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516
Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 2014, 36, 516-527
http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2014-0102
© 2014 Human Kinetics, Inc.
Is Variety a Spice of (an Active) Life?:
Perceived Variety, Exercise Behavior,
and the Mediating Role of Autonomous Motivation
Benjamin D. Sylvester,1 Martyn Standage,2 Tavinder K. Ark,1 Shane N. Sweet,3
Peter R.E. Crocker,1 Bruno D. Zumbo,1 and Mark R. Beauchamp1
1University of British Columbia; 2University of Bath; 3McGill University
In this study, we examined whether perceived variety in exercise prospectively predicts unique variance in
exercise behavior when examined alongside satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs (for compe-
tence, relatedness, and autonomy) embedded within self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2002), through
the mediating role of autonomous and controlled motivation. A convenience sample of community adults (N =
363) completed online questionnaires twice over a 6-week period. The results of structural equation modeling
showed perceived variety and satisfaction of the needs for competence and relatedness to be unique indirect
positive predictors of exercise behavior (through autonomous motivation) 6 weeks later. In addition, satisfaction
of the need for autonomy was found to negatively predict controlled motivation. Perceived variety in exercise
complemented satisfaction of the needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy in predicting motivation
and (indirectly) exercise behavior, and may act as a salient mechanism in the prediction of autonomous moti-
vation and behavior in exercise settings.
Keywords: self-determination theory, motivation, variety, psychological needs satisfaction, physical activity
Participating in regular exercise is highly benecial
for psychological and physical functioning (Warburton,
Charlesworth, Ivey, Nettlefold, & Bredin, 2010; World
Health Organization, 2010). However, recent evidence
indicates that as few as 15% of Canadian adults meet
current physical activity guidelines (Colley et al., 2011).
As such, understanding exercise behavior and the mecha-
nisms that predict involvement in exercise is a critical
issue. A prominent line of inquiry for advancing our
understanding of the amount of exercise people engage
in has involved investigation of the psychosocial factors
they experience in exercise contexts (Teixeira, Carraça,
Markland, Silva, & Ryan, 2012).
One factor that has recently garnered attention for
understanding individuals’ exercise behavior is variety
(e.g., Juvancic-Heltzel, Glickman, & Barkley, 2013). The
experience of variety (i.e., felt variety) refers to a person’s
perception of whether they have experienced (or currently
experience) variety, and is characterized by feeling as
though one pursues and experiences diverse (i.e., novel
or alternating among familiar) activities, behaviors, and
opportunities in their social environment (cf. Kahn &
Ratner, 2005; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2012). Varied
experiences stimulate interest (via novelty; Silvia, 2006)
and reinforce learning and development (via alternation
among familiar experiences; e.g., Magill & Hall, 1990).
Variety has been previously examined as a feature of the
activity or environment (e.g., Lyubomirsky & Layous,
2013); however, the experience of variety is conceptually
distinct from the provisions that facilitate the experience
of variety (i.e., variety support). The experience of variety
in one’s social environment refers to the subjective assess-
ment of one’s felt experience whereas variety support
refers to one’s subjective perception(s) of the way that
activities, behaviors, and opportunities are structured to
promote (or thwart) the experience of variety in a given
social setting. The experience of variety (i.e., one’s felt
experience) is the focus of investigation in this article.
In the context of exercise, researchers have found
that when people experience variety, this prospectively
Benjamin D. Sylvester, Peter R.E. Crocker, and Mark R. Beau-
champ are with the School of Kinesiology, University of British
Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada. Martyn Standage is with the
Department for Health, University of Bath, Claverton Down,
Bath, U.K. Tavinder K. Ark is with the Department of Measure-
ment, Evaluation, and Research Methodology, University of
British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada. Shane N. Sweet is
with the Department of Kinesiology and Physical Education,
McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada. Bruno D. Zumbo is
with the Department of Educational and Counselling Psychol-
ogy, and Special Education, University of British Columbia
Vancouver, BC, Canada. Address author correspondence to
Benjamin D. Sylvester at bsylvest@alumni.ubc.ca.
JOURNAL OF
SPORT EXERCISE
PSYCHOLOGY
Official Journal of NASPSPA
www.JSEP-Journal.com
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Is Variety a Spice of an Active Life? 517
predicts their subsequent behavior (Glaros & Janelle,
2001; Juvancic-Heltzel et al., 2013). For example, in
Glaros and Janelle’s (2001) study, when people varied
the type of aerobic exercise that they engaged in every
2 weeks, they had greater adherence to their exercise
sessions than people who did the same aerobic exercise
each session. Furthermore, Juvancic-Heltzel and col-
leagues (2013) found that providing people with the
opportunity to experience more variety (i.e., 10 versus 2
options of equipment to use) resulted in longer duration
of time spent exercising and a greater amount of repeti-
tions performed.
