formed an obstacle] in the path of people, ended up in
heavens. The Islamic position forms a middle path between human behavior that has
disregard to the environment and those who practically worship the environment. Islam
prohibited the cutting or destruction of trees and plants, and encouraged people to protect
and increase plants for the great reward associated with that.
In conclusion, protecting an environment is an essentiality in Islam. The aims of the
Shari’ah are five: protection of religion, protection of life, protection of mind, protection
of offspring, and protection of property. Though protection of the environment is not
included in the aims of the Shari’ah, the environment encompasses all the other aims of
the Shari`ah. For if the situation of the environment keeps deteriorating, there will
ultimately be no life, no property and no religion. The destruction of the environment
prevents the human being from fulfilling the concept of vicegerency on earth. Indeed, the
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very existence of humanity is at stake here. Excessive pollution might lead to sterility,
deformities, abortion and chronic diseases. As far as protecting the mind or reason, the
highly polluted industrial cities might not see the sun for long days resulting in deep
depressions which affects the person’s ability to rationalize properly. Certain radiation
might also destroy the brain. The attempt to protect the property will also be in vain in the
context of a highly polluted environment. There are already many rivers and lakes that are
considered dead with no marine life. This is a direct result of acid rain which destroys also
forests.
It is worth mentioning that protecting the environment from an Islamic point of view is
one of the topics that are well established and the above analysis is not meant to be
conclusive. Interested reader may refer to other sources in the literature such as references
[17] and [18].
5. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS
In this section, some actions that can be adopted are reviewed. Almost all of these
actions have to be carried out simultaneously. Some of them are targeted to create a wider
awareness amongst the end-users.
5.1 The 3R Initiative
One approach to dealing with the E-waste problem is the 3R Initiative which can be
summarized as follows [19]:
Reduce: attempt to reduce the amount of waste generated reduce/eliminate use
of toxic substances like lead and mercury.
Reuse: repeated use of items or parts of items which are still usable
Recycle: use of waste itself as resource
However, it has to be stressed that success depends on [19]:
Public recognition of hazards involved in E-waste
Organized collection and transportation of E-waste
5.2 Binding Purchasing with Take-Back Product Responsibility
This is known as Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR). The aim of EPR is to
encourage producers to prevent pollution and reduce resource and energy use in each stage
of the product life cycle through changes in product design and process technology. In its
widest sense, producer responsibility is the principle that producers bear a degree of
responsibility for all the environmental impacts of their products. This includes upstream
impacts arising from the choice of materials and from the manufacturing process as well
as the downstream impacts, i.e. from the use and disposal of products. EPR focuses on the
responsibility that producers are responsible for their products at the end of their useful
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life (post-consumer stage). The model example of EPR is product take-back where a
producer takes back a product at the end of its useful life (i.e., when discarded) either
directly or through a third party. Other terms used are 'take-back', 'product liability' or 'life
cycle product responsibility'. This has been implemented by HP companies in the U.S.
[20]. Hence, the producers have a great deal of responsibility to take back their products
and recycle them at the end of the products’ operational lives. It puts full financial
responsibility on producers to set up collection, recycling and disposal systems.
5.3 Citizens' Responsibility
A great responsibility is placed on the citizen. The citizen has to feel responsible of
whatever electronic gear that the end-user have at his or her house. The individual has to
help the recycling organizations by giving them back the electronic devices after he or she
is done with it. The end-user has to be aware of the dangers and risks that arise from
dumping the electronic gears or storing them in their attics or backyards.
The end-user should contact the local or state government representatives, explain to
them why he or she is concerned and ask them to get involved in developing solutions.
They could ban the land filling and incineration of electronic junk. They can help to
promote computer re-use and recycling infrastructure. They can support Extended
Producer Responsibility (EPR) for computer manufacturers. Waste prevention is perhaps
more preferred to any other waste management option including recycling. Donating
electronics for reuse extends the lives of valuable products and keeps them out of the
waste management system for a longer time. Reuse, in addition to being an
environmentally preferable alternative, also benefits society. By donating used electronics,
schools, non-profit organizations, and lower-income families can afford to use equipment
that they otherwise could not afford. Care should be taken while donating such items, i.e.,
the items should be in working condition.
5.4 Encouraging Reuse
According to the Basel Action Network (BAN) [10], Developing countries need help to
create environmentally sound waste management systems. Such efforts should not be part
of continuing to stop exporting hazardous wastes to those countries, but rather as a
necessity for any country that must deal with all kinds of wastes.
