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ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 03
June 2014, P.P.838-844
#02070306 Copyright ©2014 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.
Sustainable Approaches for Utilizing Waste in Building
Construction: Two Case Studies in India
A.K. KASTHURBA1, K.R. REDDY2 AND D. VENKAT REDDY3
1Department of Architecture, National Institute of Technology, Calicut, Kerala 673601, India,
2Department of Civil & Materials Engineering, University of Illinois, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA,
3Department of Civil Engineering-National Institute of Technology, Surathkal, Karnataka 575025, India
Email: kasthurba@nitc.ac.in, kreddy@uic.edu, dvr1952@gmail.com
Abstract: Problems associated with increasing waste due to rising urban developments and its environmental
concerns are reviewed. The challenges and standards for sustainable construction are outlined. This study explores
potential utilization of different types of waste materials in building construction for its efficient and sustainable
management. The benefits and challenges in utilization of waste for building applications are reviewed. Two case
studies which demonstrate effective utilization of waste in construction projects carried out in India are outlined.
These sustainable approaches of managing waste in building construction shall help private and governmental
agencies to incorporate effective waste management strategies in future. This study will offer a background and
useful guide for engineers and material scientists to develop standards and specifications for cost effective alternate
building materials and techniques for economy, energy, and environmental benefits.
Keywords: wastes, building materials, sustainability, recycling, construction, waste management.
1. Introduction:
Building industry is one of the largest sectors, which
consumes enormous natural resources, manpower,
energy, and economy. Manufactured building materials
which consume large quantity of energy, such as steel,
cement, glass, aluminum, plastics and bricks, are
commonly used for building construction. Increased use
of these energy intensive materials will not only deplete
the energy resources, but they also produce adverse
environmental effects (Reddy, 2004). The main aim of
sustainable construction is to minimize natural resource
consumption and also the impacts on ecological systems
(Kibert, 2013). The growing demand for materials in
building industry cannot be fully met by the natural
resources or energy efficient traditional materials.
Hence there is a need to develop potential alternatives
and innovative techniques to solve the increasing needs
in building construction.
Managing waste is one of the challenging issues in fast
developing world due to the inadequate manpower,
financial resources, implements, and machinery which
result in environment pollution (Kartam et al., 2004).
Utilization of local waste as well as optimizing use of
high energy intensive materials in construction has been
identified as one of the potential solutions to this
problem (Reddy, 2004). Utilization of waste in building
industry not only saves environment but aid in meeting
housing demands for the economic weaker sections
(Zaharieva et al., 2003).
This paper reviews problems associated with increasing
waste and its potential utilization in various building
applications. The benefits and challenges of utilization
of waste in building construction are also presented. A
classification of waste based on its probable utilization
in building applications are presented for future
utilization and management strategies. These
sustainable approaches in waste management will help
governmental agencies to evolve modifications policies
and in building standards. This paper will form a guide
for engineers and scholars to explore various options to
improve the current waste disposal methods and
activities and also to meet the acute demand in material
resources for meeting building construction needs.
2. Waste Management and Environmental
Concerns:
Waste Management Act of 2001 defines waste as “any
substance or object belonging to a belonging to a
category of waste which the holder discards or intends
or is required to discard, and anything which is
discarded or otherwise dealt with as if it were waste
shall be presumed to be waste until the contract is
proved” (Torgal and Jalali, 2011). Generation of waste
and inadequate disposal mechanism exerts unavoidable
pressure over the natural environment (Zaharieva et al,
2003). Illegal deposit of waste has increasing pressure
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A.K. KASTHURBA, K.R. REDDY AND D. VENKAT REDDY
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 07, No. 03, June, 2014, pp. 838-844
on construction costs and environment quality. MOEW
(2012) has identified water and waste management as
two priorities in environment protection. Disposal of
waste in landfills and other methods has been
challenging due to environment standards and economic
reasons. Rising amounts of wastes, cost of landfills and
environment issues has triggered problems and concerns
in disposal methods. Environmental concerns in disaster
management has become a critical priority, requiring the
sound management of natural resources as a tool to
prevent disasters and lessen their impacts on people,
their homes, and livelihoods (Tiwari, 2001). The
environmental and health risk due to creation of large
volume and hazardous constituents after disasters in
developing countries necessitates regulations for post
disaster waste management planning for effective debris
management.
