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General strain theory, exposure to violence, and suicide ideation among police officers: A gendered approach
Abstract
Purpose
A wide body of research has demonstrated that police officers are profoundly affected by their exposure to violence and the traumatic events viewed commonly as part of their job duties. Faced with stress, officers learn to adapt by incorporating coping techniques.
Methods
The current study utilizes Agnew's general strain theory to explain occurrences of the most dangerous maladaptive coping technique: suicide ideation. Male and female police officers from three large cities in Texas were surveyed (n = 1,410).
Results
The present study utilizes logistic regression techniques, finding that strain has a positive and direct effect on male officers suicide ideation risk, but not for female police. Moreover, depression has a mediating effect on strain and suicide ideation for both genders.
Conclusions
Some critical differences in suicide ideation outcomes between male and female police officers are reported. Policy implications concerning retention and recruiting are also discussed.
... Second, research has shown that LEO females have unique strains, 18 and these strains lead to higher suicide ideation. 19 Specifically, researchers found that, for every one-unit increase in depression, suicide ideation increased by 181% for males and 433% for females. 19 In the fully mediated model, which included strain, depression, anger, burnout, alcohol, and lack of social interaction to the dependent variable suicide ideation, for male officers, depression increased the odds of suicide by 114%, and burnout increased the odds of suicide ideation by 43%. ...
... 19 Specifically, researchers found that, for every one-unit increase in depression, suicide ideation increased by 181% for males and 433% for females. 19 In the fully mediated model, which included strain, depression, anger, burnout, alcohol, and lack of social interaction to the dependent variable suicide ideation, for male officers, depression increased the odds of suicide by 114%, and burnout increased the odds of suicide ideation by 43%. However, for female officers' depression, the odds of suicide ideation increased by 280%, and anger increased the odds for suicide ideation by 226%. ...
... However, for female officers' depression, the odds of suicide ideation increased by 280%, and anger increased the odds for suicide ideation by 226%. 19 Scholars have long noticed that different shifts (first, second/ swing, third/graveyard, etc.) can have on LEOs. 9,20 Many factors contribute to this; for example, LEOs who make arrests at the end of their shift can experience a laborious amount of paperwork, which can lead to longer hours. ...
Objective:
Law enforcement officers (LEOs) are exposed to high levels of occupational trauma and face added stress from heightened public scrutiny and COVID-19, which may result in suicide. It is crucial to understand differences between LEOs who seek treatment and those who do not.
Method:
We compared LEOs from the same greater metropolitan area who sought treatment with those who did not. Participants completed validated measures assessing posttraumatic stress disorder, generalized anxiety, depression, and suicidality.
Results:
The treatment-seeking sample scores were higher on all standardized assessments. Bivariate logistic regression results indicated that the non-treatment-seeking sample's odds of experiencing suicidality were 1.76 times the odds for the treatment seeking sample. Conclusions: This suggests that many LEOs experiencing suicidality may not be seeking treatment and highlights the role that posttraumatic stress disorder may play in determining whether LEOs seek treatment or not.
... The suicide rate in the police force is estimated to be greater than that of the general population [1,2]. However, there is a series of methodological problems in their estimation: most police officers are male, belonging to an age range in which the suicide rate is greater [3], there is a lack of groups with which to make adequate comparisons [4], and there is the difficulty of equating the police force and the general population [5]. ...
... Suicidal ideation is a strong indicator of emotional distress and a strong predictor of attempted or actual suicide [10]. Studies concerning suicidal ideation in the general population estimate a prevalence of around 7.2% [11], while studies of the prevalence in the police force have variable rates, higher than or equal to those found in the general population: 13% [1]; 10.1% [2]; or 7.4% [12]. Nevertheless, there are studies that have found lower rates. ...
... Among the mental health problems associated with suicide in the police force is depression [10] as well as alcohol abuse, a deeply rooted cultural practice among police officers [1]. In a study conducted by Chopko et al. [10], in which suicidal ideation in 193 officers was studied, they found that of the considered predictors (alcohol abuse, posttraumatic stress disorders (PTSD), post-traumatic growth, and exposure to stressors, related or not to work, including exposure to traumatic situations), the existence of depression was the greatest predictor of suicide. ...
The suicide rate in the police force (Fuerzas y Cuerpos de Seguridad-FFCCSS) is estimated to be greater than that of the general population. The objectives of this paper are to detect mental health problems, in particular depression and anxiety, and to analyze the moderating effect of coping strategies on the relation between mental health and suicide ideation in police officers. The Suicidal Behavior Questionnaire (SBQ-R), Beck’s Depression Inventory (BDI), the Anxiety Inventory (STAI), and the Brief Cope have all been used in the study. The sample consists of 98 Spanish police officers, of whom 91.8% were male. The results indicate that depression and anxiety can predict suicidal ideation. Nevertheless, it must be said that coping strategies do not have a moderating effect in the relation between mental health and suicidal ideation in this professional group.
... In recent years, Bishopp et al., 2016, Bishopp et al., 2019, Bishopp et al., 2020, Bishopp and Boots, 2014 investigated the behavioral and psychological consequences of strains among police officers using GST as their theoretical foundation. Their endeavors to measure strain could be divided into three stages: ...
... First, the initial measurement of strain mostly reflected the environmental stress of police officers (Bishopp, Piquero, Worrall, & Piquero, 2019), which was originally developed to portray their suicidal ideation under the GST framework (Bishopp & Boots, 2014). Borrowing from the Operational Police Stress Questionnaire (McCreary & Thompson, 2006), Amendola's policing questionnaire (Amendola, Weisburd, Hamilton, Jones, & Slipka, 2011), and the Police Daily Hassles Scale (Hart, Wearing, & Headey, 1993), the initial strain measurement established 10 items describing subjective perceptions toward traumatic events. ...
... Borrowing from the Operational Police Stress Questionnaire (McCreary & Thompson, 2006), Amendola's policing questionnaire (Amendola, Weisburd, Hamilton, Jones, & Slipka, 2011), and the Police Daily Hassles Scale (Hart, Wearing, & Headey, 1993), the initial strain measurement established 10 items describing subjective perceptions toward traumatic events. Using this scale, Bishopp and Boots (2014) found that strain significantly increased the risk of suicidal ideation among male police officers. ...
Purpose
Using general strain theory (GST), this research aimed to develop and validate a self-reported measure of strains that may trigger white-collar offense.
Methods
The Chinese Public Official Strain Scale (CPOSS) was developed through three studies. Study 1 established the initial item pool through interviews with public officials convicted of economic corruption. Study 2 used exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to explore the latent structure of CPOSS with offenders recruited from 21 prisons. Study 3 adopted confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and item response theory (IRT) to assess the psychometric properties of CPOSS with a new sample of inmates from 39 prisons. In addition, the criterion validity of CPOSS was evaluated using the Social Responsibility Scale, Satisfaction with Life Scale, and two dimensions from the Schwartz Value Survey.
Results
All items were developed with high content validity using GST. EFA provides a four-factor structure consistent with typical strain sources of white-collar crime. CFA proved this four-factor model was robust. After filtering out indiscriminate items via IRT, the final 17-item version of CPOSS presented good internal reliability, and constructive and criterion validity.
Conclusions
The 17-item CPOSS shows good psychometric properties and can be used in future empirical studies on strain and white-collar crime.
... One theoretical perspective that appears to be well-suited to understanding the distal and proximal correlates of digital self-harm is Agnew's (1992) general strain theory (GST), a social-psychological theory that places emphasis on the various strains and stressors adolescents experience and the emotional and behavioral mechanisms used to alleviate or cope with these strains. Indeed, GST has proven to be a useful framework for understanding a variety of behaviors, including delinquency and substance use (Agnew 2006a), cyberbullying (Lianos and McGrath 2018), disordered eating (Piquero et al. 2010), suicidal ideation (Bishopp and Boots 2014) and, most pertinent for current considerations, physical acts of deliberate self-harm . ...
... The suitability of Agnew's (1992) GST as a foundation for investigating the correlates of digital selfharm is supported by several observations. First, GST has proven to be successful at explaining a wide range of maladaptive behaviors (Agnew 2006b;Bishopp and Boots 2014;Piquero et al. 2010). Second, recent research provides evidence that adolescents who engage in digital self-harm report greater exposure to bullying and greater depressive symptoms (Patchin and Hinduja 2017), patterns which conform to Agnew's (1992) assertions that strain and negative emotions should be positively associated with maladaptive coping behavior. ...
... While most tests of GST have focused on the mediating role of negative emotions in accounting for the association between strain and delinquent behavior, Agnew made clear that his theory was intended to explain a wide variety of maladaptive behaviors. In concert with past GST research focused on maladaptive deviant behaviors other than delinquency and substance use (Bishopp and Boots 2014;Piquero et al. 2010), the findings of the current study support the contention that GST is a suitable theoretical framework for identifying the etiology of many outcomes in general, and digital self-harm specifically. ...
Research on digital self-harm - the anonymous or pseudonymous posting of hurtful or negative information about oneself on the internet and social media platforms - is in the early stages of development. While scholars have started to focus on the correlates of this behavior, there remains a need to anchor the study of digital self-harm within established theoretical frameworks. Herein, we draw on Agnew's (1992) general strain theory to examine whether negative emotions mediate the association between bullying victimization and digital self-harm. Using data collected from adolescents participating in the 2019 Florida Youth Substance Abuse Survey (N = 9,469; Mgrade level = 8.78; 47% Male; 32% White, non-Hispanic), a strong, positive association between bullying victimization and digital self-harm is observed, as well as an indirect association operating through negative emotions. Discussion centers on the implications of the findings for theory and policy, as well as future directions for research on digital self-harm.
... As a theory that focuses on negative experiences and consequences, GST examines the extent to which various sources of strain generate negative emotional reactions which, in turn, can lead to deviant and/or criminal coping strategies. It is not difficult to see how GST maps onto the experience of police stress, and a good knowledge base applying GST to police stress has started to emerge (e.g., Bishopp & Boots, 2014;Gibson et al., 2001;Moon & Jonson, 2012;Shim et al., 2015;Swatt et al., 2007). Prior police stress studies, to a degree, demonstrate the utility of GST as an explanation of conduct other than criminal behavior; in this case, deviance among police personnel. ...
... Policing is not the most dangerous profession (Piquero et al., 2013), but it does contain a unique array of stressors that are different from and may exceed that of other occupations (Gächter et al., 2011). Among these intrinsic stressors, exposure to violence (and even the mere prospect of violent encounters) is arguably the most salient (Hartley et al., 2011), particularly in terms of mental and emotional health (Bishopp & Boots, 2014;Chopko, 2010;Pasillas et al., 2006). It can also affect physical health (Hartley et al., 2011) and job performance (Arnetz et al., 2009). ...
... Prior research on police stress has treated the phenomenon as largely universal, that is, affecting all police officers the same way. Some researchers have studied gender variations in police stress (e.g., Bishopp & Boots, 2014;Haarr & Morash, 2013;Menard & Arter, 2014). Others have conducted crossnational comparisons or analyzed samples of police officers from other countries (e.g., Menard & Arter, 2014;. ...
A large body of research demonstrates the toll stress takes on police. However, with recent high-profile force incidents that have fueled distrust of police especially within minority communities, there is reason to expect that minority officers experience stress differently than their white counterparts. Within the context of Agnew’s (1992) General Strain Theory, this study examines the relationship between police stress and misconduct. As well, since a police stress/anger relationship has been found, we also analyze racial differences in the extent to which negative affect (anger) mediates the stress/outcome relationship. Using data from a survey of over 1,400 police officers working in three large cities in Texas, we find that stress is significantly related to officers’ acts of misconduct within both races. Moreover, there are noticeable differences in the role anger plays in the stress/misconduct relationship among white and minority officers.
