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Assessment of livestock grazing effects and land management in sagebrush steppe across the western United States
Abstract
Background/Question/Methods
Sagebrush steppe is a highly endangered ecosystem in the western United States, and the majority occurs on public lands. Public land management agencies manage sagebrush communities for multiple uses including livestock grazing. We conducted a survey of the type and quality of existing data regarding rangeland conditions and livestock use in Bureau of Land Management (BLM) offices in the western US. This was part of a project aimed at compiling, mapping and analyzing data for a range-wide assessment of rangeland status and livestock use related to this status. We determined types of historic grazing and land health data available and how data were collected. After identifying obstacles to data collection, we collected and synthesized opinions of university, federal research and federal management rangeland experts on how best to monitor rangeland condition and livestock effects within the time and budgetary constraints faced by the BLM.
Results/Conclusions
Preliminary results indicate that systematic qualitative evaluations of land health standards (including the relationship of those standards to livestock grazing) had been completed within the last ten years in an average of 76% of the areas we sampled. In contrast, quantitative vegetation monitoring related to current condition and trends of condition (over the last ten years) has been conducted in an average of 23% of the areas covered by our data survey. We also found that a system to monitor livestock numbers and grazing seasons is in place, but that accurate and complete records of actual use existed for an average of 22% of our survey areas. Our interviews with rangeland experts illuminated a need for continued and expanded emphasis on monitoring of vegetation cover, particularly by functional group. Expert interviews have also identified traditional and novel cost- and time-effective approaches for monitoring.
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Recent analyses of Greater Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) populations indicate substantial declines in many areas but relatively stable populations in other portions of the species' range. Sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) habitats necessary to support sage-grouse are being burned by large wildfires, invaded by nonnative plants, and developed for energy resources (gas, oil, and wind). Management on public lands, which contain 70% of sagebrush habitats, has changed over the last 30 years from large sagebrush control projects directed at enhancing livestock grazing to a greater emphasis on projects that often attempt to improve or restore ecological integrity. Nevertheless, the mandate to manage public lands to provide traditional consumptive uses as well as recreation and wilderness values is not likely to change in the near future. Consequently, demand and use of resources contained in sagebrush landscapes plus the associated infrastructure to support increasing human populations in the western United States will continue to challenge efforts to conserve Greater Sage-Grouse. The continued widespread distribution of sage-grouse, albeit at very low densities in some areas, coupled with large areas of important sagebrush habitat that are relatively unaffected by the human footprint, suggest that Greater Sage-Grouse populations may be able to persist into the future. We summarize the status of sage-grouse populations and habitats, provide a synthesis of major threats and challenges to conservation of sage-grouse, and suggest a roadmap to attaining conservation goals.
Rangeland comprises as much as 70% of the Earth's land surface area. Much of this vast space is in very remote areas that are expensive and often impossible to access on the ground. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) have great potential for rangeland management. UAVs have several advantages over satellites and piloted aircraft: they can be deployed quickly and repeatedly; they are less costly and safer than piloted aircraft; they are flexible in terms of flying height and timing of missions; and they can obtain imagery at sub-decimeter resolution. This hyperspatial imagery allows for quantification of plant cover, composition, and structure at multiple spatial scales. Our experiments have shown that this capability, from an off-the-shelf mini-UAV, is directly applicable to operational agency needs for measuring and monitoring. For use by operational agencies to carry out their mandated responsibilities, various requirements must be met: an affordable and reliable platform; a capability for autonomous, low altitude flights; takeoff and landing in small areas surrounded by rugged terrain; and an easily applied data analysis methodology. A number of image processing and orthorectification challenges have been or are currently being addressed, but the potential to depict the land surface commensurate with field data perspectives across broader spatial extents is unrivaled.