3. Challenges in Waste Management:
Waste management has become more challenging all
over the world due to population increase, unplanned
urban developments, improvements in living standards,
and lack of data. Improper management of municipal
solid waste (MSW) is one of the major environmental
problems and hazards to inhabitants. Disposal of rising
amounts of waste has been challenging due to
environment protective regulations and high cost of
land. Studies reveal that about 90% of MSW is disposed
of unscientifically in open dumps and landfills create
problems to public health and the environment (Kumar,
2009). In most countries even though building waste
problem is of increasing magnitude, there is lack in
reliable statistics due to disposal by illegal dumping
(Torgal and Jalali, 2011). In the United States, an
average citizen produces six tons of solid waste per
year, and disposal of these wastes in landfills has
become prohibitive and challenging due to the
environment protective regulations (Sharma and Reddy,
2004). Establishing a successful waste recycling
operation in USA is a challenge and reusing waste can
help communities to preserve their local landfills
(Chun-li-Peng et.al., 1997). In India, about 960 million
tons of solid waste is being generated annually as by-
products during industrial, mining, municipal and
agricultural processes (Pappu et. al, 2007). Management
of building waste needs multi-disciplinary expertise in
planning, engineering and material management. The
inertia of the building professionals and the difficulty of
changing building codes are few significant obstacles in
the construction industry. Uncertainty and fears of
liability and litigation over the performance of
alternative building materials and techniques also pose
appreciable challenges. Despite the instinctive
environmental or economic benefits of green building
approaches, most of them has not been scientifically
quantified (Torgal and Jalali, 2011). Lack of a collective
vision and guidance for future green buildings,
including design, components, systems, and materials,
may affect the present rapid progress in this field.
4. Standards in Sustainable Construction:
Sustainable development aims at improving the standard
of life without compromising the environmental
qualities and for future needs. These interconnected
objectives can be achieved through rational
management of demand of material resources and
proper management of building waste. International
Council of Buildings (CIB) in1994 defined sustainable
construction as creating and operating a healthy built
environment based on efficient use of resources and in
project based on ecological principles (Kibert, 2013).
The World Business Council for Sustainable
Development (WBCSD, 2000) introduced the term
sustainable development with the concept of eco-
efficiency in 1991 as “the development of products and
services at competitive prices that meets the needs of
human kind with quality of life, while progressively
reducing their environmental impact and consumption
of raw materials throughout life cycle, to a level
compatible with the capacity of the planet”. This eco-
efficient concept is implicit of sustainable construction
and aims at producing more products with less resources
and waste and present less environmental impact
(Sharma and Reddy, 2004). The growing significance of
sustainability concept throughout the world has resulted
in attitude change in consumption of natural resources
for infrastructure development projects (Yeheyis, 2013).
Utilization of large quantity of natural resources for
meeting the fast growing building activities and
generation of waste has exerted unavoidable pressures
on natural environment. With the growing significance
in green building concept, and the mandatory inclusion
evaluation of life cycle assessment (LCA) in building
design standards such as US LEED, German DGNB,
and the Australian Green Star Building, sustainable
building has proven substantial benefits to environment
and economy (Kibert, 2004). The recycling law by
Japanese government in 1991 which set minimum
targets for several by-products has increased the
percentages of recycling. Waste plans with increased
utilization by recycling were implemented in Belgium,
Germany Finland and Spain in consecutive years since
1995. The revised European Union’s waste framework
directive targets recycling increase to 70% (by weight)
by the year 2020 (Torgal and Jalali, 2011).