... Policing is frequently identified as one of the most stressful professions, as police officers are often exposed to dangerous situations and traumatic experiences (Anderson & Lo, 2011;Anshel, 2000). Traumatic experiences, frequently referred to as 'critical incidents,' are on the job policing situations that may impact the psychological and physiological wellbeing of officers (Anderson et al., 2002;Bishopp & Boots, 2014). Critical incidents can include events such as the encounter of a death scene, being physically assaulted by a suspect, or experiencing the death of a fellow police officer and are, in many ways, comparable to traumas experienced by military soldiers during times of war. ...
... Consequently, critical incident stress is an important concern for policing scholars and law enforcement organizations because studies demonstrate that critical incidents in policing may lead to feelings of strain or post-traumatic stress responses McCaslin et al., 2006). Also, like military soldiers, the ways in which officers respond to critical incident strain varies and some research indicates than certain officers may increase the use of alcohol or become depressed (Bishopp & Boots, 2014). In extreme cases, distressed officers may act out violently towards family members or even fellow officers (Zavala & Kurtz, 2017). ...
... As a result, police often report high levels of psychological stress that may even manifest itself through physiological symptoms, such as inability to sleep, digestive issues, and increased levels of alcohol consumption (Anderson et al., 2002;Liberman et al., 2002;Neylan et al., 2002). Studies indicate that stress levels may be especially elevated when officers are involved in critical incidents (Anderson & Lo, 2011;Bishopp & Boots, 2014;Kurtz, 2008;Kurtz et al. 2014;Neylan et al., 2002). For instance, using GST as the guiding theory to examine police officers' strain Bishopp and Boots (2014) found a direct relationship between strain and suicide ideation for male officers. ...
Policing is frequently identified as one of the most stressful professions and police officers are often exposed to dangerous situations and traumatic experiences on the job. Exposure to these traumatic experiences, also referred to as critical incidents, may negatively influence the psychological and physiological wellbeing of officers. In extreme cases, these negative reactions can result in deviant and criminal behavior fitting within the theoretical conceptions of General Strain Theory (GST). Few studies have explored the role of prior trauma experiences on officers’ negative stress and behavioral outcomes. This research examines the influence of child abuse and inter-parental violence on officer psychological-physiological stress responses and officer-on-officer aggression. Using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and data from the Police Stress and Domestic Violence in Police Families in Baltimore, Maryland, the results indicate that emotional responses to critical incidents and prior childhood exposure to abuse and violence influence negative stress responses and use of violence by officers.
... The variance of duties and omnipresent reality of death and danger exposes officers to both acute and chronic stress (Anderson et al. 2002;Zhao et al. (2002). Research suggests the toll of such stress is directly related to adverse health conditions such as anxiety, depression, heart disease, stroke, and suicide (Bishopp and Boots 2014;Violanti et al. 2017). ...
... The variance of duties and omnipresent reality of death and danger exposes officers to both acute and chronic stress (Anderson et al. 2002;Zhao et al. 2002). Research suggests the toll of such stress is directly related to adverse health conditions such as anxiety, depression, heart disease, stroke, and suicide (Bishopp and Boots 2014;Violanti et al. 2017). The increasing rates of officer suicides and the continued declines in officers' mental health are causing many in the law enforcement community grave concern. ...
The job of a police officer is extremely stressful and members of the law enforcement community exhibit disproportionately higher incidents of depression, PTSD, suicide ideation, and other mental health issues. Unfortunately, these mental health concerns are becoming increasingly grave as negative interactions with the public are more highly publicized than ever before. The present study evaluated the relationship between officers’ regard for their role as a member of law enforcement, years of experience, and awareness of the media, with stress level and PTSD symptoms. Most notable among the findings were that officers with a higher regard for their role as law enforcement, and those with more media awareness, reported higher stress levels and other maladaptive behaviors that negatively impacted their mental health. The current study contributes to the extant literature by exploring the intersectionality between officers’ stress levels, years of experience, PTSD symptomology, perceived identity, and media awareness. The widespread use of social media to publicize the actions of a small minority of law enforcement officers is among the many elements discovered and discussed in the current research.
... Intimamente ligada a estas questões do stress, burnout, e que num efeito de "bola de neve" nos conduzem à ideação suicida e até mesmo ao suicídio, sendo mencionada por diversos autores (e.g. Bishopp & Boots, 2014;Sadulski, 2021), está a General Strain Theory uma vez que defende que os indivíduos reagem negativamente a situações que lhe desencadeiam stress e que os "empurram" para diferentes direções (Agnew, 2001). Efetivamente, a Strain Theory, centra-se essencialmente nas forças, muitas vezes opostas, presentes na integração do indivíduo e no seu ambiente envolvente, e que podem levar, através do aumento da tensão, a um comportamento desadequado e/ou desajustado como resposta à aversão que sente no momento. ...
... No entanto, salientamos que o consumo de álcool acaba por ser aceite no meio policial como fazendo parte da sua própria e intrínseca cultura (Lindsay & Shelley, 2009;Violanti, 1997), o que pode levar muitas vezes a desconsiderações e desvalorizações desse mesmo facto, por vezes recorrente, uma vez que é tolerado e compreendido como sendo uma estratégia de coping (Violanti, 2004). São já efetivamente vários os estudos que correlacionam o abuso do álcool com a própria ideação suicida (Bishopp & Boots, 2014;Chopko et al., Uma outra dimensão também abordada são os conflitos que vão surgindo e que manifestam para a interação dentro da própria família dos polícias . Efetivamente, esta interação entre os polícias e as suas famílias pode sobressair para efeitos profundamente stressantes na vida profissional destes, pois não é de todo esporádico, que os polícias levem problemas de trabalho para casa, e vice-versa (Roberts, 2021). ...
The phenomenon of suicide became a concern, since we observe an increase in
the number of suicides, in general, but also in police officers, often using the service
weapon and in the job context. It is therefore urgent to study this phenomenon, which
some studies associate with the consequences of burnout as an inadequate response
to chronic job stress.
This work has as research problem the stress/burnout and suicidal ideation in the
police forces, posing as research question: will operational/organizational stress and
burnout constitute predictors of suicidal ideation in the police forces? Its objectives are:
to identify the levels of operational and organizational stress, and of burnout in a sample
of police; to know their suicidal ideation; to verify if stress, burnout and suicidal ideation
vary according to sociodemographic and professional characteristics; and to verify if
stress and burnout are predictors of suicidal ideation.
An anonymous and confidential questionnaire was applied online, between
February and October 2021, to 1802 police officers, after institutional authorization. This
questionnaire included sociodemographic and labor questions and the Portuguese
versions of the Operational Police Stress Questionnaire, Organizational Police Stress
Questionnaire, Oldenburg Burnout Inventory and Adult Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire.
The results revealed that police officers presented moderate averages of
operational stress, organizational stress and burnout, and low averages of suicidal
ideation. However, due to the dispersion of the results, an analysis of the authors' cutoff
levels was performed, revealing 72% of the sample with high operational stress, 62%
with high organizational stress, 56% in burnout, and 68% presenting suicidal ideation, of
which 3% in the last month. Comparative analyses revealed that male police officers,
with fewer qualifications, in the position of agent/guard, working in shifts, and doing
operational tasks are the ones with the highest levels of stress/burnout. Suicidal ideation
did not presented significant differences. There are significant correlations between
stress, burnout and suicidal ideation, which is explained in 20% by the other variables,
namely 7.3% by burnout, 6.5% by operational stress, 3.3% by organizational stress and
2.1% by professional variables, without significant explanatory contribution of
sociodemographic variables.
Thus, it is necessary to adopt stress management strategies to avoid that stress
become burnout, as well as to reflect about suicidal ideation, as it is often associated
with suicidal behaviors and suicide per se.
Keywords: police officers, operational stress, organizational stress, burnout, suicidal ideation, questionnaire.
... The collection of stressors experienced by those in the profession are diverse and impactful on and through many relationships in an officer's life, manifesting in an assortment of strains (Alexander et al., 1999;Burke & Mikkelsen, 2006;Marshall, 2006). The GST has shown its value in explaining numerous policing-occupational strains, which common affect this population (e.g., alcohol use, suicidal ideation) (Bishopp & Boots, 2014;Moon & Jonson, 2012;Swatt et al., 2007). ...
... Maintenance of this organizational commitment has been tied to occupationally-attributed stress, which is distinctive and continual (Hogan et al., 2006;Martelli et al., 1989;Moon & Jonson, 2012). The application of GST to the occupation of law enforcement has been further specified as to the mechanisms of this specific organizational stress seen in this unique population (Bishopp & Boots, 2014;Moon & Jonson, 2012). Lastly, physical strains can be defined as the physical manifestations (i.e., physical illness) resulting from exposure to stressors (Spector & Jex, 1998, p. 358). ...
To evaluate how social stressors, organizational stressors, and physical strains are related to suicidal ideation (SI) at an urban police department. Data was gathered between January–February 2020. Each case of SI was matched to 4 controls based on age, gender and military experience for a total sample size of 110 officers. Conditional logistic regression models assessed the relationship between stress domains and SI. Five percent (5%) of the officers surveyed (n = 22) reported SI. After adjustment for sociodemographic characteristics, high levels of organizational stress, versus low organizational stress, were associated with 9.2 (95% CI: 1.1–75.8) times the odds of SI compared to no SI. In the fully adjusted model (i.e., sociodemographics and other stressors), medium and high levels of social stress showed 5.1 (95% CI: 1.1–23.5) and 3.8 (95% CI: 1.0–14.5) higher odds of SI compared to no SI. The likelihood of SI increased incrementally as higher number of stressors were reported, suggesting a significant dose-response relationship. This study found organizational and social stress were the strongest predictors of SI for law enforcement officers, as opposed to physical strain. This study serves to further inform the multi-dimensionality of police stress pathways to advise department psychological prevention efforts.
... heart rate, cortisol) [2,5,6], psychological (e.g. anxiety, depression, PTSD, burnout) [5,[7][8][9][10][11], and physical (e.g. chronic back pain, heart disease) [5,[7][8][9][10][11] outcomes. ...
... anxiety, depression, PTSD, burnout) [5,[7][8][9][10][11], and physical (e.g. chronic back pain, heart disease) [5,[7][8][9][10][11] outcomes. ...
Background:
The unpredictable, and sometimes dangerous, nature of the occupation exposes officers to both acute and chronic stress over law enforcement officers' (LEO) tenure. The purpose of this study is two-fold: 1) Describe multi-level characteristics that define high-stress calls for service for LEO; and 2) Characterize factors that impact cumulative stress over the course of a LEO's shift.
Methods:
Qualitative data were collected from 28 LEOs at three law enforcement agencies in the Dallas-Fort Worth areas from April 2019 to February 2020. Focus group data were iteratively coded by four coders using inductive and deductive thematic identification.
Results:
Five multi-level factors influenced officer stress: 1) officer characteristics (e.g. military experience; gender); 2) civilian behavior (e.g. resistance, displaying a weapon); 3) supervisor factors (micromanagement); 4) environmental factors (e.g. time of year); and, 5) situational factors (e.g. audience present; complexity of calls). Four themes that characterized cumulative stress: 1) cyclical risk; 2) accelerators; 3) decelerators; and 4) experience of an adverse event.
Conclusions:
LEOs become susceptible to adverse events (e.g. injury, excessive use of force) after repeated exposure to high-stress calls for service. Ongoing exposures to stress continue to occur throughout the shift. Our long-term goal is to interrupt this repetitive, cumulative process by restricting the number of consecutive high-risk, high-intensity calls an officer is permitted to respond to.