6. IMPLICATIONS FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN THE
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC
UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA (IIUM)
In the era of globalization, certain ethical, social, and global aspects of the graduate
engineer need to be enhanced [21]. This has important implications for education and
research [22]. As explained before, this needs to be stressed from an Islamic point of
view. Another motive for such ethical consideration is that accreditation by recognized
bodies necessitates taking into consideration the ethical contents of the engineering
programs [23].
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Academic Institutions have an important role in informing the students of the great
environmental risks that could arise from the e-waste issue. Usually, computer engineering
graduates know little information (if any) about the material or chemical contents of a PC.
May be it is none of their concern from a career point of view but nowadays every
individual and engineer in particular has to be updated of the environmental issues arising
from the various electronic devices they use daily. As such, educational institutions in
Muslim countries can play a role model in modifying their engineering curriculum to
accommodate the e-waste problems.
There are many ways for the universities to spread the awareness amongst the students
and staff of this issue. Workshops and seminars can be organized on a semester basis or at
least annually. Courses could be added to the engineering curriculum on solid waste
management in general and E-waste management specifically. Proposals for the faculty of
engineering at the International Islamic University Malaysia regarding these issues are
discussed below.
6.1 Designing a Course on E-Waste
A preliminary survey was done on universities syllabi for computer engineering
programs. According to the authors knowledge, no university offers a course for
computer engineering students about the materials contained within a PC and its harm as
e-waste.
In the Faculty of Engineering at International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM),
different courses could be added to the curriculum to help increase the awareness of this
issue. As a start, a general course on solid waste management may be proposed. Such a
course could be adapted in the Faculty of Engineering, in different programs especially in
the Manufacturing and Materials Engineering Department.
For example, a course titled Solid Waste Management and Environmental Health
(ENVH 445) is taught at the University of Washington (UW), in the U.S. The primary
goal of this course is to provide students with a comprehensive understanding of solid
waste management from an environmental/public health perspective. The learning
objectives of the course aim at making the students able to: (1) Identify and discuss the
public health, regulatory, planning, technical, and economic principles that influence the
solid waste management system within Washington State, (2) Describe appropriate
methods to minimize the impact to the public’s health from solid waste related activities,
(3) Analyze the importance of an integrated solid waste handling system including source
reduction, recycling and reuse, composting, land filling and combustion and (4) Develop a
more informed opinion on a variety of solid waste related issues. Some of the topics
covered are: Public hazards and importance of laws and regulations, Solid waste
characterization and planning, Source reduction/recycling in action, Solid Waste impact
on global climate change, Land filling, Waste combustions, E-waste.
6.2 Including E-Waste Topics using Across-the-Curriculum Approach
Another approach is to include topics on waste management and E-wastes across the
curriculum. For example, these topics may be included in the following courses:
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22
Course Department
MEC4131 - Advanced Materials
Engineering
Manufacturing & Materials
Engineering
BTE3610 - Waste Management and
Utilization Biotechnology Engineering
Since there is no such course in the Electrical and Computer Engineering program,
selected topics could be covered using seminars or workshops. Another approach is to
include elements of the E-waste problem in the course Computer Architecture and Design
(ECE 3213).
In the mean time, waste and E-waste topics may be the topics of final year projects
where the students may perform literature surveys on the technical aspects of the problem
or even address one of the alternative solutions as explained in the following section.
During industrial training, the students may be advised to be alert to the problem and try to
assess its dimensions in the different fields. Finally, E-waste may be a good topic for a
university outreach program undertaken by the students associations to educate the
surrounding community on environmental issues.
7. IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH AND REGULATIONS
E-waste processing in developing nations has only recently emerged as an important
issue, thus relevant research remains scarce. The overarching issue of assessing and
managing the environmental impacts of electronics, however, has a history of research and
implementation, especially from the 1990’s [2].
Specific areas that need science and technology inputs are [19]:
Cleaner technologies such as those for waste minimization, recycling, recovery
and treatment
Environment friendly manufacturing processes (e.g. lead free soldering)
Material flow analysis for benchmarking the performance review of industries
Greening of supply chains of manufacturers of electronic components
Major events that have developed to service the research and implementation
community are concerned with Green Electronics [2]. In the U.S., the flagship event is the
“International Symposium on Electronics and the Environment”, sponsored by IEEE, and
has been held annually since 1993. International participation in previous years was
mainly from Europe, but more recently presentations from Japan and other Asian countries
have been on the increase. From 2003, a new annual event, “E-Scrap”, has emerged as a
new player in the field. It is more targeted towards industry and policymakers. In Europe,
the main event in the field is “Electronics Goes Green”, which has been held in 2000 and
2004 in Berlin. While there has been no regular event in Japan focuses on electronics and
IIUM Engineering Journal, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2008 Hawari and Hassan
23
the environment specifically, the “International Conference on Ecobalance”, held
biannually since 1994, and “International Symposium on Environmentally Conscious
Design and Inverse Manufacturing”, held biannually since 1999, include much content
related to electronics.