5. Post-Disaster Waste Management:
Post-disaster building waste management offer
numerous challenges due to generation of unexpected
large volume of building waste and inadequate
capabilities to manage them in developing countries
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Sustainable Approaches for Utilizing Waste in Building Construction: Two Case
Studies in India
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 07, No. 03, June, 2014, pp. 838-844
(Karunasena et al., 2012). Large amount of waste
generated after earthquakes and other natural disasters
(e.g., hurricanes and floods) should be utilized for
reconstruction projects with recycling technology
methods and re-use approaches (Xio et al, 2012.
Minimizing the waste and its proper management can be
regarded as an effective way to assess the project
performance towards a more sustainable path of
development (Formosa, 2002). Solid waste materials
can be effectively utilized in producing cost effective
alternative building materials to replenish the scarcity of
traditional materials such as bricks, blocks, tiles,
aggregates, ceramics, cement, lime, sand and timber for
cost effective housing. Industrial waste and bi-products
were utilized as aggregates and raw materials for
structural components (Asolekar, 2009). Re-use of
waste materials in construction allows waste
management, sustainable conservation of energy,
economy and also minimizes the environment pollution.
The success of recycling and building waste
management depends on the regulations imposed on
waste management plan and also on the demonstration
of economic advantages associated with its application
(Torgal and Jalali, 2011).
6. Waste Management in Building Construction-
Potentials and Possibilities:
Recycling and reuse of waste started since nineteenth
century with the introduction of laws to encourage
recycling of increasing wastes. Even though every state
of US has set high goals of recycling up to 70%, the
recycling rates for different states remained 5 to 50% as
the success depends on economic feasibility and
markets for the recycled products (Sharma and Reddy,
2004). Reuse and recycling is recognized as a solid
waste management strategy that is preferable to
landfilling or incineration and more environmentally
desirable. Waste materials generated by the urban
community such as plastics, glass and metallic objects
can find a variety of applications in the building
construction, landscape elements, utility structures,
pavements and decorative fittings. Various types of
wastes and their potential utilization are given in
Table1.
Table1: Potential applications of various types of waste in building applications
Waste Category
Waste type & Source
Potential building applications
Agriculture Waste
(organic)
Pappu et. al.
(2007)
Baggage, rice and wheat
straw and husk, coconut
shell, fibers and husk Cotton
stalk,
Saw mill waste, ground nut
shell, banana stalk and jute,
sisal and vegetable residues.
Particle boards, insulation boards, wall Panels,
printing paper and fillers, roofing sheets, fuel,
binders, fibrous building panels, bricks, acid proof
cement, coir fiber, mats, reinforced composite,
Polymer composites, cement board.
Industrial waste/
Municipal waste
( inorganic)
Pappu et. al.
(2007), Sharma
and Reddy (2004)
Coal combustion residues,
steel slag, bauxite red mud,
Construction debris
Cement, bricks, blocks, tiles, paint,
aggregate, concrete, wood substitute
products, ceramic products
Fly ash
Mineral filler in asphalt paving mixtures, soil
stabilization and structural fill
Blast Furnace slag
Aggregate, surface course in asphalt and addition to
Portland cement concrete
Foundry sand
Landfill, precast concrete manufacture
Glass
Used in place of aggregates
Plastics
Many uses for recycled plastics such as fencing,
furniture and outdoor landscape elements.
Scrap tires
Tire chips are used in embankments, retaining walls
and as backfills in abutments. Used in rubberized
asphalt pavements, rail road crossings as panels to be
fitted with tracks and with timber crossings. Shredded
tires are used as alternative aggregate material. Scrap
tires used economically for shock absorbing and as a
noise barrier in construction. Other uses, such as stair
treads, mats, flooring tiles, sewer rings, guard rails,
golf driving mats and playground covers
Construction and
demolition debris
Recycled Concrete
Raw material in cement clinker, admixture in cement
and as aggregates in concrete. Can be used as
aggregate base for pavements, sub base for new
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A.K. KASTHURBA, K.R. REDDY AND D. VENKAT REDDY
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 07, No. 03, June, 2014, pp. 838-844
pavements, shoulders, base course for foundations or
backfill for utility trenches.