... heart rate, cortisol) (5-7), psychological (e.g. anxiety, depression, PTSD, burnout) (6,(8)(9)(10)(11)(12), and physical (e.g. chronic back pain, heart disease) (6,(8)(9)(10)(11)(12) outcomes. ...
... anxiety, depression, PTSD, burnout) (6,(8)(9)(10)(11)(12), and physical (e.g. chronic back pain, heart disease) (6,(8)(9)(10)(11)(12) outcomes. ...
Background: The unpredictable, and sometimes dangerous, nature of the occupation exposes officers to both acute and chronic stress over law enforcement officers’ tenure. The purpose of this study is two-fold: 1) Describe multi-level characteristics that define high-stress calls for service for LEO; and 2) Characterize factors that impact cumulative stress over the course of a LEO’s shift.
Methods: Qualitative data were collected from 28 LEOs at three law enforcement agencies in the Dallas-Fort Worth areas from April 2019 to February 2020. Focus group data were iteratively coded by four coders using inductive and deductive thematic identification.
Results: Five multi-level factors influenced officer stress: 1) officer characteristics (e.g. military experience; gender); 2) civilian behavior (e.g. resistance, displaying a weapon); 3) supervisor factors (micromanagement); 4) environmental factors (e.g. time of year); and, 5) situational factors (e.g. audience present; complexity of calls). Four themes that characterized cumulative stress: 1) cyclical risk; 2) accelerators; 3) decelerators; and 4) experience of an adverse event.
Conclusions: LEOs become susceptible to adverse events (e.g. injury, excessive use of force) after repeated exposure to high-stress calls for service. Ongoing exposures to stress continue to occur throughout the shift. Our long-term goal is to interrupt this repetitive, cumulative process by restricting the number of consecutive high-risk, high-intensity calls an officer is permitted to respond to.
Trial Registration: NA
... Social avoidance may affect the level of support for police because it interferes with their establishing a helping network. Bishopp and Boots (2014) applied strain theory to determine gender differences associated with suicidal ideation among police officers. Findings indicated that strain has a positive and direct effect on male but not female officer's suicidal ideation. ...
... It is thus not surprising that alcohol was cited in several suicide case series (Cavanagh et al., 2003;Violanti, 2007;Barron, 2010). Studies of alcohol use and suicidal ideation have found problematic alcohol use to be a correlate of suicidal ideation (Bishopp and Boots, 2014;Chopko et al., 2014). For example, in a study by Violanti (2004a, b), increased alcohol use was associated with 4.45 times greater odds of suicidal ideation (OR ¼ 4.45, 95% CI: 1.42-18.5). ...
Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to provide a review of law enforcement suicide research from 1997 to 2016. Design/methodology/approach: The PRISMA systematic review methodology was implemented. A SCOPUS search identified a total of 97 documents. After applying all exclusion criteria, the results included a list of 44 articles in the review. Findings: Overall, studies investigating law enforcement suicide rates show conflicting results, with some studies showing lower suicide rates among law enforcement, some showing higher rates, and some showing no difference to comparison populations. Recurring research themes were lack of an appropriate comparison group, and small statistical power, particularly for minority and female officers. Stressors related to suicide among police included lack of organizational support, traumatic events, shift work, stigma associated with asking for help, or problems associated with fitting in with the police culture. Problems associated with domestic relationships and alcohol use were commonly mentioned as precursors to suicide or as correlates of suicidal ideation and were hypothesized to arise from stressful working conditions. Research limitations/implications: Some limitations in law enforcement suicide research include the lack of theory, under-reporting of suicides, and guarded survey responses from police officers. Future directions in police suicide research include investigating etiological factors such as past adverse life and family experiences, social-ecological variation in suicide, or differences in suicide rates within the law enforcement occupation. Practical implications: Police work, given chronic and traumatic stress, lack of support, danger, and close public scrutiny is a fertile occupation for increased suicide risk. Awareness of the scope of the problem and associated risk factors can help to initiate prevention programs. Originality/value: This paper provides a long-term review of literature regarding police suicidality, with suggestions for research and prevention.
... Cases were caliper matched on age, with a caliper of 5 years, and individual matched on gender to two controls at a 100% match rate. Matching criteria were chosen based on the known confounding relationship (Bishopp & Boots, 2014;Colorado Department of Public Health & Environment et al., 2015;Stanley et al., 2016;Violanti et al., 2009). Logistic regression models tested the bivariate relationship between mental health and sociodemographic characteristics, while adjusting for the matching criteria for all FRs collectively as well as FRs stratified by subtype. ...
First responders are routinely exposed to traumatic events that can affect their mental health to the extent of suicidal ideation and suicide completion. The purpose of our study is to inform the comparability of predictors of suicidality across first responder types to elucidate the most efficacious targets for intervention and clinical intercession. Clients ( N = 224) sought counseling services between 2015 and 2020 at a not-for-profit organization. We conducted a matched study with cases defined as those with suicidality at baseline and those without suicidality at baseline (controls). First responder types were law enforcement officers (LEOs), firefighters, and emergency medical technicians. Clients were mostly LEOs (41.5%), followed by firefighters (29.9%) and emergency medical technicians (28.6%). Logistic regression models tested the relationship between mental health measures and suicidality. All measures of mental health constructs varied significantly across those with or without suicidality and differed across first responder subtype. Depression and posttraumatic stress disorder were significant predictors of suicidality for both LEOs and firefighters. Alcohol/substance misuse was only a significant predictor among LEOs. Resilience was a protective factor for both LEOs and emergency medical technicians. Specific differences in predictors of suicidality across first responder subtypes may enable occupation-specific targets for mental healthcare.
... 6 For police officers with good mental health ability and positive psychological capital, 7 they can adapt well or recover quickly by coping with stress in a positive, optimistic, calm, and decisive way through psychological disengagement and other methods, 8,9 showing amazing combat effectiveness. Whereas, for some police officers with poor mental health ability, when encountering emergencies or major accidents, they may have a cognitive bias against suspects' guilt and are more inclined to use violence to treat the people due to bad psychological conditions, [10][11][12][13][14] causing loss of trust in police and harsh relationship between police and community and other severe consequences. 15 This is like a time bomb that may have a serious impact on the construction of the police force as well as social security and stability. ...
Objectives:
Police officers are generally under long-term occupational stress. Good mental health ability enables them to better deal with emergencies and enhance their combat effectiveness. We aimed to develop the Police Mental Health Ability Scale (PMHAS) to provide a reference for police selection and ability training.
Methods:
Through literature analysis, individual interviews, half-open and half-closed questionnaire surveys, and expert consultations, the components of police mental health ability (PMHA) were theoretically constructed. Then, we enrolled 824 in-service police officers who participated in the training in Chongqing City and Sichuan Province from November 2018 to January 2019 and recovered 767 valid questionnaires (recovery rate, 93.08%).
Results:
Exploratory factor analysis generated five factors for PMHAS, including cognitive intelligence, emotional catharsis, swift decisiveness, behavioral drive, and reward pursuit, accounting for 58.904% of the variance. Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated that the model fit well (χ2/df = 1.117, RMSEA = 0.020, GFI = 0.948, CFI = 0.990, IFI = 0.990, TLI = 0.987). The correlation coefficients of factors (r = -0.023 ~ 0.580) were lower than that of each factor and total score (r = 0.477 ~ 0.819). The Cronbach's α coefficients of PMHAS and its factors were 0.606-0.863, and the test-retest reliabilities were 0.602-0.732.
Conclusion:
These results suggest that PMHAS is reliable and valid enough for measuring PMHA, which shows that it is a potentially valuable tool for assessing the mental health ability of police officers.
... It is thus not surprising that alcohol has been cited in several police suicide cases (Cavanagh et al., 2003;Violanti, 2007;Barron, 2010). Studies of alcohol use and suicidal ideation have found problematic alcohol use to be a correlate of suicidal ideation (Bishopp and Boots, 2014;Chopko et al., 2014). For example, in a study by Violanti (2004), increased alcohol use was associated with 4.45 times greater odds of suicidal ideation among police (OR) 4.45, 95% CI: 1.42-18.5). ...
Purpose
This study examined the national prevalence of cluster suicides among law enforcement personnel at the county level, the influence on future suicides and risk factors associated with clusters.
Design/methodology/approach
Law enforcement suicide data were obtained from The National Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS) and categorized into: (1) cluster and (2) non-cluster suicides. Chi-square was used to compare differences between the two groups. Logistic regression was used to predict the probability of suicide risk factors in the groups.
Findings
2,465 law enforcement suicides were listed in NVDRS between 2003–2018. 80 (9.4%) US counties had clusters, with 640 officers (25.7%) of officers as part of those clusters. Odds ratios for risk factors associated with the suicide cluster group were: mental health crisis (OR = 2.6, p = 0.026), age (OR = 1.01, p = 0.003), married (OR = 1.729, p =<0.001), military service (OR = 2.59, p =<0.001) and job problems (OR = 1.70, p = 0.05).
Research limitations/implications
This study suggests that cluster suicides occur in law enforcement. The study is primarily descriptive and limited by the different numbers of contributing states in the NVDRS database through the years.
Practical implications
This study suggests that clusters occur in law enforcement and that they can impact future suicides. It is important for law enforcement organizations to recognize the potential for suicide clusters.
Originality/value
This study is among the first to empirically examine suicide clusters in law enforcement.
... It is important to note that law enforcement stress differs significantly from resulting stress from other occupations, even other types of first responders . The physical stress, fear, stress from assisting victims and survivor families of crime, conducting criminal investigations and the day-to-day agency work stress-all have a tremendous impact on officers as well as their families (Bishopp & Boots, 2014). For example, working rotating shifts is disruptive in a family schedule and may lead to strain and tension on family roles. ...
Suicide is a complex, multi-dimensional phenomenon that is neither easily understood nor explained. Though we will never know or fully understand the reasoning or intention behind such a death, it is imperative that the information left behind be used in a meaningful way, so as to reduce deaths by suicides and future attempts.
... It is important to note that law enforcement stress differs significantly from resulting stress from other occupations, even other types of first responders . The physical stress, fear, stress from assisting victims and survivor families of crime, conducting criminal investigations and the day-to-day agency work stress-all have a tremendous impact on officers as well as their families (Bishopp & Boots, 2014). For example, working rotating shifts is disruptive in a family schedule and may lead to strain and tension on family roles. ...
In every law enforcement agency, candidates applying to the job are required to complete an exhaustive recruitment process. Part of the selection procedure includes a psychological evaluation, the intent of which is to identify several positive psychological skills. These perishable skills are a direct representation of the behavioral expectations that citizens have of their law enforcement officers, yet police administrators rarely—if ever—reinforce these skills as wellness priorities. Research into resilience reveals two primary truths: that resilience is only obtained as the result of adversity and that the promotion of it should be approached intentionally. As a professional development opportunity, intentionally building resilience is a necessary component of self-care for law enforcement officers which should begin day one at the academy and continue throughout the life cycle of the profession. Police administrators have an opportunity to approach officer wellness early on from a positive perspective, by sharing with each academy graduate the psychological skills they brought into the job when they first joined the force. Continuous reinforcement of these skills acknowledges their perishability, overcoming the tendency to ignore the job’s variety of challenges. Ultimately, treating resilience as a studied skill allows for a learning organization that seeks out opportunities to coach and mentor officers to better navigate adversity. The resources highlighted in this chapter provide officers and administrators options for pursuing resilience—both individually and organizationally.
... It is important to note that law enforcement stress differs significantly from resulting stress from other occupations, even other types of first responders . The physical stress, fear, stress from assisting victims and survivor families of crime, conducting criminal investigations and the day-to-day agency work stress-all have a tremendous impact on officers as well as their families (Bishopp & Boots, 2014). For example, working rotating shifts is disruptive in a family schedule and may lead to strain and tension on family roles. ...