7.1 Examining E-Waste Related Regulations
In its list of recommendations to combat illegal dumping of E-waste, The Basel Action
Network (BAN) urges governments to pressure manufacturers to remove toxic chemicals
from products as soon as possible. BAN also calls on strict enforcement of the Basel
Convention [10] and lauds Australia for its efforts in that regard. Australia requires full
testing of electronic waste to certify that it complies with the Basel Convention before it is
exported. The BAN report on dumping in Lagos calls the U.S. "the worst actor" among
developed countries that perpetuate dumping of hazardous waste in developing nations.
It is thus clear that there is a need to examine E-waste related regulations at the national
level. Regardless of the fact that this issue has legal background, engineers can help in
identifying the technical aspects of the problem to the legal experts.
7.2 Design of Toxic and Hazard Free Products
Many companies have shown they can design cleaner products. Industry is making
some progress to design cleaner products but there is a need to move beyond these projects
and ensure that all products are upgradeable and non-toxic
Some examples of alternatives are [24]:
(1) Hewlett-Packard Company has developed a safe cleaning method for chips using
carbon dioxide cleaning as a substitute for hazardous solvents.
(2) Printed circuit boards can be redesigned to use a different base material, which is
self-extinguishing, thereby eliminating the need for flame-retardants. Matsushita is
accelerating efforts to eliminate toxic substances and develop more environmentally
benign materials such as lead-free solder, non-halogenated lead wires and non-halogenated
plastics. Matsushita also developed the first lead-free solder for flow soldering
applications and have recently launched, in Japan, their first totally-recyclable television
sets. Sony Corp has developed a lead-free solder alloy, which is usable in conventional
soldering equipment. There is a range of lead-free solders now available. Obviously,
substitutes need to be proven for safety.
(3) Pressures to eliminate halogenated flame-retardants and design products for
recycling have led to the use of metal shielding in computer housings. In 1998 IBM
introduced the first computer that uses 100% recycled resin (PC/ABS) in all major plastic
parts for a total of 3.5 pounds of resin per product. Toshiba is working on a modular
upgradeable and customizable computer to cut down on the amount of product
obsolescence. They are also developing a cartridge which can be rewritten without
exchanging parts or modules allowing the customer to upgrade at low cost.
IIUM Engineering Journal, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2008 Hawari and Hassan
24
It is thus worth mentioning that efforts are under way to propose safe alternate
materials. More funding as well as directed research is still needed along these directions.
As mentioned before, this is a golden chance for research institutions in Muslim countries
to take the lead in relieving the environment from such problematic e-wastes.
8. CONCLUSIONS
While advances in technology continue to improve and enrich our lives, product
lifecycles are getting shorter. This means an increasing stockpile of end-of-life equipment
that needs to be managed. When discarded, much of this equipment ends up in landfills in
developed countries or is exported to third world countries.
Electronic equipment contains harmful toxins which, when released into the
environment, can contaminate water, land and air. While there are many ways to dispose
of unwanted electronics, there are few guarantees that the resulting e-waste will be
disposed of responsibly. This is a major issue, either in the developed countries due to the
amounts generated or in developing countries due to lack of recycling systems.
It is clearly unethical for the developed countries to dump their E-waste in developing
ones. Government control should be practiced to avoid such actions. Citizens have a
responsibility in spreading the awareness on this issue. Engineers should be in the
forefront since they master the technical background of the issue.
A preliminary survey indicated that E-waste is hardly covered in engineering faculties
worldwide. As such, academic institutions in Muslim countries can play a role model in
modifying their engineering curriculum to accommodate the E-waste problems.
The Islamic concepts of the need to protect the environment should be clearly spelled
out in any course related to waste management in general and E-waste management
specifically.
E-waste management can be introduced as separate courses. Related topics can be
embedded in related courses, as well as as topics for final year projects. They can also be
addressed during industrial training.
More funding as well as directed research is still needed to find alternate materials to
tackle the E-waste problems. This is a golden chance for research institutions in Muslim
countries to take the lead in relieving the environment from such hazards.
Technological issues that pose environmental threats need to be carefully examined.
Implications for education and research due to these technological aspects need to be done
on a systematic basis especially for universities in Muslim countries.
