Content uploaded by Leonard Reinecke
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Leonard Reinecke on Apr 25, 2016
Content may be subject to copyright.
RAPID COMMUNICATION
Games at Work: The Recreational Use
of Computer Games During Working Hours
Leonard Reinecke, M.Sc.
Abstract
The present study investigated the recreational use of video and computer games in the workplace. In an online
survey, 833 employed users of online casual games reported on their use of computer games during working
hours. The data indicate that playing computer games in the workplace elicits substantial levels of recovery
experience. Recovery experience associated with gameplay was the strongest predictor for the use of games in
the workplace. Furthermore, individuals with higher levels of work-related fatigue reported stronger recovery
experience during gameplay and showed a higher tendency to play games during working hours than did
persons with lower levels of work strain. Additionally, the social situation at work was found to have a
significant influence on the use of games. Persons receiving less social support from colleagues and supervisors
played games at work more frequently than did individuals with higher levels of social support. Furthermore,
job control was positively related to the use of games at work. In sum, the results of the present study illustrate
that computer games have a significant recovery potential. Implications of these findings for research on per-
sonal computer use during work and for games research in general are discussed.
Introduction
With the growing accessibility of information tech-
nology in the workplace, the personal use of corporate
computers during working hours, sometimes called ‘‘cyber-
slacking,’’
1
is a growing concern for employers and researchers
alike. Frequently, the personal use of work computers is con-
sidered a form of organizational deviance,
2
and previous re-
search has focused primarily on the potential negative effects
of cyberslacking in the workplace.
2,3
Although some re-
searchers have noted that the personal use of computers in the
workplace is not necessarily destructive
4
and might even have
beneficial effects, such as job satisfaction or recreation from
stress, fatigue, and boredom,
1,2,5,6
the personal use of work
computers as a recreational activity has not received much
attention yet. While previous research has focused primarily
on the personal use of the Internet in the workplace,
1–3
the
present research focuses on the use of computer games during
work.
Several aspects lend support to the assumption that com-
puter games may fulfill the function of recreation and recov-
ery from stress and strain in the workplace. Especially, casual
games, downloadable computer games with small file size or
online games that are launched from a Web site and played
via the user’s Web browser, are played by many office
workers to unwind and to escape stress.
7
Recent experimental
data suggest that playing games after a demanding task might
help to improve cognitive performance and concentration.
8
Consequently, playing computer games during working
hours might provide an effective means of recuperation.
Computer Games and the Recovery Process
During working hours, individuals are constantly con-
fronted with tasks that demand their concentration and at-
tention. The energy expenditure associated with these mental
and physical efforts leads to strain reactions and psycholog-
ical and physiological fatigue.
9
Recovery, in contrast, is the
process opposite to the strain process and leads to the resto-
ration of depleted ressources.
10
Based on previous research
on the recovery process, Sonnentag and Fritz
10
identified four
central dimensions that are crucial for successful recovery: (a)
psychological detachment from work: mental disengagement
from negative reflections on work-related issues; (b) relaxa-
tion: returning to baseline levels of psychological and physi-
ological arousal; (c) mastery experiences: building up internal
resources (e.g., new competencies and self-efficacy) through
challenging activities during off-job time; and (d) control: in-
creasing psychological well-being by experiencing personal
control during leisure time.
Results of research on computer games suggest that
playing games might contribute to these dimensions of the
Hamburg Media School, University of Hamburg, Germany.
CYBERPSYCHOLOGY &BEHAVIOR
Volume 12, Number 4, 2009
ªMary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089=cpb.2009.0010
461
recovery process for several reasons. Games put high cogni-
tive demands on users and are a highly immersive media
environment.
11
Consequently, they have a high ‘‘intervention
potential’’
12
and are able to absorb users and to focus their
attention. Media messages with a high intervention potential
help to stop negative cognitions and ruminations, provide
relief from stress, and thereby lead to feelings of relaxation.
13
Additionally, games offer the opportunity to try out new roles
and identities and to explore fictional worlds.