Suicide deaths among our first responder populations have gained growing national attention. Yet, many remain misinformed about the true extent of suicide within law enforcement ranks, with some believing this is a new phenomenon. However, those working and researching in the field know suicide has been a leading cause of mortality for decades. Unfortunately, because stigma and shame often accompany these types of death, many who die by their own hand often remain unknown, and all too often forgotten. Seemingly, only sensationalistic cases or cases of murder-suicide seem to receive any kind of attention. This surreptitious threat to our public safety professionals has yet to receive the same level of concern or attention as other threats, though this is slowly changing.
... It is important to note that law enforcement stress differs significantly from resulting stress from other occupations, even other types of first responders . The physical stress, fear, stress from assisting victims and survivor families of crime, conducting criminal investigations and the day-to-day agency work stress-all have a tremendous impact on officers as well as their families (Bishopp & Boots, 2014). For example, working rotating shifts is disruptive in a family schedule and may lead to strain and tension on family roles. ...
Substance abuse in the law enforcement profession continues to infect the group’s physical health and mental stability. Over the years this dynamic has been extensively hypothesized, researched, and analyzed for causations and correlations in both the cognitive and behavioral realms. Positive outcomes and accomplishments with lowering this unhealthy behavior risk factor among law enforcement are few in numbers. The research also demonstrates the need for uniformed protocols and policies for obtaining toxicology samples, analysis, and reports involving self-inflicted deaths of law enforcement officers. From our historical review and research, a new paradigm and perspective is needed to confront this risk factor and challenge the increasing rate of intoxicated law enforcement officer suicides.
... suicidio se tienen que ponderar en función del género, así en la teoría de la presión, donde el detonante del acto suicida es precisamente la propia institución en donde se trabaja y el estrés al que se ve sometido el agente, se ha observado cómo existen diferencias de género asociadas a la ideación suicida. Así una mayor presión percibida está directamente relacionada con el incremento de ideaciones en hombres, pero no en mujeres (Bishopp & Boots, 2014). ...
Tal y como se ha indicado en el apartado anterior, no todo suicidio va a ser considerado como tal, ya que se tendrían que descartar los accidentes por conductas de riesgo, además cabe distinguirse varios términos que en ocasiones se emplean de forma indistinta, pero que tienen importantes diferencias, así según un informe publicado por la Comisión de Salud Mental del Ministerio de Salud Pública del Gobierno de Canadá (Mental Health Commission of Canada, 2018) se puede hablar de:-Suicidio como acto fatal de autolesión con intención de quitarse la vida.-Comportamiento suicida el cual abarca desde los pensamientos suicidas, los intentos de suicidio y la muerte por suicidio.-Intento de suicidio, que es la conducta potencialmente autolesiva asociada con la intención de morir.-Pensamientos activos de suicidio los cuales pueden conducir a acabar con la propia vida, lo que puede incluir: identificar un método, tener un plan y/o tener la intención de actuar.-Pensamientos pasivos de suicidio, pensamientos sobre la muerte o de querer estar muerto, sin tener ningún plan ni realizar ningún intento de suicidio.-Autolesiones no suicidas, conductas sin intención de morir.-Eventos suicidas con la aparición o el empeoramiento de pensamientos suicidas o con intentos reales de suicidio.-Autolesiones deliberadas, que son conductas autolesivas donde se incluyen los pensamientos. Por lo que a partir de ahora ya no se hablará de suicidio de forma genérica, sino que se emplearán los términos anteriores para definir si estamos hablando de pensamientos, intentos o suicidios propiamente dichos. Sobre ello hay que indicar que uno de los problemas en cuanto a los datos relacionados sobre
... It is thus not surprising that alcohol has been cited in several police suicide cases (Cavanaugh et al., 2003;Violanti, 2007;Barron, 2010). Studies of alcohol use and suicidal ideation have found problematic alcohol use to be a correlate of suicidal ideation (Bishopp et al., 2014;Chopko et al., 2014). For example, in a study by Violanti (2004), increased alcohol use was associated with 4.45 times greater odds of suicidal ideation among police (odds ratio (OR) 5 4.45, 95% CI: 1.42-18.5). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to update the assessment of national data on law enforcement worker suicide based on the National Occupational Mortality Surveillance database (NOMS, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention).
Design/methodology/approach
Death certificate data for 4,441,814 decedents, age 18–90 who died in one of the 26 reporting states were the source of NOMS data. Utilizing proportionate mortality ratios (PMRs), the ratio of suicides in law enforcement occupations in those who are 18–90 years old with a designated usual occupation was calculated.
Findings
Findings indicate a significantly higher proportion of deaths from suicide for law enforcement officers (PMR = 154, 95% CI = 147–162), compared to all the US decedents in the study population who were employed during their lifetime. Law enforcement personnel are 54% more likely to die of suicide than all decedents with a usual occupation. PMRs were highest for African-Americans, Hispanic males and for females. PMRs were similar for detectives, corrections officers and all law enforcement jobs, when not stratified by race, ethnicity and sex.
Research limitations/implications
Bias may arise because a PMR can be affected by disproportionate increased or decreased mortality from causes of death other than suicide.
Practical implications
A better understanding of the scope of law enforcement suicide can inform policy focused on the planning and initiation of prevention programs.
Originality/value
The use of a national database to study law enforcement worker suicide adds to other information available on law enforcement worker suicide in specific geographic areas. The discussion on prevention in this paper presents ideas for policy.
... In order to assess mental health among the police, the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS) and Symptom Checklist 90-Revised (SCL-90-R) are commonly used [5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. However, previous studies rarely report the validity of the SDS or SCL-90-R among police. ...
Police mental health is important because police officers usually encounter stressors that cause high levels of stress. In order to better understand mental health for Chinese police, the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS) and Symptom Checklist 90-Revised (SCL-90-R) are commonly used in mainland China. Unfortunately, both the SDS and SCL-90-R lack detailed information on their psychometric properties. More specifically, factor structures of the SDS and SCL-90-R have yet to be confirmed among the police population in mainland China. Therefore, the present study compared several factor structures of the SDS and SCL-90-R proposed by prior research and to determine an appropriate structure for the police population. Utilizing cluster sampling, 1151 traffic police officers (1047 males; mean age = 36.6 years [SD = 6.10]) from 49 traffic police units in Jiangxi Province (China) participated in this study. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with Akaike information criterion (AIC) was used to decide the best fit structure. In the SDS, the three-factor model (first posited by Kitamura et al.) had the smallest AIC and outperformed other models. In the SCL-90-R, the eight-factor model had the smallest AIC and outperformed the one-factor and nine-factor models. CFA fit indices also showed that both the three-factor model in the SDS and the eight-factor model in the SCL-90-R had satisfactory fit. The present study's results support the use of both SDS and SCL-90-R for police officers in mainland China.
... A second measure of negative emotions, depression, is a five-item scale that employs a five-category response format where higher scores indicate higher levels of depression (Bishopp & Boots, 2014). Before responding to the five items below, subjects read the following instructions: "describe how you have been feeling over the last past 6 months." ...
Cyber abuse within intimate relationships is an increasingly common, but poorly understood, criminological issue. The present study applies a multi-theoretical lens to both cyber abuse perpetration and victimization in intimate relationships using a sample of college students. Results employing OLS regression show that cyber dating abuse victimization is associated with measures of general strain and social learning, but not self-control, in both full and reduced models. For cyber abuse perpetration, general strain, social learning, and self-control measures show significant associations in reduced models; however, in a full model only measures of strain retain significance.
... The prime source for stress in police has been the environmental factors, i.e., the situations in which police has to perform (Burke 2016; Newman and Rucker-Reed 2004). Police officers are frequently exposed to various traumatic situations ranging from threats to themselves and their colleagues, to witnessing riots, injuries or death of citizens, bombings, shootings, criminal activities, and often fatal shootings of perpetrators (Arnetz et al. 2009;Bishopp and Boots 2014;Chopko 2010). They are required to operate in situations of conflict, apprehend violent criminals, and face hostile members of the public and deal with the inevitable political pressures of public life (Violanti and Paton 1999). ...
The present study was carried out to investigate the difference in the levels of stress, anxiety, and depression among urban and rural police officers of the Khyber Pukhtoonkhwa province of Pakistan. The inquiry included 315 police officers from three districts of the understudied province. Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (Lovibond and Lovibond 1995) was administered. It was hypothesized that police officers working in urban areas would project higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress as compared to police officers working in rural areas. The results supported the hypotheses on significant differences.
... Low-to-moderate response rates are not uncommon in policing research, especially given the online methodology and the sensitive nature of some of the survey items (e.g.,Bishopp & Boots, 2014;Gould, 2000). ...
Research provides consistent evidence that non-offenders have greater self-control than offenders. While such differences exist across a range of samples, the ability of measures of self-control to discriminate between different groups merits additional attention. We advance research on this topic by comparing the self-control of police officers to offenders. Results indicate police officers score higher than offenders do on global self-control. Results also indicate that, when analyzing differences across the six dimensions of self-control conceptualized by Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990), police officers consistently score lower in impulsivity, self-centeredness, and anger than offenders. At the same time, police officers have a greater preference for physical activities than offenders do, and the risk-seeking and simple tasks dimensions are inconsistently associated with being a police officer relative to an offender across the different models estimated. Discussion centers on the implications of these findings for theory and for the screening of potential police recruits.
... Repeated exposure to stressful and traumatic stimuli is a possible mechanism driving these adverse health outcomes among LEOs (Roberts and Levenson, 2001). Acute and chronic stress may also partially drive high rates of divorce and family conflict (Roberts and Levenson, 2001), emotional dissonance and exhaustion; detachment, and cynicism experienced by officers (Bakker and Heuven, 2006;Louw and Viviers, 2010;Bishopp and Boots, 2014;Kop et al., 1999). These adverse effects of stress have costly ramifications in terms of injury and workers compensation claims, compromised immune systems and increased illness and associated sick days and long-and short-term disability, early retirement and attrition, and lost productivity and burnout (Bakker and Heuven, 2006;Louw and Viviers, 2010;Kop et al., 1999;Ortega et al., 2007). ...
Purpose
Law enforcement officers (LEOs) suffer from premature mortality, intentional and unintentional injury, suicide and are at an increased risk for several non-communicable disease outcomes including cardiovascular disease and several cancers, compared to those employed in other occupations. Repeated exposure to stressful and traumatic stimuli is a possible mechanism driving these adverse health outcomes among LEOs. To better identify the sources of these health problems, the purpose of this paper is to determine the feasibility of conducting a cohort study using physiological measures of stress (e.g. heart rate) with LEOs; perceptions of the FitBit device, including LEO buy-in and attitudes associated with the protocol.
Design/methodology/approach
Data were collected from ten recent graduates of the Dallas Police Training Academy.
Findings
Results suggest that officer buy-in and protocol compliance was high. Officers were eager to participate in this study, and completion of weekly surveys was 100 percent. Minute-level missing data from wearable devices was relatively low (25 percent), and 90 percent of participants wore the FitBit devices on more than 90 percent of study days.
Originality/value
Results from this study suggest that wearable physiological devices can be effectively used in law enforcement populations to measure stress.
... Examples include witnessing domestic violence, abuse to children, traffic fatalities, as well as firing a weapon or being fired upon. Occupational danger, such as experiencing violence, is regarded as a traumatic stressor that has been found to negatively impact officers' mental and emotional health (Bishopp & Boots, 2014;Chopko, 2010), job performance (Arnetz, Nevedal, Lumley, Backman, & Lublin, 2009), and physical health (Hartley et al., 2011). Exposure to such severe events are difficult to clear from memory and may influence officers' outlook even when not on duty. ...