An approach that can generate sagebrush habitat change estimates for monitoring large-area sagebrush ecosystems has been developed and tested in southwestern Wyoming, USA. This prototype method uses a satellite-based image change detection algorithm and regression models to estimate sub-pixel percentage cover for five sagebrush habitat components: bare ground, herbaceous, litter, sagebrush and shrub. Landsat images from three different months in 1988, 1996 and 2006 were selected to identify potential landscape change during these time periods using change vector (CV) analysis incorporated with an image normalization algorithm. Regression tree (RT) models were used to estimate percentage cover for five components on all change areas identified in 1988 and 1996, using unchanged 2006 baseline data as training for both estimates. Over the entire study area (24 950 km2), a net increase of 98.83 km2, or 0.7%, for bare ground was measured between 1988 and 2006. Over the same period, the other four components had net losses of 20.17 km2, or 0.6%, for herbaceous vegetation; 30.16 km2, or 0.7%, for litter; 32.81 km2, or 1.5%, for sagebrush; and 33.34 km2, or 1.2%, for shrubs. The overall accuracy for shrub vegetation change between 1988 and 2006 was 89.56%. Change patterns within sagebrush habitat components differ spatially and quantitatively from each other, potentially indicating unique responses by these components to disturbances imposed upon them.
Sagebrush ecosystems in North America have experienced extensive degradation since European settlement. Further degradation continues from exotic invasive plants, altered fire frequency, intensive grazing practices, oil and gas development, and climate change - adding urgency to the need for ecosystem-wide understanding. Remote sensing is often identified as a key information source to facilitate ecosystem-wide characterization, monitoring, and analysis; however, approaches that characterize sagebrush with sufficient and accurate local detail across large enough areas to support this paradigm are unavailable. We describe the development of a new remote sensing sagebrush characterization approach for the state of Wyoming, U.S.A. This approach integrates 2.4 m QuickBird, 30 m Landsat TM, and 56 m AWiFS imagery into the characterization of four primary continuous field components including percent bare ground, percent herbaceous cover, percent litter, and percent shrub, and four secondary components including percent sagebrush (Artemisia spp.), percent big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), percent Wyoming sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata Wyomingensis), and shrub height using a regression tree. According to an independent accuracy assessment, primary component root mean square error (RMSE) values ranged from 4.90 to 10.16 for 2.4 m QuickBird, 6.01 to 15.54 for 30 m Landsat, and 6.97 to 16.14 for 56 m AWiFS. Shrub and herbaceous components outperformed the current data standard called LANDFIRE, with a shrub RMSE value of 6.04 versus 12.64 and a herbaceous component RMSE value of 12.89 versus 14.63. This approach offers new advancements in sagebrush characterization from remote sensing and provides a foundation to quantitatively monitor these components into the future.
In spite of overwhelming experimental evidence to the contrary, rotational grazing continues to be promoted and implemented as the only viable grazing strategy. The goals of this synthesis are to 1) reevaluate the complexity, underlying assumptions, and ecological processes of grazed ecosystems, 2) summarize plant and animal production responses to rotational and continuous grazing, 3) characterize the prevailing perceptions influencing the assessment of rotational and continuous grazing, and 4) attempt to direct the profession toward a reconciliation of perceptions advocating support for rotational grazing systems with that of the experimental evidence. The ecological relationships of grazing systems have been reasonably well resolved, at the scales investigated, and a continuation of costly grazing experiments adhering to conventional research protocols will yield little additional information. Plant production was equal or greater in continuous compared to rotational grazing in 87% (20 of 23) of the experiments. Similarly, animal production per head and per area were equal or greater in continuous compared to rotational grazing in 92% (35 of 38) and 84% (27 of 32) of the experiments, respectively. These experimental data demonstrate that a set of potentially effective grazing strategies exist, none of which have unique properties that set one apart from the other in terms of ecological effectiveness. The performance of rangeland grazing strategies are similarly constrained by several ecological variables establishing that differences among them are dependent on the effectiveness of management models, rather than the occurrence of unique ecological phenomena. Continued advocacy for rotational grazing as a superior strategy of grazing on rangelands is founded on perception and anecdotal interpretations, rather than an objective assessment of the vast experimental evidence. We recommend that these evidence-based conclusions be explicitly incorporated into management and policy decisions addressing this predominant land use on rangelands.