14
Hence, the
content and narratives of games provide the opportunity to
escape stress, problems, and negative feelings. This supports
the assumption that games have a positive influence on the
recovery process by facilitating psychological detachment
and relaxation. The gaming experience also shows connec-
tions to the recovery facets of mastery and control. Users of
video and computer games can actively influence the narra-
tive and the progress of events in a game.
11,15
Consequently,
computer games elicit the experience of effectance, giving
users the impression that they have an effect on the gaming
environment.
15
After acquiring the necessary skills to succeed
in the game, players are rewarded with a series of local
achievements, which leads to a feeling of mastery of the
game.
11,15
In sum, players have the chance to exert control
over the gaming environment and to keep track of their
achievements in the game. Increasing gaming performance
and the rewarding experience of coping with the growing
demands of the game are likely to contribute to a feeling of
mastery and control.
11,15
As working activities lead to energy expenditure and
work-related fatigue,
9
the recovery potential of video and
computer games presumably makes playing games an at-
tractive recreational activity during working hours. The
attractiveness of playing games to receive release from work-
related fatigue is likely to increase in relation to the subjective
recovery experience a person associates with gameplay. Ac-
cordingly, individuals who associate higher levels of recov-
ery experience with playing computer games at work are
expected to show a higher tendency to use games during
working hours:
H1: The subjective recovery experience associated with
gameplay at work is positively related to the use of computer
games in the workplace.
Apart from the general recovery potential of games, a
person’s individual situation is likely to influence the recov-
ery experience associated with games. Individuals differ
substantially in the working demands they face and the levels
of work-related fatigue resulting from their job-related stress
levels.
16
Consequently, recreational activities and recovery
can be expected to have a high priority for individuals suf-
fering from high levels of work-related fatigue. At the same
time, beneficial effects of games on recovery should be more
salient to individuals who have higher levels of work-related
fatigue. Therefore, individuals with high levels of work-
related fatigue are expected to have a stronger recovery ex-
perience when playing games and show a higher tendency to
play games during working hours than individuals with
lower levels of work-related fatigue:
H2: Work-related fatigue is positively related to the recovery
experience associated with playing computer games in the
workplace.
H3: Work-related fatigue is positively related to the use of
computer games in the workplace.
Recuperation from strain and fatigue is facilitated by a
variety of resources, and social support has been identified as
one of the most effective coping resources.
17,18
Social support
facilitates coping and can function as a buffer that moderates
the impact of stress and strain.
17,18
Individuals with deficits in
social support are forced to rely on other coping resources
when facing stress-inducing situations at work. In this case,
computer games might serve as an alternative resource that
facilitates recovery. Consequently, playing computer games
at work and the resulting recovery experience presumably
are more attractive to individuals with lower levels of social
support at the workplace than for persons who receive more
support from colleagues and supervisors:
H4: Social support is negatively related to the use of
computer games at work.
Different work settings provide very different levels of job
control. Job control refers to an individual’s opportunity to
decide about the schedule of work and to select different
strategies or methods to work on job tasks.
19
Consequently,
employees with higher levels of job control are better able to
decide when to take a break from work and to choose rec-
reational activities that best meet their recovery needs. For
such individuals, it might be easier to use computer games for
recovery purposes than it is for individuals who have very
limited control on the timing and sequence of their working
tasks:
H5: Job control is positively related to the use of computer
games at the workplace.
Method
Participants
Ten thousand German users of the online gaming portal
GameDuell were invited via e-mail to participate in an online
survey on the use of computer games during working hours.
GameDuell operates in the United States as well as in several
European countries and provides a wide variety of casual
games that can be played online via the user’s browser. The
online questionnaire was accessible from July 17, 2008, to
August 8, 2008. A total of 1,212 participants completed the
survey. Completing the questionnaire took about 15 minutes.
Participants received a 5 Euro gift certificate that could be
redeemed at the GameDuell Web site. The cases of 379 par-
ticipants were excluded from data analysis because they were
unoccupied at the time of the survey. All data analyses re-
ported here are based on the remaining 833 participants. The
sample comprised 387 men (46.5%) and 446 women (53.5%).