Research dating back to the 1940s has examined how police work may offer unique and high-volume stressors. While much has been learned from those studies about the sources and consequences of police stress, scholars have typically examined those issues from the perspective of local and state officers. That being the case, much less is known about the sources and consequences of workplace stress among those working at the federal level of law enforcement. To add to this limited knowledge base, here we present findings from 20 in-depth interviews conducted with current federal law enforcement officers in the Southern United States. We provide extensive analysis and description of four key stressors that emerged from the lived experiences of interviewees. This is followed by a discussion of the consequences of these stressors, as well as relevant policy implications.
El libro Investigación en psicología: aplicaciones e intervenciones II presenta los avances en la investigación de la Facultad de Psicología de la Universidad Católica de Colombia. La lectura de cada capítulo permite observar el esfuerzo tanto de los diferentes docentes e investigadores internos y externos como de los estudiantes por responder a los intere-ses y las necesidades expresadas en los ejes temáticos de las siete líneas de investigación e integración curricular en psicología: Clínica, de la Salud y de las adicciones; Procesos Psicobiológicos y del Comportamiento; Psicología Educativa; Psicología Jurídica y Criminológica; Psicología Organizacional; Psicología Social, Política y Comunitaria: y Métodos de Investigación Aplicados a las Ciencias del Comportamiento. A nivel metodológico, el libro retoma ejemplos de revisiones de alcance, revisiones sistemáticas, diseños de caso único, estudios correlacionales, estudios comparativos, diseños experimentales con grupo control, diseños experimentales puros y diseños ex post facto. Respecto a las temáticas abordadas, en los diferentes capítulos se desarrollan constructos psicológicos y conjuntos de problemas sociales de interés para la psicología que aportan a la consolidación de las líneas de investigación. En conclusión, este libro permite observar la diversidad de metodologías que pueden emplearse para el estudio de la psicología desde las diferentes áreas y evidencia el ejercicio científico en respuesta a una realidad social que demanda respuestas desde su esencia compleja y dinámica.
El libro Investigación en psicología: aplicaciones e intervenciones II presenta los avances en la investigación de la Facultad de Psicología de la Universidad Católica de Colombia. La lectura de cada capítulo permite observar el esfuerzo tanto de los diferentes docentes e investigadores internos y externos como de los estudiantes por responder a los intere-ses y las necesidades expresadas en los ejes temáticos de las siete líneas de investigación e integración curricular en psicología: Clínica, de la Salud y de las adicciones; Procesos Psicobiológicos y del Comportamiento; Psicología Educativa; Psicología Jurídica y Criminológica; Psicología Organizacional; Psicología Social, Política y Comunitaria: y Métodos de Investigación Aplicados a las Ciencias del Comportamiento. A nivel metodológico, el libro retoma ejemplos de revisiones de alcance, revisiones sistemáticas, diseños de caso único, estudios correlacionales, estudios comparativos, diseños experimentales con grupo control, diseños experimentales puros y diseños ex post facto. Respecto a las temáticas abordadas, en los diferentes capítulos se desarrollan constructos psicológicos y conjuntos de problemas sociales de interés para la psicología que aportan a la consolidación de las líneas de investigación. En conclusión, este libro permite observar la diversidad de metodologías que pueden emplearse para el estudio de la psicología desde las diferentes áreas y evidencia el ejercicio científico en respuesta a una realidad social que demanda respuestas desde su esencia compleja y dinámica.
Purpose
This study aims to view police mental and physical health and overall well-being through a victimological lens so as to attempt to prevent problems from starting or protecting them by informing them of what may occur within their career.
Design/methodology/approach
Knowledge production within the field of police health and career implications is exponentially increasing as officers all over the world try and sometimes fail to navigate the difficulties of their complex career choice. Many of the disciplines that deal with this research are acting as silos, so there is not a lot of crossover in Australian literature. This study creates a contemporary collective of literary evidence in relation to police well-being as well as the impact of COVID on them. Creating this collective is why the literature review as a research method is critical. Traditional literature reviews can lack clear process. By using a literature review as a specific methodology, the outcome is a meticulous record of all relevant materials.
Findings
The results of this literature review identified, without bias or interpretation, many officers became disillusioned, mentally unwell and took time away from work for two main reasons: (1) for many police officers, the substantial distress from cumulative exposure to bureaucratic administration and management styles, erratic work hours and long hours of repetitive work and (2) the dangers of day-to-day policing with the presence at fatal accidents, suicides, receiving threats to life, being assaulted and gaining poor eating and drinking habits creating issues for sleep and physical health.
Research limitations/implications
For the purposes of creating a contemporary paper, the authors restricted the sample of literature to 22 years (accessing from 2,000 onward). By only selecting journals from Google Scholar, relating to specific years and drawing on search terms to limit our search, it may be perceived to have skewed the sample and the outcomes. Further work will be completed in the future to correct this.
Practical implications
Police organisations may consider altering their bureaucratic procedures and make an effort to allow officers to better self-manage minor issues. From a victimological perspective, given that police officers are more than likely to be affected by cumulative experience of traumatic events over their career, they should be taught how to lower their individual levels of stress, to practice self-care and to be able to trust that the care they seek will be readily available without judgement.
Social implications
Knowing the triggers related to police breakdown, both physically and mentally, may help intervene in the early years to prevent The extremes of policing range from being faced with overwhelming paperwork and administration to acute trauma events and can leave the officer dealing with cumulative stress in all its guises. Allowing a judgment free public debate into this issue will assist police (and other emergency service works) in the future.
Originality/value
Viewing police officers as victims of their career choice is not common and reviewing the factors that impact them on a daily basis and throughout their career is critical for both prevention and understanding. This paper has value to numerous disciplines.
Limited research has examined what factors serve as potential barriers and motivators for law enforcement personnel in seeking mental health support. The current study presents findings from a survey of 158 sworn and civilian personnel from a large Southeastern Sheriff’s office to shed light on these potential barriers/motivators. We drew on previous literature to create measures related to mental health stigma, confidentiality, burnout, various stressors, and organizational support, among others. The main effects OLS regression models suggest that increased perceptions of stigma and personal stressors significantly lowered employees’ willingness to seek mental health support. However, increased burnout and job satisfaction were associated with employees seeking mental health support. Multiplicative models show that as job satisfaction increased within nonwhite respondents, those respondents were significantly more likely to seek mental health assistance. However, as personal stressors increased among nonwhite respondents, those respondents were significantly less likely to seek help. Finally, as overall health increased among white respondents, those respondents were significantly more likely to seek help. Findings indicate that mental health issues experienced by employees vary based on group membership. We discuss several future research directions and policy implications derived from these findings.
İntihar ile ilgili çalışmalar yürüten araştırmacılar, bu davranışı anlaşılması zor ve karmaşık dinamiklerinin varlığıyla vurgulamaktadır. Bu açıdan intiharın tek bir nedene veya tetikleyiciye bağlanamaması, araştırmacıları çeşitli biyolojik, psikolojik ve sosyal risk faktörlerini araştırmaya yöneltmiştir. Bu bağlamda meslekler ve intihar arasındaki ilişkiye yönelik güçlü bir akademik ilginin 1930’lardan 1980’lerin başına kadar devam ettiği görülmektedir. Yapılan erken çalışmalarda, toplumda sık görülen mesleklerin rastlantısal bir şekilde intihara neden olduğu öne sürülmekteydi. Bununla birlikte çalışmalar; meslekleri içeren kısıtlı sayıda grup farklılıkları ve küçük örneklem büyüklükleri nedeniyle çelişkili bulgular bildirmiştir. Bazı çalışmalar ise belirli meslekler ile tamamlanmış intiharlar arasındaki bağlantıya odaklanmıştı. Her ne kadar geçmişte meslekler ve intihar arasındaki ilişkiye sıklıkla vurgu yapılsa da güncel çalışmalarda nadiren birlikte tartışıldığı gözlenmektedir.
Police officers are exposed to many dangers on the job. Despite this, society may not intuitively consider officers to be victims. Research indicates officers experience various types of victimization on the job, and these victimizations can have direct and indirect physical, mental, and economic impacts on the officer. As a result of violent and nonviolent victimizations in the line of duty, there are negative consequences on officers' wellbeing. Despite this victimhood, police stories are not often headlined in the media, placed on political agendas, or discussed in local communities. Due to the lack of inclusion on these platforms, police officers are invisible victims. This chapter discusses how officers can be considered invisible victims and examines factors that address why society and officers themselves may not equate their experiences to victimization.
Objectives:
The current study aims to investigate the indirect associations between experiential avoidance (EA) and burnout, wellbeing, and productivity loss (PL) via the mediating role of positive and negative emotions among police officers.
Methods:
Data were collected on 187 officers (84% male) aged 21-64 years between 2019 and 2020. Participants completed online self-report measures.
Results:
EA was indirectly associated with burnout via positive and negative affect. EA was indirectly associated with wellbeing through positive affect, positive affect and burnout, and negative affect and burnout. Finally, EA was indirectly associated with PL via positive affect and burnout, and negative affect and burnout.
Conclusion:
Results provide support for the role of EA in officers' wellbeing and job performance via increasing negative affect and decreasing positive affect. This highlights the importance of interventions, such as acceptance and commitment therapy that target acceptance and psychological flexibility.
Background
Suicidal ideation (SI) is an early risk factor for suicide among disaster responders. To date, however, no known study has examined the prevalence, and pre-, peri-, and post-disaster risk correlates of SI in World Trade Center (WTC) responders, one of the largest disaster response populations in U.S. history.
Methods
The prevalence, and pre-, peri- and post-event correlates of SI were assessed in a population-based health monitoring cohort of 14,314 police responders and 16,389 non-traditional responders (e.g., construction workers) who engaged in response, recovery, and clean-up efforts following the 9/11/2001 terrorist attacks on the WTC. Multivariable analyses were conducted to identify correlates and individual psychiatric symptoms associated with SI in each group.
Results
A total 12.5% of non-traditional and 2.2% of police WTC responders reported SI. Depression, functional impairment, alcohol use problems, and lower family support while working at the WTC site were associated with SI in both groups of responders. Symptom-level analyses revealed that three symptoms accounted for more than half of the variance in SI for both groups—feeling bad about oneself, or that one has let down oneself or family; feeling down, depressed, or hopeless; and sense of foreshortened future.
Limitations
Use of self-report measures and potentially limited generalizability.
Conclusions
SI is prevalent in WTC disaster responders, particularly non-traditional responders. Post-9/11 psychiatric symptoms reflecting guilt, shame, hopelessness, and associated functional impairment are most strongly linked to SI, suggesting that interventions targeting these factors may help mitigate suicide risk in this population.
Despite a growing body of research, there is no systematic body of evidence that establishes the rigour of existing measures of stress among police. The aim of this scoping review was to investigate (1) the diversity of stress measures used in police research and (2) the psychometric properties of such measures and the ways in which they are utilised. The systematic literature search discovered 16,216 records, which were reduced to 442 records of relevance. A total of 20 qualitative and 422 quantitative studies were found to be relevant, including a total of 129 unique measures, of which the majority showed satisfactory reliability (Cronbach’s alpha ≥ 0.80). The identified measures pertain to four main categories: police-specific, perceived stress, psychological and physiological outcomes (including mood and affect changes), and assessment batteries. The measures have a general tendency to emphasise illness, and police-specific stressors pertain mostly to traditional police work. Measures should be chosen based on the aspect of the stress phenomenon that is to be investigated. This study provides detailed recommendations concerning how to use these measures to advance research concerning stress among police.