In terms of how and why varied experiences may be
related to behavior, it is noteworthy that the experience
of variety has been found to be innately stimulating and
rewarding in and of itself (i.e., intrinsically gratifying;
Berlyne, 1970; Kahn & Ratner, 2005; Pronin & Jacobs,
2008), and people volitionally engage in meaningful
behaviors they nd to be personally interesting and enjoy-
able (Ryan & Deci, 2002; Kahneman, 1999). Conceptual-
izing variety as an antecedent of intrinsic motivation has
been highlighted by researchers in organizational psy-
chology through the job characteristics model described
by Hackman and Oldham (1975). Hackman and Oldham
illustrated that the extent to which a person experiences
different activities and uses multiple skills and talents at
work, leads to a psychological state of “meaningfulness,”
which subsequently supports intrinsic motivation. In
support of the link between variety and intrinsic motiva-
tion, the appraisal of something (e.g., an experience) as
being new, unfamiliar, and diverse is one of the main
appraisals upon which interest is built (e.g., Silvia,
2006). In the exercise psychology literature, the provi-
sion of opportunities for people to experience variety has
been found to be related to their enjoyment and intrinsic
motivation (Silva et al., 2010b). Moreover, emphasizing
that one can expect variety has also been found to be
positively related to a greater internal perceived locus
of causality in exercise settings (Dimmock, Jackson,
Podlog, & Magaraggia, 2013), which includes both
intrinsic motivation and internalized forms of extrinsic
behavioral regulation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Along with
interest and enjoyment, the extent to which someone has
an internal perceived locus of causality broadly describes
their autonomous motivation in a given context (Ryan &
Deci, 2002; Dimmock et al., 2013), which is theorized to
be a high-quality and volitional type of motivation that
leads to engagement and persistence in activities (Ryan
& Deci, 2002). Indeed, autonomous motivation could be
an important mechanism (i.e., reason) that explains how
and why the experience of variety is related to behavior.
In their review on the pursuit of varied experiences,
Kahn and Ratner (2005) called for researchers to move
beyond piecemeal atheoretical approaches, by drawing
from theory to examine the effect of variety in relation
to a range of salient outcomes, including motivation and
behavior. One theory that may provide insight regarding
whether experiencing variety develops and maintains
autonomous motivation and exercise behavior is self-
determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan
& Deci, 2002). Within SDT, Deci and Ryan (1985, 2008)
contend that the degree to which people experience
satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for compe-
tence, relatedness, and autonomy supports (or restricts)
subsequent autonomous motivation and persistence in
behavior. However, Sheldon (2011) highlighted that the
three basic psychological needs advanced within SDT are
perhaps an incomplete subset of psychosocial experiences
that may explain variance in salient outcomes such as
motivation and behavior. By examining the experience of
variety concurrently with satisfaction of the psychological
needs proposed within SDT, we can gain insight into any
potential novel contributions that experiencing variety
may offer in the prediction of autonomous motivation
and behavior.
Conceptually, the experience of variety (i.e., feeling
as though one pursues and experiences diverse activities,
behaviors, and opportunities in their social environment)
is unique from satisfaction of each of the basic psycho-
logical needs, as competence refers to an individual’s
perception of their ability to be effective in their social
environment (Ryan & Deci, 2002; White, 1959); relat-
edness refers to feelings of attachment, companionship,
and connectedness with other people (Baumeister &
Leary, 1995; Ryan & Deci, 2002); and autonomy refers
to feelings of choice, volition, and feeling in charge of
one’s decisions and actions (deCharms, 1968; Ryan &
Deci, 2002). For example, a participant in an exercise
class may feel as though she or he experiences variety
(via performing novel exercises or alternating among
familiar exercises) without feeling competent in their
performance, related to those with whom they exercise,
or autonomous in the exercises they perform. In a recent
study, Sylvester et al. (2014) found that in the context of
exercise, perceived variety in exercise is an empirically
distinct psychological experience from the satisfaction
of the needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy.
More specically, the authors found that perceived vari-
ety in exercise (along with perceptions of competence,
relatedness, and autonomy) predicted unique variance in
indices of exercise-related well-being and, through the
use of factor analyses, the variance in perceived variety
in exercise was not subsumed by satisfaction of the basic
psychological needs.
In addition to supporting exercise-related well-being,
perceived variety in exercise may further complement
perceptions of competence, relatedness, and autonomy
in exercise by explaining unique variance in autono-
mous (internalized) exercise motivation. As previously
discussed, perceived variety in exercise may promote
autonomous motivation through interest, enjoyment, and
an internal perceived locus of causality (Dimmock et al.,
2013). Beyond autonomous motivation, Ryan and Deci
(2002) also emphasize the importance of considering
controlled motivation, which has yet to be examined in
relation to perceived variety. Controlled motivation is
characterized by partial internalization of a value without
fully accepting it as one’s own, and being motivated by
518 Sylvester et al.
external rewards and punishments (Ryan & Deci, 2002).