Wood waste
Scrap lumber can be processed and used for
landscaping and building products. Wood fibers used
for fiberboard products for various applications such
as sub flooring, sheathing and structures for insulation
and damping of sound. Wood fibers are mixed with
Portland cement to make rigid boards which can be
used as fire barriers, sheet roofing systems, or sub
flooring for ceramic tiles. Fiber strips made from
wood fibers are used to fill expansion joints in
concrete roads and walkways. Wood residues are
mixed with plastic fibers to make plastic lumber
suited for water front docks, piers and dockings.
Oriented strand boards manufactured using wooden
fibers on the outside and a thick inner layer of
polystyrene form have good application in residential
construction. Composite structural wall system made
using wooden fiber up to 90% and reinforced
concrete. Wooden particles are used as decorative
wood chips, mulch or other ground cover products,
including geotextiles which is biodegradable product.
Wooden based geotextiles and sheet mulches provide
percolation and vegetative layers in landfill designs.
Soil and rubble
Used as aggregates
Asphalt
Asphalt paving
Metals
Sold as scraps for re-use and re-cycling
Mining/minerals
Coal washers waste, mining
overburden waste, tailing
from iron, copper, zinc, gold,
aluminum industries
Bricks, tiles, lightweight aggregates, fuel
Hazardous waste
Metallurgical residues,
galvanizing waste, Tannery
waste
Cement, bricks, tiles, ceramics and board
Demirbas (2011) identified four critical factors for an
integrated waste management which comprised of
source reduction, reuse, recycling, landfill and gas-to
energy and waste to energy conversion namely- reduce,
reuse, recycle, compost, incinerate and landfill. The aim
of the waste hierarchy was to extract the maximum
practical benefits from products and to generate the
minimum amount of waste. A six level hierarchy of
waste management based on of waste reduction and
minimization of environmental impact is shown in Fig.1
Fig1: Waste Management hierarchy - adapted from
Demirbas (2011)
7. Waste Management for Building Construction-
Case Studies:
7.1. Case Study 1: Rock Gardens of Chandigarh City,
India:
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Sustainable Approaches for Utilizing Waste in Building Construction: Two Case
Studies in India
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 07, No. 03, June, 2014, pp. 838-844
Chandigarh is the first planned city in India constructed
after 1947 when the country got independence
(Wikipedia, 2014). Le Corbusier and a few famous town
planners from different parts of the world were
associated with the concept and planning of the city.
The Rock garden of Chandigarh known as Nek Chand’s
rock garden is considered as one of the most preferred
tourist spots in the city. It is situated near Sukhna Lake,
which consists of man-made interlinked waterfalls and
the garden famous for its sculptures made from
industrial and recycled ceramic materials such as
bottles, glasses, bangles, tiles, ceramic pots, and
electrical goods, which were placed in various locations.
It had grown into a 12-acre (49,000 m2) complex of
interlinked courtyards, each filled with pottery-covered
concrete sculptures of dancers, musicians, and animals.
With the support from the government, Chandigarh was
able to set up collection centers around the city for
waste, especially rags and broken ceramics. The
effective utilization of waste for a worthy application of
landscape construction is demonstrated through this
project as illustrated in Fig. 2 and Fig.3.
Fig2: and Fig3: Rock garden, Chandigarh: landscape
construction utilizing industrial waste
7.2. Case Study2: Coconut Shell Sandwich Panel
Construction:
The demonstration project of coconut shell sandwich
panel construction was funded by AICTE-TEQIP and
implemented by NIT Calicut in the year 2008 for skill
up-gradation of rural craftsmen and women workers at
Kakkodi Panchayath -6 kilometers away from Calicut
city (Kasthurba, 2007). The training for the coconut
shell sandwich panel construction was carried out for
the masons and women workers at Kakkodi through
instructive demonstration. The demonstration was
undertaken for the construction of a vaulted structure
with dimensions of 2.4m x 1.8m in plan and a height of
2.7 m. Coconut shells (waste material after removal of
coconut) were collected from the locality. The
construction steps included- making a hole in the center
of each of the hemispherical part of coconut shell using
ordinary drilling machine. The coconut shells were held
together by stacking closely using a coir string made of
coconut fibers. A formwork (re-usable one) made of
steel pipe was made as per the required dimension (by
industrial fabrication). The formwork was fixed on the
basement structure of 60-cm height. A welded wire
mesh was then spread over the formwork to cover it
fully. The coconut shells in flexible string were placed
in rows touching each other till the formwork was
completely covered. The thin layer of Ferro cement
concrete with 10 mm aggregates was laid over the
coconut shell layer after placing a flexible chicken mesh
over it. Figures 4 to 7 illustrate the step by step
procedure involved in coconut shell sandwich panel
construction.