Their ages ranged from 16 to 66 years (M¼35.1; SD ¼9.9).
Measures
Use of computer games during working hours. Partici-
pants estimated how frequently they play video and com-
puter games during working hours on a scale from 1, never,
to 6, daily. Five additional items assessed the use of games
in different stress-evoking or tiring situations (e.g., ‘‘after an
462 REINECKE
exhausting task’’ or ‘‘when you are under stress’’) during
working hours on a scale ranging from 1, never,to5,very
frequently, (Cronbach’s a¼0.86). The general frequency of
game use during working hours and the frequency of game-
play after stress and strain during work were highly corre-
lated (r¼0.77, p<0.01). Therefore, in the structural equation
models, both measures were combined to form a single index
of playing in the workplace (Cronbach’s a¼0.88).
Recovery experience associated with computer game play
at work. Participants responded to the four subscales (psy-
chological detachment, relaxation, mastery, and control) of
the Recovery Experience Questionnaire.
10
Participants were
instructed to rate the 16 items with regard to their recovery
experience when playing games at work (e.g., ‘‘When I play
video or computer games during working hours I forget
about work’’) on a 5-point scale, ranging from 1, does not apply
at all,to5does fully apply (Cronbach’s alphas: psychological
detachment: a¼0.74, relaxation: a¼0.80, mastery: a¼0.85,
control: a¼0.84). The scale was presented only to partici-
pants who reported using computer games during working
hours at least sometimes.
Job control. The job control subscale of the Short Ques-
tionnaire for Job Analysis
20
was used to measure job control.
Participants responded to three items (e.g., ‘‘How much in-
fluence do you have on the work which is assigned to you?’’)
on a 5-point scale ranging from 1, very little,to5,very much
(Cronbach’s a¼0.80).
Social support at work. Participants responded to the
three items (e.g., ‘‘I can count on my colleagues if there is a
difficult situation at work’’) of the social support subscale of
the Short Questionnaire for Job Analysis
20
on a 5-point scale
ranging from 1, does not apply at all,to5,does fully apply
(Cronbach’s a¼0.79).
Work-related fatigue. The Need for Recovery Scale
16
was
used to measure participants’ chronic level of work-related
fatigue. Participants rated the 11 items (e.g., ‘‘By the end of the
working day, I feel really worn out’’) on a 4-point scale from 1,
never,to4,always (Cronbach’s a¼0.87).
Results
Participants worked in a variety of different fields (e.g.,
retail, 15.73%; medicine and healthcare, 9.60%; or media and
communication, 5.40%) and reported an average working
time of 37.6 hours per week (SD ¼12.8 hours). On average,
participants reported considerable levels of job control
(M¼3.64; SD ¼0.99) and social support in the workplace
(M¼3.73; SD ¼1.04) and moderate levels of work-related
fatigue (M¼2.05, SD ¼0.51). Three hundred eighty-eight
participants (46.6%) reported playing games during working
hours: daily, 10.0%; several times a week, 15.5%; once a
week, 7.0%; once per month, 3.6%; less than once per month,
10.6%. Participants who play computer games during
working hours associated substantial levels of recovery ex-
perience with playing computer games at work (M¼2.93,
SD ¼0.85) and make moderate use of computer games after
stressful and exhausting situations (M¼2.33, SD ¼0.94).
All hypotheses were tested with structural equation mod-
els computed with AMOS 7.0. In a first model, H1 and H2
were addressed. The four latent dimensions of recovery
experience were each estimated based on the four items of the
respective subscales of the Recovery Experience Ques-
tionnaire.
10
These four latent constructs were then used to
estimate the second-order factor recovery experience. As the
Recovery Experience Questionnaire was presented only to
participants who play computer games in the workplace, all
other participants (n¼445) who never play during working
hours were excluded. Consequently, the model testing H1
and H2 is based on the data of the remaining 388 participants.
The 11 items of the Need for Recovery Scale were used to
estimate the latent construct of work-related fatigue.
16
The
latent construct of the use of computer games at work was
estimate from the six items described in the method section.