For example, people who exercise to avoid feelings of
guilt and/or to attain accolades are acting out of controlled
motivation. Overall, autonomous motivation involves a
higher degree of internalization than controlled motiva-
tion; Ryan and Deci (2002) postulate that autonomous
(but not controlled) forms of motivation will result in
increased behavioral outcomes such as greater perfor-
mance and sustained persistence over time (Ryan, Fred-
erick, Lepes, Rubio, & Sheldon, 1997; Ryan, Williams,
Patrick, & Deci, 2009).
Evidence supporting the relationships between sat-
isfaction of the needs for competence, relatedness, and
autonomy, autonomous motivation, and exercise behavior
has been tested and supported in exercise settings (Teix-
eira et al., 2012). Furthermore, satisfaction of the three
psychological needs in exercise settings has been found
to positively predict exercise behavior, and autonomous
(but not controlled) motivation has been found to mediate
that relationship (e.g., Barbeau, Sweet, & Fortier, 2009;
Silva et al., 2010a).
Experiencing variety in exercise may be a unique
predictor (when examined alongside satisfaction of the
needs for competence, relatedness and autonomy) of
autonomous motivation and exercise behavior because
(a) the expectation (but not the experience) of variety
in exercise has been found to be related to indices of
autonomous motivation (Dimmock et al., 2013), (b)
variety support has been found to explain variance in
exercise behavior (Glaros & Janelle, 2001; Juvancic-
Heltzel et al., 2013), and (c) the experience of variety has
been found to be empirically distinct from perceptions
of competence, relatedness, and autonomy in the context
of exercise (Sylvester et al., 2014). However, the extent
to which the experience of variety in exercise explains
unique variance (alongside perceptions of competence,
relatedness, and autonomy) in exercise behavior via
autonomous motivation has not yet been examined. In
the current study, the experience of variety in exercise
was examined at the same level as satisfaction of the
needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy
because perceived variety in exercise is also conceptual-
ized as a felt experience that precedes both autonomous
motivation (e.g., Dimmock et al., 2013) and exercise
behavior (e.g., Glaros & Janelle, 2001), has enduring
effects on psychological functioning (Sheldon, Boehm,
& Lyubomirsky, 2012), and has affective consequences
(cf. Sheldon, 2011; Sylvester et al., 2014). It is also
noteworthy that it was not our aim to test variety as a
basic psychological need in the present work as there
are numerous criteria that must be established before a
construct can be considered a psychological need (e.g.,
psychological needs are universal, apply across cultures,
and are not necessarily consciously valued; Ryan &
Deci, 2002).
The purpose of the current study was to examine
whether perceived variety in exercise (along with per-
ceptions of competence, relatedness, and autonomy)
prospectively predicts unique variance in exercise behav-
ior over time, and whether autonomous and controlled
motivation mediate that relationship in the context of
exercise. Based on previous research (e.g., Dimmock
et al., 2013; Glaros & Janelle, 2001; Juvancic-Heltzel et
al., 2013; Sylvester et al., 2014) and SDT (Ryan & Deci,
2002), we expected that perceived variety in exercise
(along with satisfaction of the needs for competence,
relatedness, and autonomy) would explain unique vari-
ance in autonomous motivation and exercise behavior
over a 6-week period, and that variance in exercise
behavior would be explained (i.e., mediated) by autono-
mous motivation. In a test of discriminant validity, we
expected that in the context of exercise, perceived variety
(along with satisfaction of the needs for competence,
relatedness, and autonomy) would have a negative or
nonsignicant effect on controlled motivation and that
controlled motivation would have a negative or nonsig-
nicant effect on exercise behavior (Ryan & Deci, 2002;
Teixeira et al., 2012; see Figure 1 for the path diagram
of the relationships examined).
Methods
Participants
Participants (N = 363) were a community sample of adults
(i.e., 18–83 years of age).1 Eight cases were deleted due
to missing values (i.e., respondents failed to provide any
information regarding their behavioral regulations in
exercise). The ensuing sample included 246 females (Mage
= 35.43 years; SDage = 13.90 years) and 117 males (Mage =
35.58 years; SDage = 14.81 years). At the rst time point,
47.7% of participants were single while 46.8% were mar-
ried; the majority were Caucasian (79.9%) and residents
of Canada (95.6%). Most participants had completed at
least a college diploma or university degree (73%), had
full or part-time employment (64.7%), and had an annual
household income less than $100,000 (73.3%).