"Collaborative and community-based monitoring are becoming more frequent, yet few studies have examined the process and outcomes of these monitoring approaches. We studied 18 collaborative or community-based ecological assessment or monitoring projects undertaken by five community-based forestry organizations (CBFs), to investigate the objectives, process, and outcomes of collaborative ecological monitoring by CBF organizations. We found that collaborative monitoring can lead to shared ecological understanding among diverse participants, build trust internally and credibility externally, foster social learning and community-building, and advance adaptive management. The CBFs experienced challenges in recruiting and sustaining community participation in monitoring, building needed technical capacity for monitoring, and communicating monitoring results back to the broader community. Our results suggest that involving diverse and sometimes adversarial interests at key points in the monitoring process can help resolve conflicts and advance social learning, while also strengthening the link between social and ecological systems by improving the information base for management and increasing collective awareness of the interdependence of human and natural forest communities."
Energy-extraction results in significant disturbance to rangelands in Wyoming and other western US states. Although reclamation is required by law, US General Accounting Office reports from 1999 and 2005 are clear that affected government agencies have--over much of the past decade--had difficulty accomplishing mandated environmental monitoring of extraction-related disturbance. We evaluated two pipeline rights of way (ROW) using nested images (1- or 2- with 13- or 20-mm ground sample distance (GSD)) acquired during Very-Large Scale Aerial (VLSA) surveys. Aerial monitoring allowed for the collection of large numbers of geocoded samples, and for subsequent cover measurements using methods with demonstrated accuracy equal to that of conventional ground-based methods. Both pipelines had vegetative-cover deficiencies relative to their Plan of Development (POD) requirements. Using bare ground and ground-cover measurements from the higher-resolution imagery, we present a spatial representation of each pipeline ROW that allows quick identification of sections of the ROW that may need further reclamation action to meet POD standards. We also present aerial monitoring costs. We recommend VLSA pipeline surveys as a means for facilitating required environmental monitoring and for addressing the monitoring backlog that has developed with increased energy-extraction activity.
For more than 150 years, ranchers in the West have gained insight about natural systems through daily interaction and management of landscapes, but this knowledge has never been systematically documented and analyzed. We interviewed 26 ranchers from a single watershed to understand how ranchers acquire their knowledge, document what they know about rangeland ecosystems, and explore how this knowledge varies within the ranching community. This exploratory study offers insight into the types of knowledge ranchers possess without attempting to survey all rancher knowledge or ascribe this set of knowledge to all ranchers. We identified three major knowledge categories in interviews: active knowledge applied to management decisions, embedded knowledge from living in place, and integrative knowledge that links ecological, economic, and social aspects of rangeland systems. We found rancher knowledge complemented scientific knowledge in its ability to provide site-specific information on management practices and ecological responses, and insight regarding potential indicators of rangeland health. Knowledge varies widely within the ranching community, and knowledgeable ranchers are readily identified through community referrals. Ranchers gained their knowledge primarily through experience and social interactions, and this knowledge is an untapped source of context-specific information. We did find that economic constraints, social norms, and proximity to the system might limit application of knowledge to practice. There is also a danger that this accumulated and dynamic knowledge base will be lost over the next generation, as many family ranches are sold to new ranchers or for nonranching uses. Based on our findings, we propose that more dialogue within ranching communities and between ranchers and scientists may lead to more sustainable land management practices and effective outreach efforts, and could expand and strengthen the informal social networks through which much rancher knowledge is shared and on which the social sustainability of ranching communities depends.
Drought is an ambiguous term, subject to expectation and the weight of emphasis on meteorological, agricultural, hydrological and socio-economic dimensions. Uncertainty associated with the identification of drought often results in a lagged response in reducing stocking rates. This delay reduces vegetation cover, increasing the potential for accelerated erosion following the drought. The long-term consequences of accelerated erosion are a reduction of soil depth, a decline in soil structure and a decrease in infiltration rate and water storage capacity. Less water stored on a site hastens the onset of plant stress, effectively increasing the perceived frequency and con' sequences of drought. Management and policy tools must improve the integration of economic and ecological aspects of drought-induced de -stocking decisions, especially by incorporating the long-term irreversible costs of erosion.