Policing in the USA has changed dramatically over the past two decades and the trials faced currently by officers are now more complex and challenging. There has been a significant increase in violence against officers, constant media coverage, continued exposure to trauma though crime and victimization, ongoing public criticism, the introduction of body-worn cameras, and the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic. Now compounded is the declining workforce lack of recruitment and increased movement toward retirement for many. Even though there are available resources to assist officers in recognizing, identifying, and managing personal issues and stress, there remains a significant need to raise awareness to prevent suicide and mental health trauma. Progress has been made in reducing the stigma for officers to seek help for mental health concerns, but the nature of police culture appears to be resistant to change and has had a difficult time adapting to certain recent societal demands. This chapter will serve as an overview and discussion of various stressors for law enforcement officers and the potential emotional, psychological, physiological, and relational consequences if not addressed may lead officers to suicidal ideation or even suicide. Practical suggestions are provided to prevent, mitigate, and reduce these issues, and best practices models are presented for consideration. These recommendations will help in bringing greater awareness and prevention to police suicide.
The purpose of this research study was to review the current literature on the prevalence of suicide deaths, attempts, and ideation, and resistance for seeking help among law enforcement officers by examining current suicide prevention programs among those that support the country's police officers. The exact number of law enforcement officer deaths by suicide is unknown due to inconsistent data collection practices. Approximate estimates range from being at or significantly above the national average; one study reported the rate of suicide to be twice the rate of officers who die in the line of duty, another study reported three times the rate and another reported to be eight times that of the general population. The inconclusive nature of the literature has made obtaining the number of officer suicide deaths challenging. A comprehensive examination of the law enforcement mental health and suicide prevention literature revealed a lack of consistency in reporting; a multitude of maladaptive behaviors; and a lack of adequate suicide prevention programing for this profession.
Police officers are exposed to many dangers on the job. Despite this, society may not intuitively consider officers to be victims. Research indicates officers experience various types of victimization on the job, and these victimizations can have direct and indirect physical, mental, and economic impacts on the officer. As a result of violent and nonviolent victimizations in the line of duty, there are negative consequences on officers' wellbeing. Despite this victimhood, police stories are not often headlined in the media, placed on political agendas, or discussed in local communities. Due to the lack of inclusion on these platforms, police officers are invisible victims. This chapter discusses how officers can be considered invisible victims and examines factors that address why society and officers themselves may not equate their experiences to victimization.
Introduction
First responders are at greater risk of mental ill health and compromised well-being compared to the general population. It is important to identify strategies that will be effective in supporting mental health, both during and after the first responder’s career.
Methods
A scoping review was conducted using the PubMed database (1966 to October 1, 2020) and the Google Scholar database (October 1, 2020) using relevant search terms, truncation symbols, and Boolean combination functions. The reference lists of all relevant publications were also reviewed to identify further publications.
Results
A total of 172 publications were retrieved by the combined search strategies. Of these, 56 met the inclusion criteria and informed the results of this overview paper. These publications identified that strategies supporting first responder mental health and well-being need to break down stigma and build resilience. Normalizing conversations around mental health is integral for increasing help-seeking behaviors, both during a first responder’s career and in retirement. Organizations should consider the implementation of both pre-retirement and post-retirement support strategies to improve mental health and well-being.
Conclusion
Strategies for supporting mental health and well-being need to be implemented early in the first responder career and reinforced throughout and into retirement. They should utilize holistic approaches which encourage “reaching in” rather than placing an onus on first responders to “reach out” when they are in crisis.
Law enforcement officers’ health and wellness is important at the individual and community levels in terms of maintaining a fit workforce to uphold the mission of public safety. The current study was designed to assess officer wellness across the U.S. From a nationally representative random sample of 1,135 local and state agencies, a random, probability-based sample of officers was selected, oversampling for female officers. Latent class analyses were conducted to assess wellness profiles based on a set of eleven physical, psychological, and behavioral health indicators for 2,232 officers. Personal and professional characteristics were included as auxiliary variables in models of the resulting classes. Results from this sample indicated that over two-thirds of officers fit a healthy profile, whereas one in four officers presents with moderate health concerns and nearly 6% are classified in a profile of broad health concerns. In this sample, sexual assault in childhood, greater exposure to critical incidents, working a current rotation schedule, and being female were characteristics associated with broad health concerns. Emotional and/or physical assault in childhood, greater exposure to critical incidents, and being female were characteristics associated with moderate health concerns, whereas older age and being Hispanic were protective factors. In sum, full-time sworn law enforcement officers across the U.S. are reasonably healthy but their exposures to stressful situations put them at increased risk particularly in terms of post-traumatic stress, risky drinking, and suicidality. These results are important for agency administrators and policymakers to consider in terms of wellness programs, prevention efforts and budget allocations.
Police face an increased risk of developing mental health problems, yet reliable estimates of their psychological difficulties remain unknown. This systematic review and meta-analysis estimate the pooled prevalence and risk factors for mental health problems among police personnel worldwide. Three independent reviewers searched 16 databases and screened 11 506 articles published between January 1980 and October 2019. Eligible studies involved at least 100 active police professionals and used validated instruments to ascertain specific mental health problems. Estimates were pooled using random-effects meta-analyses. In total, 60 cross-sectional and seven longitudinal studies, involving 272 463 police personnel from 24 countries met criteria for inclusion. The overall pooled point prevalence was 14.6% for depression (95% CI 10.9% to 18.6%), 14.2% for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; 95% CI 10.3% to 18.7%), 9.6% for a generalised anxiety disorder (95% CI 6.7% to 12.9%), 8.5% for suicidal ideation (95% CI 6.1% to 11.2%), 5.0% for alcohol dependence (95% CI 3.5% to 6.7%) and 25.7% for hazardous drinking (95% CI 19.6% to 32.4%). The strongest risk factor for depression and suicidal ideation was higher occupational stress, and the strongest risk factors for PTSD were higher occupational stress and avoidant coping strategies. Higher levels of peer-support were associated with significantly lower PTSD symptoms. Our findings suggest that the prevalence of mental health problems among police exceeds twice that previously reported in mixed samples of first responders, and is associated with poor social support, occupational stress and maladaptive coping strategies. Without effective intervention, psychological difficulties will remain a substantial health concern among police.
Background : The unpredictable, and sometimes dangerous, nature of the occupation exposes officers to both acute and chronic stress over law enforcement officers’ tenure. The purpose of this study is two-fold: 1) Describe multi-level characteristics that define high-stress calls for service for LEO; and 2) Characterize factors that impact cumulative stress over the course of a LEO’s shift.
Methods : Qualitative data were collected from 31 LEOs at three law enforcement agencies in the Dallas-Fort Worth areas from April 2019 to February 2020. Focus group data were iteratively coded by four coders using inductive and deductive thematic identification.
Results : Five multi-level factors influenced officer stress: 1) officer characteristics (e.g. military experience; gender); 2) civilian behavior (e.g. resistance, displaying a weapon); 3) supervisor factors (micromanagement); 4) environmental factors (e.g. time of year); and, 5) situational factors (e.g. audience present; complexity of calls). Four themes that characterized cumulative stress: 1) cyclical risk; 2) accelerators; 3) decelerators; and 4) experience of an adverse event.
Conclusions : LEOs become susceptible to adverse events (e.g. injury, excessive use of force) after repeated exposure to high-stress calls for service. If no adverse event occurs, ongoing exposures to stress continue to occur throughout the shift. Our long-term goal is to interrupt this repetitive, cumulative process by restricting the number of consecutive high-risk, high-intensity calls an officer is permitted to respond to.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to review current research on police officer mental health and to explore the reasons why police officers do not seek mental health treatment.
Design/methodology/approach
A comprehensive, systematic search of multiple academic databases (e.g. EBSCO Host) were used to identify studies conducted within the USA, identified definitions of first responders, identified the type of duty-related trauma expected by police officers, how influential stigma is amongst the police culture and what current intervention strategies are employed to assist police officer mental health wellness.
Findings
This research was conducted to identify police officer trauma-related mental health and the stigma behind seeking treatment. The research highlights job-related trauma and stress leads to the development of post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, substance use disorder and suicide or suicide ideation. The stigma behind seeking mental health treatment is associated with law enforcement organizations and environmental factors. Organizational factors include occupational stress characteristics such as day-to-day of the job and environmental factors such as abiding by social and law enforcement culture ideologies. Further research should be conducted to understand why law enforcing agencies and personnel are unknowingly promoting stigmas.
Originality/value
This is the most current meta-review of research examining the severity of mental health in police officers, the stigma behind acquiring treatment and innovative treatment approaches in police officer mental health. This study will provide a useful resource for those researchers interested in continuing to examine the different aspects of police officer mental health and how to potently approach innovative interventions to help law enforcement personals mental wellness thrive in a field where trauma is experienced daily.
Suicide is a serious public health problem that impacts individuals, families, communities, and law enforcement personnel. More than 42,000 completed suicides were counted in the United States in 2014. Suicide has long been a concern within law enforcement. In this chapter, the authors explore the current status of Law Enforcement Officer (LEO) suicide research and dispel the myth that officer suicides are dramatically higher than in the general population. We then review general information on suicide prevention, and supplement this general information with law enforcement-specific risk factors, warning signs, variables, tips, and recommendations for intervention and postvention. Additionally, we suggest a range of available resources for further consideration.
Previous studies have identified numerous correlates of police misconduct, but no study to date has examined the impact of prior misconduct on the likelihood of future misconduct. Using a population heterogeneity/state-dependence conceptual framework, this study explores the potential influence of low self-control and prior misconduct on future intentions to engage in misconduct among a multi-agency sample of 101 first-line police supervisors. Across three types of misconduct, the results demonstrate stronger support for the state-dependent effect of prior misconduct. Specific findings, policy implications, and directions for future research are discussed.
The current study surveyed members of an Australian state police service (N = 749), in order to assess what officers felt were the major contributing factors to alcohol consumption within the policing occupation. The study further examined which of these factors were actually predictive of risk of harmful drinking as measured by the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test-AUDIT (Saunders et al., 1993). Results showed that 30% of respondents were at risk of harm from excessive alcohol consumption. When asked to rate the importance of factors they felt contributed to their drinking, officers rated social factors such as celebration, and socializing with peers as the most important factors. However factors related to stress emerged as the most predictive of scores on the AUDIT. These findings highlight an often seen contradiction and have important implications for intervention strategies aimed at reducing alcohol consumption within the policing occupation. While officers appear to be drinking to reduce stress, they report drinking for social reasons, thus interventions must take into account the real impact of stress while dealing with social factors to give interventions face validity in the eyes of the officers they aim to help.
Objectives
The objectives of this research were to test the impacts of three shift lengths (8-, 10-, and 12-hour) on performance, health, safety, quality of life, sleep, fatigue, alertness, off-duty employment, and overtime among police.
Methods
This study consisted of a randomized block experimental design. There were 275 participating officers from two large police departments. Data were collected as part of a multi-site clinical trial for which we employed the same protocols in both sites. The blocks included site and time of day of the shift. Unique measures of work performance, safety, and fatigue were collected using laboratory-based simulations collected during the end of the shifts, and self-report instruments were used to capture other outcomes such as health and quality of life. The analysis model we employed was a block randomized ANCOVA in which the pre-test dependent measures served as the covariate.
Results
The results indicated that those working 10-hour shifts had a significantly higher quality of work life (f = .16) and averaged significantly more sleep (f = .19) than those on 8-hour shifts. Furthermore, those working 8-hour shifts averaged significantly more overtime (f = .42) than did those assigned to 10- and 12-hour shifts. In addition, officers working 12-hour shifts experienced greater levels of sleepiness (f = .20) and reported lower levels of alertness (f = .21) at work than officers on 8-hour shifts.