Procedure
Once ethical approval for this study was obtained from
the University of British Columbia institutional review
board, adults (i.e., at least 18 years of age) able to read
and converse in English were invited to contact the rst
author (via e-mail) through posters in the community
(e.g., community centers), online postings (e.g., a blog),
and in person (e.g., at recreational events) to obtain more
information or express their interest in participating. We
used a prospective observational design, and e-mailed an
online questionnaire to consenting participants on two
occasions, 6 weeks apart. Demographic information, per-
ceived variety in exercise, and basic psychological needs
satisfaction were measured at Time 1, and autonomous
and controlled motivation, and exercise behavior were
measured at Time 2. The questionnaires took approxi-
mately 15 min for participants to complete. To thank
participants for their time, they were entered into a draw
to win one of six $50 gift certicates.
Is Variety a Spice of an Active Life? 519
Measures
Perceived Variety in Exercise. The Perceived Variety in
Exercise (PVE) questionnaire (Sylvester et al., 2014) was
used to assess participants’ perceived variety in exercise.
An example item includes “I feel like I experience variety
in my exercise.” Items on the PVE questionnaire were
anchored on a 6-point Likert-type scale with responses
ranging from 1 (False) to 6 (Tru e). Higher scores reect
greater levels of perceived variety in exercise. Sylvester
et al. provided evidence for the factorial validity of scores
derived from the PVE questionnaire whereby (a) support
was found for a four-factor measurement model (including
perceived variety in exercise, and satisfaction of the needs
for competence, relatedness, and autonomy in exercise) and
(b) perceived variety in exercise was found to be empiri-
cally distinct from perceptions of competence, relatedness,
and autonomy. The ordinal composite reliability (Zumbo,
Gadermann, & Zeisser, 2007) estimate for the perceived
variety in exercise scores used in the current study was .97.
Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction. The Psy-
chological Need Satisfaction in Exercise (PNSE) ques-
tionnaire (Wilson, Rogers, Rodgers, & Wild, 2006) was
used to measure satisfaction of the psychological needs
for competence, relatedness, and autonomy in the context
of exercise. Examples of items that characterized each of
the psychological needs include “I feel capable of com-
pleting exercises that are challenging to me” (perceived
competence; six items), “I feel connected to the people
who I interact with while we exercise together” (perceived
relatedness; six items), and “I feel free to exercise in my
own way” (perceived autonomy; six items). Reponses to
each item were anchored on a scale that ranged from 1
(False) to 6 (True). Higher scores reect greater levels of
psychological needs satisfaction in exercise. In the current
study, the scores were integrated to create a latent variable
for each unique construct. Ordinal composite reliability
(Zumbo et al., 2007) estimates for scores from each need
satisfaction subscale were .96 for competence, .96 for
relatedness, and .95 for autonomy.
Autonomous and Controlled Motivation. The
Behavioral Regulations in Exercise Questionnaire-2R
(BREQ-2R; Wilson, Rodgers, Loitz & Scime, 2006) was
used to assess current behavioral regulations in exercise.
The BREQ-2R is a 23-item self-report instrument that
was developed to measure the quality of one’s exercise
motivation along a continuum of internalization (Wilson
et al., 2006a). The BREQ-2R includes the following sub-
scales: (a) Intrinsic Regulation (e.g., “I enjoy my exercise
sessions”; four items); (b) Integrated Regulation (e.g., “I
consider exercise a fundamental part of who I am”; four
items); (c) Identied Regulation (e.g., “I consider exercise
consistent with my values”; four items); (d) Introjected
Regulation (e.g., “I feel guilty when I don’t exercise”;
three items); (e) External Regulation (e.g., “I exercise
because other people say I should”; four items); and (f)
Amotivation (e.g., “I think exercising is a waste of time”;
four items). Each item was rated on a 5-point Likert scale
anchored from 0 (Not true for me), to 4 (Very true for me).
Previous research has supported the internal consistency
(i.e., Cronbach’s alpha) of scores for each of the subscales
of the BREQ-2 (Longbottom, Grove, & Dimmock, 2012).
Scores from the items were used to form latent vari-
ables reecting autonomous and controlled motivation.
Consistent with tenets of SDT (Deci & Ryan, 2008) and
previous research in this area (e.g., Barbeau et al., 2009),
the latent variable of autonomous motivation comprised
items reecting intrinsic, integrated, and identied regu-
lations, and the latent variable of controlled motivation
included items reecting introjected and external regula-
tions. Amotivation was excluded from analyses because
it is theorized to reect a lack of motivation, which was
not of interest in this particular study. Ordinal composite
reliability (Zumbo et al., 2007) estimates for the scores
used in each latent variable were .96 for autonomous
motivation and .88 for controlled motivation.