Conservation easements have become the principal tool used by land trusts to preserve habitat and open space. However, anecdotal evidence has led some to question whether easements actually deliver conservation value. Our analysis of data from 119 easements held by The Nature Conservancy (TNC), spanning eight states and 20 years (1984-2004), is the first study to examine temporal patterns in the stated goals of, and activities allowed under, conservation easements. We found that these easements operate in accordance with conservation principles: 96% of sampled easements have identified biological targets, 84% are within TNC priority sites, and 79% are adjacent to protected areas. Easement usage has also become more strategic; recently established easements are more likely than older easements to be large and to include a management plan that focuses on biological targets. The one shortcoming we uncovered is a lack of biological monitoring. Although 92% of sampled easements have been monitored for legal compliance in the past 3 years, only 19.8% of biological targets have been monitored quantitatively. It is clear that we cannot draw conclusions regarding easement effectiveness unless we implement more systematic monitoring.
Monitoring of rangelands in the western USA formally began in the U.S. Forest Service in the 1930s. Other federal land management and advisory agencies did not usually monitor their clients' public or private rangelands until after World War II. The initial focus was on the portion of vegetation that was livestock forage. Attention to soils generally came after World War II. The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 changed the formerly independent role of the action agencies and gave the interested public means of input to and oversight on the actions of the managerial agencies. NEPA also gave the interested public leverage through the courts if a decision was not of their liking. The result has been near grid, lock on proactive management on public rangelands and diversion of a large portion of operating funds to planning. Availability of monitoring data for some locales is largely due to the foresight and persistence of particularly dedicated individuals. Lack of consistent and comparable monitoring procedures within and between the federal management, advisory, and regulatory agencies has made it impossible to conclude reliably what the overall condition and trends in conditions of our public rangelands are. There are currently many competing proposals before Congress to fund efforts at rangeland monitoring standardization. Many additional federal agencies and nongovernmental organizations are getting involved in this debate. By carefully reviewing the history of development of rangeland monitoring, it is possible to identify fatal flaws in previous approaches and suggest actions to avoid previous pitfalls during the forthcoming development of more defendable monitoring approaches at both local and national scales.
Ranchers, conservationists, and researchers in the Mexico-United States borderlands have implemented a community-based conservation program that relies on monitoring and peer-reviewed science. Their collaboration with the Malpai Borderlands Group supports large-scale, long-term studies, but - perhaps more importantly - it helps assure that science effectively addresses local concerns. Conservation programs are organized around understanding and maintaining the processes that sustain arid landscapes, including fire and herbivory (by both cattle and native species), and understanding how they interact with climate. Sustaining ecosystem processes in the face of climatic variability requires a sound foundation of monitoring and research and a good working relationship between people and organizations with diverse goals and interests. This collaboration between ranching, research, and conservation communities demonstrates that these groups, working together for mutual benefit, can reach scientific and conservation goals unobtainable by any one group on its own.
Sampling under the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Assessment, Inventory, and Monitoring (AIM) Strategy is based on a suite of consistent indicators of the three key attributes of ecosystem sustainability. The AIM Strategy recommends that six core indicators be quantified wherever BLM implements quantitative vegetation or soil monitoring in grassland, savanna, woodland, forest, and riparian ecosystems. A method is a specific technique or protocol for measuring an indicator. There may be many suitable methods for measuring an indicator. The first four core indicators are measured using the line-point intercept (LPI) method for foliar cover, along with modifications for data collection in tree cover augmented by a plot-level plant species inventory. Remote sensing integration refers to the simultaneous use of field and remote-sensing data for monitoring and assessment. The ability to combine sets of observations collected at different locations and for different purposes requires both consistent methods and sample designs.