Conclusions
There do not appear to be any significant health, safety, or performance problems associated with compressed work week schedules in policing. Indeed, the implementation of 10-hour shifts may be a viable alternative to traditional 8-hour schedules considering the findings of this study. It is important to note that the benefits associated with 10-hour shifts did not inure to the 12-hour shifts. Although our study did not reveal any significant effects associated with objective measures of fatigue across shifts, the implementation of 12-hour shifts should be done only after careful consideration of some of the potential concerns. Limitations of this study include lack of information regarding the methods and costs associated with implementation of compressed schedules, and the low level of reliability for driving and shooting simulation exercises. Future research should examine the impact of overtime hours on fatigue, safety, and performance, and ways to more effectively regulate hours of work in policing.
Purpose: This study links General Strain Theory, criminal justice models of inmate adaptation, and life course stress models to examine (1) the influence of importation and deprivation strains on maternal health while imprisoned; and (2) the intergenerational consequences of maternal strains for child outcomes. Methods: Qualitative and quantitative data were gathered from an incarcerated sample of mothers in a Federal prison (n = 120). Qualitative data were used to identify strains in mothers' lives. Multivariate quantitative analyses were also conducted to test the associations of maternal importation and deprivation strains with maternal health problems and child subjective weathering, or a sense of growing up faster than one's peers. Results: The deprivation strain of a lack of contact with the mother's minor child is positively associated with her mental and physical health problems and children's subjective weathering. Maternal importation strains in the form of childhood traumas also increase mental health problems and subjective weathering. Conclusions: This study finds that maternal deprivation and importation strains are associated with mother and child adjustment. Reducing strains mothers face while imprisoned may benefit both inmates and families. Furthermore, deprivation strains are influential net of pre-imprisonment stressors.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to explore risk and protective factors associated with suicidal ideation among law enforcement personnel.
Design/methodology/approach
The methodology employed is based on the “Best Evidence Synthesis” approach, whereby researchers systematically examine and integrate the most empirically sound available research on the topic under investigation.
Findings
Results of studies showed that the interaction of multiple risk factors had a cumulative effect in increasing the risk for suicidal ideation. In total, five prominent aspects of policing were associated with risk for suicidal ideation: organizational stress; critical incident trauma; shift work; relationship problems; and alcohol use and abuse. Studies also indicated that protective factors and preventative measures had stress‐buffering effects which decreased the impact of police stressors.
Research limitations/implications
The model is limited because few studies have employed methodologically‐sound research designs to test risk and protective factors related to police suicide. This conceptual overview may facilitate theory development and provide directions for future research.
Practical implications
Law enforcement agencies which implement programs that assist police personnel in developing active coping styles, identify and access available social support systems, as well as utilize community‐based services may decrease risk for suicidal ideation. This review provides practical applications for law enforcement training, education, and program development.
Originality/value
The paper represents the most recent review of risk and protective factors related to suicidal ideation among police personnel. This integration of research provides police practitioners with an evidence‐based ecological framework that can be applied universally in police management settings.
This study estimates the effects of perceived work stress in police officers and determines the impact of coping on both perceived work stress and health. Officers from a large, urban police department (N = 1,072) completed detailed questionnaires. Exposure to critical incidents, workplace discrimination, lack of cooperation among coworkers, and job dissatisfaction correlated significantly with perceived work stress. Work stress was significantly associated with adverse outcomes, including depression and intimate partner abuse. Officers who relied on negative or avoidant coping mechanisms reported both higher levels of perceived work stress and adverse health outcomes. Results have implications for improving stress-reducing efforts among police officers. Interventions that address modifiable stressors and promote effective coping and resiliency will probably be most beneficial in minimizing police stress and associated outcomes.
Stress of police officers is assumed to be one of the causes for an increased use of force, but to date, very few studies have tested this relationship empirically. This study examines influences of perceived work-related stress, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and burnout on the use of force by police officers in Zurich, Switzerland (n = 422). A new approach is developed by including the officer's routine activities (herein referred to as job profile) and victimization experiences as two situational controls and by capturing a continuum of self-reported force used in typical operational situations. Although bivariate results show significant relationships between use of force and work stress, job satisfaction, commitment, and burnout, multivariate analyses using structural equation models show no influence of stress-related factors on the amount of force. The job profile remains the only predictor of police use of force, whereas victimization is strongly correlated with use of force.
Experiencing acute stress is inherent in police work. The inability to cope effectively with stressful events can result in undesirable psychological and somatic outcomes, leading to chronic stress, burnout, and quitting the profession. Surprisingly, however, understanding the coping process in police stress and identifying effective coping strategies in response to stressful events has received only scant attention in the research literature. The purposes of this article are (a) to review the coping process in police stress, (b) to identify adaptive and maladaptive coping styles in police work, and (c) to suggest coping strategies that reflect the coping model to reduce both chronic and acute forms of stress and to improve job satisfaction and performance among police officers. The model consists of officers' detection of stressful events or stimuli, their cognitive appraisal of the events or stimuli, and their application of approach- or avoidance-coping dimensions, and cognitive- and behavioral-coping subdimensions.
Using Agnew's general strain theory (GST) as a theoretical framework, we make an argument that health problems are sources of strain that influence substance use. Health strain's influence on the initiation and frequency of substance use is then empirically investigated using two waves of data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health). Results from logistic and zero inflated negative binomial (ZINB) regression models show that health related strains affect the initiation of marijuana, cocaine, and other drug use, but were inconsistently associated with the frequency of use of these substances. Adolescents with more frequent minor health problems experience greater levels of strain and may choose to cope with this strain through abusing both licit and illicit substances. In some instances negative affect mediates the effects of health strain on initiation and frequency of use. Study limitations and future directions for research on health strain are discussed.
This study examined the relationships of social stressors arising from interactions with civilians and suspects (outsiders) and coworkers and supervisors (insiders) with turnover intention, psychological distress, and emotional exhaustion. It also examined surface acting—a way of faking appropriate emotions—as a mediator of these relationships. Using online survey data collected from 196 police officers, the authors found that social stressors from both sources were related to all three outcomes and that surface acting mediated these relationships. These results extend the literature on emotional labor by demonstrating that models of emotional labor apply to police officers, whose customers differ from those traditionally found in the literature. This study also extends the occupational stress literature by showing that a similar emotional regulation process linking social stressors from customers to strains also holds for social stressors arising from organizational insiders.
The objective of this study is to determine whether suicide ideation among uniformed police officers of the South African Police Service could be predicted on the basis of occupational stress, personality traits, and coping strategies. Using a cross-sectional survey design, the Adult Suicide Ideation Questionnaire, the Police Stress Inventory, the Personality Characteristics Inventory, and the Coping Orientation to Problems Experienced are administered to a stratified random sample of 1,794 police employees from eight South African provinces. A logistic regression analysis shows that low scores on conscientiousness, emotional stability, approach coping, and turning to religion as well as high scores on avoidance coping are associated with more suicide ideation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved) (journal abstract)
For reasons of cost and ease of implementation, mail surveys are more frequently used for social research than are either telephone or face-to-face interviews. In this chapter, the last two decades of research aimed at improving mail survey methods are examined. Discussion of this research is organized around progress made in overcoming four important sources of error: sampling , noncoverage, measurement, and nonresponse. Progress has been especially great in improving response rates as a means of reducing nonresponse error. Significant progress has also been made in finding means of overcoming measurement error. Because mail surveys generally present few, if any, special sampling error problems, little research in this area has been conducted. The lack of research on noncoverage issues is a major deficiency in research to date , and noncoverage error presents the most significant impediment to the increased use of mail surveys. The 1990s are likely to see increased research on mail surveys, as efforts ar...
This paper argues that police members from all ranks possess potential to challenge the beliefs and meanings that inform their daily practices, and are able to alter their routines when innovative practice and new ideas assist them in responding to new dilemmas. The paper suggests that both scholars and practitioners pay insufficient attention to nurturing rank-and-file police as change agents and to building their capacity as knowledge workers and ideas generators in forging change. In response to this gap, the paper discusses the Nexus Policing Project in Victoria, Australia, which is based on a police–university partnership aimed at realising new ways of seeing and doing in the field of policing. The participatory action research method is utilised as a way of overcoming the traditional gap between research and practice. The paper discusses some of the challenges associated with this kind of collaborative endeavour.
Many criminologists doubt that the dosage of uniformed police patrol causes any measurable difference in crime. This article reports a one-year randomized trial in Minneapolis of increases in patrol dosage at 55 of 110 crime “hot spots,” monitored by 7,542 hours of systematic observations. The experimental group received, on average, twice as much observed patrol presence, although the ratio displayed wide seasonal fluctuation. Reductions in total crime calls ranged from 6 percent to 13 percent. Observed disorder was only half as prevalent in experimental as in control hot spots. We conclude that substantial increases in police patrol presence can indeed cause modest reductions in crime and more impressive reductions in disorder within high crime locations.
This study explores the impact of work environment, work-family conflict, and coping mechanisms on physical and psychological stresses of police officers. Using survey data from a large police department located in the New England area, we pay specific attention to analyzing similar and dissimilar results while comparing across gender groups. Our research indicates that for both gender groups, work-family conflict (spillover) and destructive coping mechanisms are among the strongest and most consistent stressors, regardless of the measures of dependent variable employed (i.e. somatization, anxiety and depression). On the other hand, we also find divergent impact of exposures to negative work environment, camaraderie, and constructive coping mechanisms on different measures of work related stresses across the two gender groups. Implications of these convergent and divergent effects are discussed.
Although numerous studies have attempted to understand the causes of various forms of police misconduct, there is still no clear theoretical explanation of police misbehavior. Akers' social learning theory posits that peer associations, attitudes, reinforcement, and modeling are predictors of delinquency and crime in general. With this article, we seek to determine if the theory can account for police deviance. Data from a random sample of Philadelphia police officers are used to examine how officer attitudes and perceptions of peer behavior are related to citizen complaints of police misconduct. Findings suggest that social learning theory provides a useful explanation of police misconduct. Police misconduct rears its ugly head in American cities sev-eral times each decade when a high profile case exposes the often hidden phenomenon. Certain forms of police abuse are considered to be among the most serious human rights viola-tions (Human Rights Watch 1998). However, there is a lack Received 4 May 2003; accepted 25 July 2003. We thank Ron Akers and reviewers for helpful comments on earlier drafts.
Baron and Kenny's procedure for determining if an independent variable affects a dependent variable through some mediator is so well known that it is used by authors and requested by reviewers almost reflexively. Many research projects have been terminated early in a research program or later in the review process because the data did not conform to Baron and Kenny's criteria, impeding theoretical development. While the technical literature has disputed some of Baron and Kenny's tests, this literature has not diffused to practicing researchers. We present a nontechnical summary of the flaws in the Baron and Kenny logic, some of which have not been previously noted. We provide a decision tree and a step-by-step procedure for testing mediation, classifying its type, and interpreting the implications of findings for theory building and future research. M any a research project has stalled in the starting gate or staggered at the finish line because the data did not conform to Baron and Kenny's (1986) criteria for es-tablishing mediation. Advisors tell their graduate students to start by establishing a basic effect. "Once you have the effect, then you can look for mediation." But after the first couple of tries, if the effect is not found, the project is abandoned. Other researchers find the effects they hy-pothesized, and they propound a mediational account, but they struggle in the review process when it becomes clear Xinshu Zhao is professor and director, Center for Research in Jour-nalism and Mass Communication, University of North Carolina and chair professor and dean, School of Communication, Hong Kong Baptist Uni-versity (zhao@unc.edu). Wood, and seminar participants at Duke University for their assistance and comments. The authors also wish to thank Jon James for research assistance on simulations. Any errors or omissions are the authors'.