Exercise Behavior. Exercise behavior was assessed
using the Godin Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire
(GLTEQ; Godin & Shephard, 1985). The GLTEQ com-
prises three items regarding leisure-time exercise and asks
participants about the frequency (on average) of mild (e.g.,
minimal effort), moderate (e.g., not exhausting), and stren-
uous (e.g., heart beats rapidly) exercise lasting at least 15
min per session during a typical 7-day period at that point
in time. To examine exercise behavior that was conducive
to promoting psychological and physical functioning, mild
activities were not included in the analysis, as Godin (2011)
suggested that only moderate and strenuous activities (i.e.,
not mild activities) contribute to health. A score was calcu-
lated using the formula [(Moderate × 5) + (Strenuous × 9)]
to produce typical weekly estimates of leisure-time exer-
cise, with higher scores reecting higher levels of energy
expenditure (Godin, 2011). Supporting the validity evi-
dence of GLTEQ scores, Godin and Shephard (1985) found
higher scores to have positive correlations with estimates of
cardiorespiratory tness (i.e., VO2max) and negative cor-
relations with high body fat scores. Score stability has been
examined through test–retest reliability coefcients that
have been found to range from .24 to .96 (Godin & Sheph-
ard, 1985; Jacobs, Ainsworth, Hartman, & Leon, 1993).
Data Analysis
In the current study, the hypothesized model (see Figure
1) was tested using Mplus 6.11 software to account for
the ordered categorical nature of the Likert-type response
scale scores. A weighted least squares mean and variance-
adjusted method of estimation was used because the data
were ordinal (Finney & DiStefano, 2006). When data
are treated as ordinal, a polychoric correlation matrix is
modeled in the analyses and is the best option for model-
ing Likert-type responses when the number of response
categories is less than seven (Beauducel & Herzberg,
2006; Muthén, 1993). We used multiple categorical
items to construct latent variables for perceived variety
(ve items), satisfaction of the needs for competence
520
Figure 1 — Path diagram of the relationships examined between perceived variety, competence, relatedness, and autonomy in exercise at Time 1 (T1), and autonomous motivation,
controlled motivation and exercise behavior at Time 2 (T2). Gender was included as a covariate of exercise behavior.
Is Variety a Spice of an Active Life? 521
(six items), relatedness (six items), and autonomy (six
items), as well as autonomous motivation (twelve items)
and controlled motivation (seven items). The outcome
variable of exercise behavior was operationalized as an
observed variable. In addition, participants’ gender was
included as a covariate in relation to exercise behavior
to control for potential differences in exercise behavior
between men and women (cf. Colley et al., 2011).
To assess the measurement reliability of the scores,
we used composite reliability (CR) in which each item is
individually weighted in the composite load (see Bollen,
1989). Ordinal composite reliability is based on the poly-
choric correlation matrix and was assessed to account for
the Likert-type response formats used in the PVE, PNSE,
and BREQ-2R (Zumbo et al., 2007). We measured CR
using the following formula (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).
CR = ∑(std. loadings)2 /
∑(std. loadings)2 + ∑(1 – std. loadings2)
The structural model included tests of correlations as well
as direct and indirect predictive pathways between per-
ceived variety, competence, relatedness, and autonomy at
Time 1, and autonomous and controlled motivation, and
exercise behavior at Time 2 (see Figure 1). To assess the
t of the model to the data, we examined the chi-square
goodness-of-t index, along with the comparative t
index (CFI), Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), and the root
mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) (Brown,
2006; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Marsh, Hau, & Wen, 2004).
Acceptable model-data t was designated as CFI and TLI
values > .90 and RMSEA values < .08, and excellent t
was designated as CFI and TLI values > .95 and RMSEA
values < .06 (Brown, 2006; Hu & Bentler, 1998, 1999;
Marsh et al., 2004). Although we recognize that there
has been considerable debate in terms of what constitutes
acceptable cut-off values for approximate t indexes
(e.g., CFI, RMSEA), or whether t indices can even be
used to supplement the chi-square statistic (e.g., Barrett,
2007; McIntosh, 2007), our approach aligns with that
presented by Brown (2006) and Marsh et al. (2004) who
recommend providing multiple sources of information
to guide model evaluation.
In line with Baron and Kenny’s (1986) conceptual
approach to describing mediation, we estimated the rela-
tionships between the predictors (i.e., perceived variety,
competence, relatedness, and autonomy in exercise) and
the mediators (i.e., autonomous and controlled motiva-
tion), the effects of the mediator variables on the outcome
variable (i.e., exercise behavior), and the direct effect
of the predictors on the outcome variable after control-
ling for the mediators. Consistent with contemporary
approaches to testing mediation (i.e., Rucker, Preacher,
Tormala, & Petty, 2011), the main outcome of interest
was the indirect effects of perceived variety, compe-
tence, relatedness, and autonomy on exercise behavior
through autonomous and controlled motivation, which
were calculated via Preacher and Hayes’s (2007, 2008)
bootstrapping procedure (k = 5000 samples) to produce
bias-corrected condence intervals. In line with Preacher
and Hayes (2008), we used bias-corrected bootstrapped
condence intervals within a structural equation modeling
framework to allow for covariation of autonomous and
controlled motivation (i.e., latent mediators), reduce the
likelihood of Type 1 error, and increase statistical power.