REFERENCES
[1] Environmental Protection Agency, “Computer Display Industry and Technology Profile”,
EPA 744.R.98.005, December 1998.
IIUM Engineering Journal, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2008 Hawari and Hassan
25
[2] E. Williams, International activities on E-waste and guidelines for future work, United
Nations University, in: Third Workshop on Material Cycles and Waste Management in Asia,
National Institute of Environmental Sciences: Tsukuba, Japan (2005)
[3] 2008 Review of Directive 2002/96 on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE),
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[4] http://www.crra.com/ewaste/articles/computers.html, retrieved March 2006,
[5] National Safety Council, “Electronic product recovery and recycling baseline report”
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[6] http://www.alamflora.com.my
[7] Z. Karim, Good start to PC recycling campaign, The Star Online, 9 June 2005.
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[8] R. Agarwal, Rakesh Ranjan and Papiya Sarkar, Scrapping the Hi-tech Myth: Computer Waste
in India, Toxics Link report, Feb. 2003: http://www.toxicslink.org, retrieved August 2008.
[9] The Digital Dump: Exporting Re-Use and Abuse to Africa, Basel Action Network, Seattle,
Washington 98104 USA, 2005
[10] http://www.basel.int
[11] Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (MCC), Electronics Industry
Environmental Roadmap. Austin, TX: MCC, 1996. http://www.svtc.org.
[12] Lead - Background and national experience with reducing risk, Compare Risk Reduction,
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[13] Persistent Organic Pollutants, Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, Monitor 16,
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[14] A. Hoque et al, Epidemiology, Vol 9 (4), pp. 373-8, 1998.
[15] K. Brenner, Formation of Polybrominated Dibenzofurans (PBDFs) and Dioxins (PBDDs)
during extrusion production of a Polybutylenetenerephtalate (PBTP)/Glassfibre resin blended
with Decabromodiphenylether (PBDPE)/Sb2O3; Product and workplace analysais, 1986.
[16] A. Kutty , Islam and Environmental Ethics, The Islamic Institute of Toronto, Canada, posted
on http://www.islamonline.net, in June, 2007, retrieved August 2008.
[17] M. Abu-Sway, Towards an Islamic Jurisprudence of the Environment, Department of
Philosophy, Al-Quds University, Jerusalem, posted on http://www.islamonline.net, in August,
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[18] F. De Chatel, Prophet Mohammed: A Pioneer of the Environment, Anthropologist of Islamic
Culture, The Netherlands, posted on http://www.islamonline.net, in February, 2003, retrieved
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[19] S. Banerjee, E-waste Research and Development Issues, INAE Seminar on Recycling for
Electronics and Automotive, Mumbai, India, September, 2007.
[20] http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2002/020723a.html, retrieved January, 2006
[21] M. H. Hassan, Practical Approach Towards Fulfillment of The Ethical, Social and Global
Attributes of The Graduate Engineer, The 2005 Regional Conference on Engineering
Education, Johor, Malaysia, December 12-13, 2005.
IIUM Engineering Journal, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2008 Hawari and Hassan
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[22] M. H. Hassan, Integrating Islamic Concepts in the engineering curriculum. Case study:
Faculty of Engineering, IIUM, in: Islamic Engineering Ethics: Foundations, Integration and
Practices, Abdi Shuriye et al (Eds.), Future Text Publications, Selangor, Malaysia, 2006.
[23] W. H. Abulfaraj and M. H. Hassan, Teaching and assessment of professional ethics in the
nuclear engineering education according to the ABET Engineering Criteria, 2007 American
Society of Engineering Education Annual Conference & Exposition June 24-27, 2007 -
Honolulu, USA.
[24] International Symposium on Electronics and the Environment, The Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, May 11-13, Danvers, 1999.
... value of about 70% of landfill's heavy metals (such as cadmium, mercury and lead) is of discarded electronic equipment origin [33]. ...
... There are four main applications in computers that they are used for, which include in cables, plastic covers, printed circuit boards and as connectors. Also, they are used in TV's plastic covers and in kitchen appliances for domestic use [33]. There is environmental accumulation of some of the brominated flame retardants used in plastic casinos and circuit boards because they do not break down easily. ...