This manuscript reports on three studies that utilized five different samples (N = 1211) to construct and validate a multidimensional measure of work–family conflict. The six dimensions of conflict measured include the combination of three forms of work–family conflict (time, strain, and behavior) and two directions of work–family conflict (work interference with family and family interference with work). The three studies assessed the content adequacy, dimensionality, reliability, factor structure invariance, and construct validity of the scale. The design of the final scale provides future researchers the flexibility to measure any of the six dimensions of work–family conflict individually.
Psychological research involving scale construction has been hindered considerably by a widespread lack of understanding of coefficient alpha and reliability theory in general. A discussion of the assumptions and meaning of coefficient alpha is presented. This discussion is followed by a demonstration of the effects of test length and dimensionality on alpha by calculating the statistic for hypothetical tests with varying numbers of items, numbers of orthogonal dimensions, and average item intercorrelations. Recommendations for the proper use of coefficient alpha are offered.
Historically, research on gender differences in police work has focused on whether women can “hold their own” in the male-dominated profession of policing. This body of research has undergone a shift from examining whether women can do the job, to how women do the job differently. This topic is intertwined with the increased use of community policing and recognition of the importance of officers having strong “people” skills and the ability to work with citizens. This paper focuses on how male and female officers respond to citizens differently in terms of providing comfort. Results from this analysis indicate that neither officer attitude nor behavior is dictated by officer sex. Rather, other important variables interact with sex to explain attitude and behavior. In addition, situational factors are most important in determining officer behavior. Officer attitude about citizens is not related to officers providing comfort to citizens.
Purpose: The purpose of the current study was to assess sex offender recidivism in the context of General Strain Theory (GST). Methods: Surveys were mailed to 3.506 sex offenders with (N = 939) in Nebraska, (N = 1,850) in Kansas and (N=717) in Montana. Questions related to strain associated with registration and community notification, anger, depression, and criminal behavior were asked. OLS Regression was utilized to predict overall recidivism, as well as sex, violent, drug, and property recidivism. Results: Findings suggest that GST is supported when analyzing recidivism. Conclusions: In the context of these findings, policymakers would do well to reexamine the broad use of registration and community notification laws.
Agnew's (1992) General Strain Theory (GST) is one of the more recent advances in criminological theory. This study explores the generality of GST using a sample of 596 Baltimore, Maryland male police officers that variably report engaging in domestic forms of violence. Logistic and OLS regression analyses indicate that occupational strain has an indirect relationship with domestic violence through negative affective measures of anger and depression. Strain/negative affect-alleviating factors, i.e., social support and spiritual coping, did not have an effect on domestic violence. Overall, the relationships among variables lend support for the theory even when controls are considered. Limitations of the study and directions for future research on GST and police officer strain are discussed.
Although police misconduct has interested policing scholars for many years, extant research has been largely atheoretical and has ignored the role of organizational justice in understanding the behavior. This study uses survey data from a random sample of 483 police officers employed in the Philadelphia Police Department to explore the role of organizational justice in police misconduct. Results indicate that officers who view their agency as fair and just in managerial practices are less likely to adhere to the code of silence or believe that police corruption in pursuit of a noble cause is justified. Furthermore, perceptions of organizational justice are associated with lower levels of engagement in several forms of police misconduct. The results suggest that organizational justice is a promising framework to understand police misconduct and may help guide police administrators in the implementation of effective management strategies to reduce the incidence of the behavior.
This study applies Agnew's general strain theory (GST) to two fundamental questions about gender and crime: (1) How can we explain the higher rate of crime among males? (2) How can we explain why females engage in crime? With respect to the first question, the authors suggest that gender differences in types of strain and the reaction to strain help one understand the gender gap in criminal behavior. With respect to the second question, it is argued that several types of strain may lead to female crime under the proper circumstances. In this area, GST has much in common with numerous accounts that explain female crime in terms of oppression.
Police work involves substantial emotional labor by officers, who must control their own emotional displays and those of citizens, who often are encountered at their worst—injured, upset, or angry. Although policing often is viewed as masculine work that focuses on fighting crime, it also requires that officers maintain order and provide diverse services, which officers tend to disdain as feminine activities. This article explores the varieties of emotional labor, the rules regulating emotional displays in policing, and the role of gender in shaping these occupational and organizational norms. It identifies variations in the norms regulating emotional labor across policing assignments, interactional situations, and the gender of both the officers and the citizens in an encounter. It also reviews coping mechanisms for regulating emotions—including socialization, organizational rituals, humor, and off-duty social activities—and the dilemmas that norms related to emotional labor pose for women officers.
Dans cet article, les AA. s'interessent a la methodologie d'enquete par questionnaire utilisant Internet et les mails comme contact avec les enquetes. Les AA. comparent ici les methodes d'approches postales et telephoniques a l'approche electronique, et analysent les taux de reponses par mails. Il ressort ici que les techniques eprouvees et efficaces d'approches postales et telephoniques ne correspondent pas aux utlisateurs de mails et de spams, et remettent en question la validite des enquetes electroniques
In this paper we identify a number of strategies that police officers use to cope with stress caused by problems in the workplace. We also compare coping strategies for gender and racial groups, and link differences to level of stress. Extensive observational data and a survey of 1,087 police officers in 24 departments were used to address the research questions. We found that African-Americans rely more strongly than Caucasians on bonds with other minorities, and that Caucasian officers more often use expression of feelings, trying to get others to like them, and camaraderie with coworkers. Women cope with stress by using escape and by keeping written records more often than men. The data also suggest that an officer's stress-level group depends on the coping strategies he or she uses. Implications for future research are discussed, as are programs to help police develop effective strategies for coping with workplace problems.
A key criminological observation is the overrepresentation of minorities—especially African Americans—in the criminal justice system. Whether this difference is due to differential enforcement by the criminal justice system, differential participation by individuals, or some combination of these two perspectives is a source of much debate and controversy. Unfortunately, few theories have been developed and/or extended to understand race differences in crime. This article applies Agnew’s General Strain Theory (GST) as one potentially useful framework. Results indicate that GST variables operated as expected across the different models and that significant differences did emerge across racial groups. Theoretical implications and future research directions are highlighted.
There may well be a decline in the overall crime rate in the USA, but violent and other crimes in cities are still prevalent, suggesting a need to develop improvements that may reduce crime even more. Confusion exists about the causes, promotion, and mitigation of crime in cities. Fear and types of crimes in urban areas seem to play an important role in influencing people's decisions in choosing where to live. This study reviews comprehensive sets of indicators composed of those variables consistently stated in the literature that affect an individual's sense of safety and security in cities - suggesting that physical components of urban environments make a significant contribution to the variation in violent offenses within cities over and above the contributions made by either the social and economic variables. Correlations between criminal offenses, physical attributes, race, gender, income, population densities, and other variables are considered.
Police officers encounter numerous stressors as part of their professional duties. Dissociation, the splitting off from awareness thoughts, feelings, or memories of stressful events, is one psychological defense associated with avoidance of emotionally painful material. In this study, dissociation, stressful or traumatic experiences, and psychological adjustment were measured in a sample of police officers. Stress was not directly associated with psychological adjustment, but increased stress did predict increased dissociation. Increased dissociation was associated with poorer adjustment. These data suggest that it is not the stressors themselves but officers' manner of coping with them that determine psychological adjustment.
Purpose
Expanding on earlier research, this paper aims to develop a more complete understanding of military experience as it relates to stress and burnout in law enforcement. The current study examines whether influences on stress and burnout vary between officers with military experience and officers without a military background.
Design/methodology/approach
Data for this study were obtained from earlier research on police staff at a Northeastern metropolitan city. A combination of analytic methods, including t ‐tests and multivariate regression analysis, were used to explore the effects of variables on stress and burnout among military and non‐military officers.
Findings
The results indicate that negative exposures to demanding events influenced burnout for all officers. In contrast, negative exposures affected stress levels for those officers with no military experience. Coping techniques were important predictors of stress and burnout for both groups; however, contrary to expectations, police experience in years was not significant in any model. Demographic controls had no influence on stress and burnout for either group, with the exception of gender, which was a significant predictor of stress only for the non‐military group.
Research limitations/implications
This research has implications for police departments interested in developing group‐based strategies for reducing stress and burnout among officers. The findings are limited in their capacity for wide geographical generalization, however, because this study represents the views of only one department.
Originality/value
In contrast with previous empirical work, the findings here demonstrate that military experience can have a favorable influence on the work outcomes of police officers. This study suggests that officers with military backgrounds are less stressed when faced with demanding situations and that military experience provides female officers with an edge in handling work‐related stressors.
This paper explores the range of personal, occupational, psychological, and social characteristics of police officers who commit suicide, based on a study conducted in the Australian State of New South Wales. Police officers are drawn from a population where mental and physical illness are minimal, at least at the point of recruitment. Even so, they have higher than anticipated rates of suicide although many agencies fail to keep proper records on the subject because of the stigma involved, possible insurance claims, and allied issues. Police community approaches and supportive clinical care are essential strategies in any attempt to reduce the incidence of suicide among police officers.
The present research involves surveying police officers from ten police departments (N = 2,316) to determine if the size of the agency affects police stress ratings. Nine stress scales, as well as demographic and police career variables, were examined to identify possible relationships. Administrative stress was ranked as the most stressful, regardless of agency size, however, officers from larger police departments did report higher stress ratings on some scales. Policy implications are discussed.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to highlight the stressors involved in an occupation at potential risk – the profession of law enforcement.
Design/methodology/approach
– The paper reviews the history of police stress studies. It describes prevention and treatment programs that have unfortunately not been sufficiently utilized because of the police culture.
Findings
– The documented symptoms of stress include digestive orders, cardiovascular diseas, alcoholism, domestic violence, post‐traumatic stress disorder, depression and suicide. While some police officers start their careers in excellent physical health, some retire early or even die from job‐related stress disorders if the cumulative impact of stress exacts its toll.
Originality/value
– The paper offers a description of COP.2.COP a confidential hotline for officers and their families staffed by retired officers and licensed professionals.
The purpose of this study is to examine the perceptions of Texas female police officers toward their colleagues. Further, the study measures respondents’ perceptions regarding work-related stress. An independent sample t-test analysis was conducted while controlling for the percentage of female officers working at participating Texas law enforcement agencies. Overall, the findings suggest that the percentage of female officers employed in a particular law enforcement agency did not produce a statistically significant impact on respondents’ perceptions of their male/female counterparts or stress-related issues.
Purpose
The objectives of this paper are to examine national police suicide rates, to compare police suicides with fire‐fighters and military personnel, and to examine suicide in women and minority officers.
Design/methodology/approach
The National Occupational Mortality Surveillance (NOMS) (1984‐1998) was used as a data source. Descriptive statistics and proportionate mortality ratios (PMRs) were calculated.
Findings
Overall, the police suicide rate was four times that of fire‐fighters. Minority officers had 4.5 times and policewomen 12 times the number of suicides than did fire‐fighters. Police suicides outnumbered homicides by 2.36 times. Police had significantly higher than expected PMRs for suicide.
Research limitations/implications
NOMS data are presently available up to 1998, and data in the study are descriptive only. Although suggestive of risk, statistically significantly elevated PMRs cannot be interpreted directly as indicating a causal relationship between police work and suicide. Confounders are not recorded in NOMS and may lend considerable weight to suicide.
Practical implications
The paper reflects the need to look deeper into police suicides and their root causes. Police organizations are advised to initiate suicide awareness training and psychological assistance to officers.
Originality/value
The paper is among the first nationally to compare suicide among similar hazardous occupations, suggesting the need for prevention.