Results
Descriptive statistics for the (observed) outcome vari-
able—exercise behavior—were as follows: Mmoderate–vigorous
exercise = 38.23 units; SD = 23.24; skewness = .671 (SE =
.128); kurtosis = .475 (SE = .255). The t indices for the
model were χ2(883) = 2662.59, p < .001, CFI = .96, TLI
= .95; RMSEA = .075, 90% CI [.071, .078]. Interfactor
correlations between all study variables ranged from –.14
to .61 (see Table 1). With regards to the structural relations,
perceived variety (β = .227, p < .001) and satisfaction of
the needs for competence (β = .315, p < .001) and related-
ness (β = .267, p < .001) positively predicted autonomous
motivation, whereas satisfaction of the need for autonomy
(β = –.203, p < .01) negatively predicted controlled moti-
vation over a 6-week period (see Table 2). Furthermore,
autonomous motivation positively predicted exercise
behavior (β = .254, p < .001), and controlled motivation
was not a signicant predictor of exercise behavior (β =
.011, p > .05). In addition, gender (β = –.165, p < .01)
directly predicted exercise behavior (see Figure 2), with
men reporting more exercise behavior than women.
With regard to the main ndings, total indirect effects
were found to be signicant for the relationships between
perceived variety (β = .057, p < .05) and satisfaction of the
needs for competence (β = .078, p < .05) and relatedness
(β = .067, p < .01) on exercise behavior (see Table 3).
Table 1 Interfactor Correlations
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1Variety-T1 —
2Competence-T1 .56* —
3Relatedness-T1 .35* .54* —
4Autonomy- T1 .16* .46* .26* —
5Autonomous Motivation-T2 .50* .61* .53* .31* —
6Controlled Motivation-T2 –.22* –.33* –.20* –.30* –.22* —
7Exercise Behavior-T2 .30* .36* .26* .26* .40* –.14* —
Note. T1 = Time 1; T2 = Time 2; *p < .01.
522
Figure 2 — Path diagram of the relationships between perceived variety, competence, relatedness, and autonomy in exercise at Time 1 (T1), and autonomous motivation, controlled
motivation and exercise behavior at Time 2 (T2). Gender was included as a covariate of exercise behavior. Solid lines represent (standardized) signicant path coefcients and dashed
lines represent nonsignicant path coefcients. *p < .05; **p < .01.
523
Table 2 Direct Effects of Predictors and Mediators
Variables
Standardized
Estimates
Unstandardized
Estimates
Standard
Errors
p-
Values
Predictors on Autonomous Motivation
Variety .227 .204 .048 < .001
Competence .315 .314 .069 < .001
Relatedness .267 .280 .050 < .001
Autonomy .062 .075 .072 .298
Predictors on Controlled Motivation
Variety –.083 –.074 .069 .283
Competence –.167 –.165 .095 .081
Relatedness –.033 –.034 .073 .640
Autonomy –.203 –.242 .089 .007
Predictors and Mediators on Exercise Behavior
Variety .102 2.521 1.772 .155
Competence .081 2.213 2.605 .396
Relatedness .019 0.533 1.809 .768
Autonomy .123 4.092 2.185 .061
Gender –.165 –7.386 2.345 .002
Autonomous Motivation .254 6.974 1.994 < .001
Controlled Motivation .011 0.317 1.840 .863
Table 3 Indirect Effects of Perceived Variety, and Satisfaction of the Needs
for Competence, Relatedness, and Autonomy on Exercise Behavior, Through
Autonomous and Controlled Motivation
Variables Estimate
SE p
-Value
Bias-Corrected
Bootstrapped 95% CI
Variety to Exercise Behavior
Total Indirect Effects .057 .025 .025 [.007, .106]
Specic Indirect Effects
Autonomous Motivation .058 .021 .007 [.016, .099]
Controlled Motivation –.001 .010 .925 [–.021, .019]
Competence to Exercise Behavior
Total Indirect Effects .078 .035 .027 [.009, .147]
Specic Indirect Effects
Autonomous Motivation .080 .031 .011 [.019, .141]
Controlled Motivation –.002 .013 .887 [–.028, .024]
Relatedness to Exercise Behavior
Total Indirect Effects .067 .023 .004 [.022, .113]
Specic Indirect Effects
Autonomous Motivation .068 .022 .002 [.025, .110]
Controlled Motivation .000 .006 .951 [–.012, .012]
Autonomy to Exercise Behavior
Total Indirect Effects .013 .023 .551 [–.031, .058]
Specic Indirect Effects
Autonomous Motivation .016 .016 .313 [–.015, .046]
Controlled Motivation –.002 .015 .874 [–.031, .026]
Note. Standardized beta coefcients are reported.