Livestock grazing is an important form of land use, affecting ecosystems worldwide. In ecoregions that evolved with low densities of large ungulates, such as those in the western United States, there is ongoing debate as to the appropriate concentrations of livestock that can be sustained. Limited landscape-scale monitoring makes it difficult to pinpoint the landscape-scale impacts of livestock on ecosystems. In this study, we use remote sensing to identify landscape-scale changes in Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM)-derived normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), a proxy for community greenness, following changes in land use in south-central Idaho, United States. Grazing allotments in the study area have been managed by Lava Lake Land & Livestock (Lava Lake) since 2001, and recent landscape-scale changes include reduced grazing intensity, longer rest periods and reduced grazing in riparian zones. Additionally, sheep bands owned by Lava Lake were collared with Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers to track their daily locations during the 2004–2005 summer grazing seasons. We found that increased NDVI was more likely to occur adjacent to riparian channels, which have been a focus for ecological recovery by land managers at Lava Lake. Decreased NDVI was most likely within 500 m of sheep grazing. However, the extent of impact differed depending on land use and elevation. Decreased NDVI on allotments with a large reduction in total number of sheep was most likely within only 60–150 m. Grazing on lands at elevations above 2300 m had no relationship to decreased NDVI. Our results suggest that grazing impacts are heterogeneous across the landscape and depend strongly on stocking rates and elevation (which is correlated to precipitation). Spatial analysis of NDVI can identify landscape-scale changes resulting from livestock grazing that may not be apparent from local monitoring. Patterns of change identified with remote sensing can guide ecosystem monitoring across extensive public and private lands.
1. Invasive plants can reduce biodiversity, alter ecosystem functions and have considerable economic impacts. Invasive plant control is therefore the focus of restoration research in invader-dominated ecosystems. Increasing the success of restoration practice requires analysis and synthesis of research findings and assessment of how experiments can be improved.
2. In a systematic review and meta-analysis of invasive plant control research papers, we asked: (i) what control efforts have been most successful; and (ii) what invasive plant control research best translates into successful restoration application?
3. The literature evaluated typically described experiments that were limited in scope. Most plot sizes were small (<1 m2), time frames were brief (51% evaluated control for one growing season or less) and few species and ecosystems (predominantly grasslands) were studied throughout much of the literature. The scale at which most experiments were conducted potentially limits relevance to the large scales at which restorations typically occur.
4. Most studies focused on invasive species removal and lacked an evaluation of native revegetation following removal. Few studies (33%) included active revegetation even though native species propagule limitation was common. Restoration success was frequently complicated by re-invasion or establishment of a novel invader.
5. Few studies (29%) evaluated the costs of invasive species control. Additionally, control sometimes had undesirable effects, including negative impacts to native species.
6. Synthesis and applications. Despite a sizeable literature on invasive plant control experiments, many large-scale invasive plant management efforts have had only moderate restoration success. We identified several limitations to successful invasive species control including: minimal focus on revegetation with natives after invasive removal, limited spatial and temporal scope of invasive plant control research, and incomplete evaluation of costs and benefits associated with invasive species management actions. We suggest that information needed to inform invasive plant management can be better provided if researchers specifically address these limitations. Many limitations can be addressed by involving managers in research, particularly through adaptive management.
Despite expenditures of more than 1 billion dollars annually, there is little information available about project motivations, actions, and results for the vast majority of river restoration efforts. We performed confidential telephone interviews with 317 restoration project managers from across the United States with the goals of (1) assessing project motivations and the metrics of project evaluation and (2) estimating the proportion of projects that set and meet criteria for ecologically successful river restoration projects. According to project managers, ecological degradation typically motivated restoration projects, but post-project appearance and positive public opinion were the most commonly used metrics of success. Less than half of all projects set measurable objectives for their projects, but nearly two-thirds of all interviewees felt that their projects had been “completely successful.” Projects that we classified as highly effective were distinct from the full database in that most had significant community involvement and an advisory committee. Interviews revealed that many restoration practitioners are frustrated by the lack of funding for and emphasis on project monitoring. To remedy this, we recommend a national program of strategic monitoring focused on a subset of future projects. Our interviews also suggest that merely conducting and publishing more scientific studies will not lead to significant improvements in restoration practice; direct, collaborative involvement between scientists, managers, and practitioners is required for forward progress in the science and application of river restoration.