8. Waste Management Strategies – Future
Outlook:
The fast growing concept of 3R’s in waste management,
namely Reduce, Reuse and Recycle, is important for
conservation of 3E’s, namely Energy, Economy and
Environment. Recycling has been found as an effective
way of managing waste for energy efficiency, economic
and environmental benefits. Management of building
waste through recycling and re-use has been found as an
effective way of managing waste due to energy,
economic and environmental efficiency. The sustainable
approach of development demands minimizing and
utilizing waste materials by re-cycling and re-use.
Management of waste in building applications has to be
viewed within a wider context of environmental,
economic and social regards and needs multi-
disciplinary expertise in planning, engineering and
material management. The utilization of waste in
building applications and complexity in recycling
operation involves wider contexts of environmental,
economic and social benefits. Decision making and
action plans need to involve interdisciplinary team of
urban planners, economists, architects, and engineers.
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A.K. KASTHURBA, K.R. REDDY AND D. VENKAT REDDY
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 07, No. 03, June, 2014, pp. 838-844
Fig3-6: Construction of Coconut shell sandwich panel structure- 4 stages
A comprehensive waste management approach should
be incorporated in construction project at every stages in
planning, design, construction, renovation and
demolition stages of construction project for its entire
life span. An interdisciplinary approach in waste
management which emphasizes the long term and
recycling strategies should be set up regionally. An
international co-operation for waste management
strategies and techniques could enable exchange of
technical expertise and recycling equipment.
Understanding the beneficial use of waste materials
along with their problem is highly necessary to set up
industries for recycling and use of alternative materials.
Waste can be seen as resources for construction.
However, environment friendly, energy-efficient and
cost effective alternative materials developed from solid
wastes will show good market potential to cater to
people’s needs for building construction in rural and
urban areas. The properties of these alternative building
materials from waste recycling should be well
documented for their effective applications. In order to
maximize the use of alternative building materials
developed from different types of solid wastes and to
increase the production capacity of lab scale processes,
technology-enabling centers should be set-up to
facilitate entrepreneurs for effective commercialization.
Durability and performance of the newer products and
dissemination of technologies emphasizing costs-
benefits analyses and life cycle assessment report will
significantly contribute to successful commercialization
of innovative processes. Inclusion of industrial waste-
based newer building materials, emphasizing their
environmental significance in the curriculum at higher
education level and practical applications of wastes in
construction sector will be an incentive to such
technology promotion.
9. Conclusions and Recommendations:
The growing quantities of building waste due to rapid
urban developments throughout the world require
development and implementation of sustainable
management plans urgently. The challenges,
opportunities and strategies for waste management in
construction industry presented will help private and
governmental agencies to develop sustainable
construction methods. Sustainable approach of waste
management by recycling and reuse of building waste
will aid in reduced cost, environmental pollution,
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Sustainable Approaches for Utilizing Waste in Building Construction: Two Case
Studies in India
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 07, No. 03, June, 2014, pp. 838-844
energy demand, and conservation of natural resources.
The various factors presented in this paper will serve as
guidance for engineers and material scientists to
develop standards and specifications for cost effective
alternate building materials and techniques for the
saving of energy, and reap economic and environmental
benefits. More scientific studies are needed on
environmentally-friendly and efficient recycling
methods and new reuse applications in building
construction.
10. Acknowledgments:
The first author is grateful to National Institute of
Technology Calicut for granting sabbatical leave, which
allowed performance of this study at the University of
Illinois, Chicago, USA.
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