524 Sylvester et al.
More specically, perceived variety (β = .058, p < .01)
and satisfaction of the needs for competence (β = .080,
p < .05) and relatedness (β = .068, p < .01) had unique
indirect effects on exercise behavior through autono-
mous motivation. After statistically controlling for the
effects of autonomous and controlled motivation (i.e.,
mediators), the direct effects (see Table 2) for perceived
variety (β = .102, p = .155) and satisfaction of the needs
for competence (β = .081, p = .396) and relatedness (β
= .019, p = .768) in relation to exercise behavior were
nonsignicant, which provides evidence of the mediating
effects of these variables.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to
which perceived variety in exercise (along with satis-
faction of the needs for competence, relatedness, and
autonomy in exercise) prospectively predicts exercise
behavior, and the extent to which that relationship is
mediated by autonomous and controlled motivation in
the context of exercise. The results of this study revealed
that perceived variety in exercise was a unique indirect
positive predictor of exercise behavior, and autonomous
motivation mediated that relationship. Furthermore,
satisfaction of the needs for competence and relatedness
also positively predicted exercise behavior indirectly
through autonomous motivation, while satisfaction of the
need for autonomy was a negative predictor of controlled
motivation.
The results regarding perceived variety in exercise
are consistent with past work that has found exercise-
related variety support to predict exercise behavior
(Glaros & Janelle, 2001; Juvancic-Heltzel et al., 2013).
These results are also consistent with those of Dimmock
et al. (2013) who reported that expectations of variety in
exercise were related to autonomous (i.e., internalized)
motivation. We extended their work by testing and nd-
ing support for a theoretical mediator (i.e., autonomous
motivation) that explains the relationship between
perceived variety and behavior in exercise. Overall,
perceived variety in exercise was found to complement
satisfaction of the needs for competence, relatedness, and
autonomy by explaining unique variance in the prospec-
tive prediction of autonomous motivation and (indirectly)
exercise behavior.
Consistent with SDT (Ryan & Deci, 2002), in the
current study satisfaction of the needs for competence and
relatedness were positively related to exercise behavior,
and those relationships were mediated by autonomous
motivation. Contrary to our a priori theorizing, satis-
faction of the need for autonomy was not a signicant
predictor of either autonomous motivation or exercise
behavior. Unfortunately, our data do not provide insight
into the possible reasons for why the satisfaction of the
need for autonomy in exercise did not explain variance
in these variables. However, as a potential explanation,
some researchers have found that in the context of exer-
cise, when statistically controlling for satisfaction of the
needs for relatedness and competence, satisfaction of
the need for autonomy no longer predicts autonomous
motivation (e.g., Sweet, Fortier, Strachan, & Blanchard,
2012; Wilson & Rogers, 2008). With regards to controlled
motivation, our results indicated that satisfaction of the
need for autonomy in exercise was a negative predictor,
which is also consistent with previous research (e.g.,
Silva et al., 2010a).
Since the experience of variety in exercise was
found to be related to both autonomous motivation and
indirectly to exercise behavior, but unrelated to controlled
motivation, perceived variety may be more related to the
promotion of autonomous motivation and exercise behav-
ior than protecting against the experience of controlled
motivation. This nding is in line with the notion that
experiencing variety in exercise may promote interest
and enjoyment in exercise and facilitate the internaliza-
tion of exercise behavior (Dimmock et al., 2013). In light
of the nding that the experience of variety was able to
explain unique variance in autonomous motivation, the
results of this study lend weight to Sheldon’s (2011)
contention that satisfaction of the three basic psycho-
logical needs subsumed within SDT (i.e., competence,
relatedness, and autonomy) may be an incomplete subset
of the types of positive experiences that are involved in
supporting autonomous motivation. Although this study
was restricted to the context of exercise, it would seem
worthwhile to examine the extent to which the experi-
ence of variety is able to account for unique variance in
autonomous motivation and relevant behaviors in other
contexts of human functioning such as eating/diet, friend-
ship interactions, and work experiences.
Despite the theoretical and empirical contributions
of the current study, limitations should also be acknowl-
edged. While using a broad community sample for
this study holds merit, participants were a convenience
sample (e.g., those interested in a study about exercise),
which restricts the external validity of the conclusions.