Rangelands are among the most important agricultural ecosystems in the United States and the world. The rangelands of the western United States are fundamental to the rural economy. In order to maintain the quality of these rangelands, they must be monitored over time and space. The ecological condition of rangelands is a major factor in their environmental quality, in their overall performance as watersheds, and in wildlife and livestock production. The monitoring system must be science-based and take into account topography, climate, soils, plant communities, and animal populations that go to make up the western range. An information storage, processing, interpretation, and retrieval system must be included if the monitoring data are to be assessed in a timely manner. This report outlines a research program for the development of a new approach to monitoring rangelands. It includes the principle variables (climate, soils, plants, and grazing animals) involved in determining rangeland condition and trend as an indication of rangeland health.
An understanding of the extent of land degradation and recovery is necessary to guide land-use policy and management, yet currently available land-quality assessments are widely known to be inadequate. Here, we present the results of the first statistically based application of a new approach to national assessments that integrates scientific and local knowledge. Qualitative observations completed at over 10 000 plots in the United States showed that while soil degradation remains an issue, loss of biotic integrity is more widespread. Quantitative soil and vegetation data collected at the same locations support the assessments and serve as a baseline for monitoring the effectiveness of policy and management initiatives, including responses to climate change. These results provide the information necessary to support strategic decisions by land managers and policy makers.
Rangeland monitoring often includes repeat photographs as a basis for documentation. Whereas photographic equipment and electronics have been evolving rapidly, photographic monitoring methods for rangelands have changed little over time because each picture is a compromise between resolution and area covered. Advances in image sensors, storage media, and image-processing software allow enormous amounts of information to be collected efficiently and inexpensively, so multiple pictures taken at full zoom can be combined into a single high-resolution panoramic image. This project was initiated to integrate very-high-resolution panoramic images with conventional rangeland monitoring methods addressing three resource management categories: riparian areas, wildlife, and invasive species.
Ecological thresholds describe abrupt changes in ecological properties in time or space. In rangeland management, thresholds reflect changes in vegetation and soils that are expensive or impossible to reverse. The threshold concept has catalyzed important advances in rangeland management thinking, but it has also introduced two classes of drawbacks. First, the ambiguity of the term "threshold" and the desire for simplicity in its application has led to an overemphasis on classification thresholds, such as vegetation cover values. Uncritical use of classification thresholds may lead to the abandonment of management efforts in land areas that would otherwise benefit from intervention. Second, it is possible that the invocation of thresholds and irreversible degradation may eventually result in the wholesale conversion of land areas that would have been recoverable or served important societal functions, such as biodiversity maintenance, that are not reflected in threshold definitions. I conclude with a recommendation to clarify the nature of thresholds by defining the relationships among pattern, process, and degradation and distinguishing preventive thresholds from restoration thresholds. We must also broaden the attributes used to define states and thresholds.
The recognition of complexity and uncertainty in natural resource management has lead to the development of a wealth of conceptual frameworks aimed at integrated assessment and complex systems monitoring. Relatively less attention has however been given to methodological approaches that might facilitate learning as part of the monitoring process. This paper reviews the monitoring literature relevant to adaptive co-management, with a focus on the synergies between existing monitoring frameworks, collaborative monitoring approaches and social learning. The paper discusses the role of monitoring in environmental management in general, and the challenges posed by scale and complexity when monitoring in adaptive co-management. Existing conceptual frameworks for monitoring relevant to adaptive co-management are reviewed, as are lessons from experiences with collaborative monitoring. The paper concludes by offering a methodological approach to monitoring that actively seeks to engender reflexive learning as a means to deal with uncertainty in natural resource management.
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