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However, some newly established controlled landfills have introduced processes such as reverse osmosis (RO), in the city of Rabat, and a two-step process comprising of leachate pretreatment by an ultrafiltration membrane bioreactor followed by RO treatment (the Evalix process), in the city of Meknès. From a resource recovery viewpoint, Morocco has confirmed its ambitions to upgrade biogas production through two major biogas capture/valorization initiatives in the cities of Fez and Oujda, respectively. The new landfill located in the city of Fez is able to upgrade a part of the biogas generated from organic waste for the production of electricity (487,170 KW). It is noteworthy to mention that the cumulative electrical energy injected into the public lighting network in the city of Fez reached 5.8 million KW in one year, representing approximately 25% of the energy required for street lighting in Fez city. 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Electronic waste (e-waste) management is not new in Malaysia. It is always related to the recycle, reuse and reduce of e-waste and these may be the only approaches of managing e-waste today. Basically, there is no perfect solution in e-waste management. Recycle and reuse only temporary transfer the e-waste to other places and after sometimes, the e-waste still landed on the landfill. Reducing the use of toxic materials is a better way of managing e-waste, but for time being, it is difficult and not cost effective to replace and reduce all these materials. This paper carry out a survey onto the students from the College of Information Technology (COIT), UNITEN in order to identify whether the students are aware of the essentiality of e-waste management. Based on the study results, it shows that COIT students are not ready for e-waste management and the factor of not offering of Green IT or e-waste management subject is having the main factors of the unawareness of e-waste management.
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The long-term health effects of human exposure to polybrominated biphenyls are not known. In this nested case-control study, we evaluated the association between site-specific cancer risk and serum polybrominated biphenyl levels among a Michigan cohort accidentally exposed to polybrominated biphenyls in 1973. The Michigan Department of Public Health has followed 3,899 people through 1993, among whom 195 primary cancers were identified in 187 persons. Controls were 696 randomly selected cancer-free individuals who were frequency matched to cases by sex and age (in 5-year strata). Baseline serum polybrominated biphenyl levels were measured using standard methods. We found an increasing dose-response relation for digestive system cancer risk with higher serum polybrominated biphenyl category [4-20 parts per billion (ppb), 21-50 ppb, and > 50 ppb] after adjustment for age, family cancer history, cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking, and baseline serum polychlorinated biphenyl level. Adjusted odds ratios (ORs) for each category were 8.23 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.27-53.3], 12.3 (95% CI = 0.80-191), and 22.9 (95% CI = 1.34-392), respectively. Univariate analysis for polybrominated biphenyl level and lymphoma risk also showed a dose-response relation, with corresponding ORs of 3.24 (95% CI = 0.24-95.9), 20.5 (95% CI = 1.51-608), and 32.6 (95% CI = 3.33-861).
International activities on E-waste and guidelines for future work
  • E Williams
E. Williams, International activities on E-waste and guidelines for future work, United Nations University, in: Third Workshop on Material Cycles and Waste Management in Asia, National Institute of Environmental Sciences: Tsukuba, Japan (2005)
Electronic product recovery and recycling baseline report
National Safety Council, "Electronic product recovery and recycling baseline report" Washington, DC, 1999.
Good start to PC recycling campaign, The Star Online
  • Z Karim
Z. Karim, Good start to PC recycling campaign, The Star Online, 9 June 2005. http://thestar.com.my
Scrapping the Hi-tech Myth: Computer Waste in India
  • R Agarwal
  • Rakesh Ranjan
  • Papiya Sarkar
R. Agarwal, Rakesh Ranjan and Papiya Sarkar, Scrapping the Hi-tech Myth: Computer Waste in India, Toxics Link report, Feb. 2003: http://www.toxicslink.org, retrieved August 2008.
The Digital Dump: Exporting Re-Use and Abuse to Africa
The Digital Dump: Exporting Re-Use and Abuse to Africa, Basel Action Network, Seattle, Washington 98104 USA, 2005
Lead -Background and national experience with reducing risk
Lead -Background and national experience with reducing risk, Compare Risk Reduction, Monograph No 1, OECD Paris, 1993.
Formation of Polybrominated Dibenzofurans (PBDFs) and Dioxins (PBDDs) during extrusion production of a Polybutylenetenerephtalate (PBTP)/Glassfibre resin blended with Decabromodiphenylether (PBDPE)/Sb2O3
  • K Brenner
K. Brenner, Formation of Polybrominated Dibenzofurans (PBDFs) and Dioxins (PBDDs) during extrusion production of a Polybutylenetenerephtalate (PBTP)/Glassfibre resin blended with Decabromodiphenylether (PBDPE)/Sb2O3; Product and workplace analysais, 1986.
The Islamic Institute of Toronto
  • A Kutty
A. Kutty, Islam and Environmental Ethics, The Islamic Institute of Toronto, Canada, posted on http://www.islamonline.net, in June, 2007, retrieved August 2008.