While administering questionnaires online for this study
reduced participant burden and study costs, an exclusive
reliance on self-report data limits our conclusions, as
complementary objective measures of exercise behavior
(e.g., the use of accelerometers) would have provided
data for an additional (more robust) test of predictive
utility. By using a prospective observational design, we
were able to draw conclusions regarding the relationships
between exercise-related perceived variety; satisfaction
of the needs for competence, relatedness, autonomy,
motivation; and exercise behavior over time. However,
the observational (i.e., nonexperimental) design prevents
inferences of causality. In future research, experimental
designs are encouraged to examine the social contextual
supports that give rise to perceived variety in exercise as
well as the potential causal link between perceived variety,
autonomous motivation, and behavior in exercise contexts.
Consistent with the tenets within SDT (Ryan &
Deci, 2002), Vallerand (1997) suggested that in given
contexts (e.g., exercise, sport, leisure) the way in which
Is Variety a Spice of an Active Life? 525
the social context is structured and the interpersonal
interactions experienced within serve to either satisfy
or frustrate particular psychological experiences (e.g.,
within SDT “basic psychological needs”; Ryan & Deci,
2002). That is, need-supportive social contexts are
hypothesized to satisfy a person’s basic psychological
needs and subsequently promote autonomous motivation
and behavior (Standage & Vallerand, 2014). In contrast,
need-thwarting social contexts are assumed to frustrate
an individual’s basic psychological needs and lead to
controlling forms of motivation and/or passive engage-
ment in activities (Standage & Vallerand, 2014). Of
direct relevance to the current discussion is that in future
an important line of inquiry would be to examine the
extent to which the provision of variety within the social
context (i.e., exercise-related variety support) is related
to the perception of exercise-related variety (i.e., felt
variety), as well as downstream measures of autonomous
motivation toward exercise and exercise behavior. By
examining these relationships experimentally and/or in
a mediation model (i.e., exercise-related variety support
→ perceived variety in exercise → autonomous motiva-
tion toward exercise → exercise behavior), researchers
can gain insight into the extent to which the provision/
availability of exercise-related variety support (i.e.,
opportunity), results in the felt experience of variety (i.e.,
perceived variety in exercise) independent of, or (pos-
sibly) in combination with, the satisfaction of the needs
for competence, relatedness, and autonomy in exercise.
Such an endeavor would also shed light on the extent to
which variety support is related to subsequent exercise
behavior, as well as a more comprehensive analysis of
the different mechanisms (i.e., mediational pathways)
that might explain that relationship. In line with SDT
(Ryan & Deci, 2002) and Vallerand’s (1997) hierarchical
conceptualization of these tenets, we would hypothesize
that exercise-related variety support would best predict an
individuals’ perceived variety in exercise (i.e., as when
compared with the satisfaction of the needs for compe-
tence, relatedness, or autonomy in exercise), which would
in turn explain variance in exercise behavior (mediated
through autonomous motivation toward exercise). We
encourage researchers to test this hypothesis. Should
research provide evidence for such an effect, this would
point to the utility of targeting exercise-related variety
support through intervention as a means of bolstering
autonomous motivation and exercise behavior.
In conclusion, the results of this study provide insight
into how and why perceived variety in exercise relates
to exercise behavior. That is, when examined alongside
satisfaction of the needs for competence, relatedness, and
autonomy, perceived variety in exercise explained unique
variance in exercise behavior via autonomous motivation.
As such, we suggest that researchers examine the anteced-
ents of the perception of variety in exercise to understand
how to facilitate this potentially benecial psychosocial
experience. With regards to external validity, examining
perceived variety in relation to motivation and behavior in
other contexts (e.g., perceived variety with regard to sport
training or educational/learning opportunities) would be
an insightful line of inquiry. Researchers should continue
to examine potential theoretical and applied implications
that perceived variety may hold.
Note
1. The data reported in the current study is part of a larger pro-
gram of research designed to examine the effects of perceived
variety in exercise contexts. Research on item development, and
reliability and validity evidence of scores derived from the PVE
questionnaire was previously published in Sylvester et al. (2014)
and included data on perceived variety, competence, related-
ness, and autonomy in exercise collected at Time 1 and data
on exercise-related well-being at Time 2. In the current study,
we examined Time 1 scores of perceived variety, competence,
relatedness, and autonomy in exercise, in relation to Time 2 (i.e.,
6 weeks later) scores of autonomous and controlled motivation
in exercise, and exercise behavior.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by a graduate scholarship awarded
to Ben Sylvester by the Social Sciences and Humanities
Research Council of Canada, as well as a career investigator
award from the Michael Smith Foundation for Health Research
awarded to Mark Beauchamp.
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Manuscript submitted: April 25, 2014
Revision accepted: August 3, 2014