The model fit the data well, w
2
(489) ¼1055.20, p<0.001, root-
mean-squared error of approximation (RMSEA) ¼0.055. Fig-
ure 1 presents the standardized beta coefficients representing
the statistical relationships outlined in H1 and H2. As pre-
dicted in H1, recovery experience associated with gameplay
at work showed a strong positive relation to the use of games
during working hours (b¼0.63, p<0.001). The stronger the
recovery experience that an individual gains through the use
of games, the more often games are played in the workplace.
Furthermore, as predicted in H2, work-related fatigue was
significantly related to recovery experience associated with
playing games during working hours (b¼0.28, p<0.001).
H3, H4, and H5 were tested in a second model based on the
data of all 833 participants. Items used to estimate the use of
games during working hours and job-related fatigue were the
same as in the first model. Social support at work and job
control were measured with three items of the respective
subscales of the Short Questionnaire for Job Analysis.
20
The
model fit the data well: w
2
(227) ¼737.44, p<0.001, RMSEA ¼
0.052. Figure 1 presents the standardized beta coefficients
representing the statistical relationships outlined in H3, H4,
and H5. As predicted in H3, individuals with higher levels of
work-related fatigue showed a stronger tendency to play
computer games during working hours than did persons
with lower levels of work-related fatigue (b¼0.12, p<0.01).
As predicted in H4, social support from colleagues and su-
pervisors was negatively related to playing games in the
workplace (b¼0.10, p<0.01). Accordingly, individuals
who received more social support at work used video and
computer games less frequently during working hours than
did persons who reported lower levels of support from col-
leagues and supervisors. Finally, as predicted in H5, job
control showed a positive statistical relationship to the use of
games at work (b¼0.18, p<0.001).
Discussion
The aim of this study was to investigate the recovery po-
tential of computer games during working hours. It was
predicted that video and computer games elicit four different
aspects of recovery experience: psychological detachment,
relaxation, mastery, and control. This basic assumption was
confirmed by the data. Participants who play computer
games during working hours associated substantial levels of
recovery experience with this activity. Furthermore, as was
predicted in H1, recovery experience was a strong predictor
for the use of computer games during working hours. The
data gathered in this study revealed that, as predicted, the
GAMES AT WORK 463
relevance of playing games for recovery purposes depends on
a number of individual factors. First of all, the individual’s
level of work-related fatigue had an influence on the use of
games at work. As predicted in H2 and H3, higher levels of
work-related fatigue were related to higher levels of recovery
experience during gameplay as well as a higher tendency to
play games at the workplace. The social situation at work was
another significant predictor of playing games. Social support
is an important coping resource and facilitates recovery.
Individuals who lack this support have to rely on other
coping resources when facing work-related fatigue. The re-
sults of this study illustrate that video and computer games
might be such an alternative resource: individuals who re-
ceive less social support from their colleagues and supervi-
sors showed a stronger tendency to play games at work than
did persons who receive more social support in the work-
place. Finally, the structure and organization of work also
had an influence on the use of games during working hours.
As predicted in H5, job control was positively related to
playing games at work. Persons who have more influence on
the timing and sequence of their work are better able to
choose a recovery activity that best fits their recovery needs,
such as playing computer games.
The present study extends existing research on personal
computer use at work by applying psychological recovery
theories to this field of research. Whereas previous studies
have frequently focused on counterproductive or at least
nonproductive forms of personal media use during work,
2,3
the results of the present study support the notion that per-
sonal computer use at work may have positive effects on
employees’ psychological state. Of course, the results of this
study do not imply that negative effects of the use of games at
work do not exist. Computer games demand high concen-
tration from the player.
11
After long gaming sessions, the
resources consumed to play the game might exceed the re-
covery effect of the gaming experience. Hence, instead of fa-
cilitating recovery, prolonged gameplay may have the
opposite effect and may even increase exhaustion. Frequent
and prolonged playing could also cause conflicts with col-
leagues and supervisors. These potentially harmful effects of
playing games at work have to be investigated in future
studies. The present research nevertheless demonstrates the
usefulness of the recovery concept for research on video
and computer games. Future studies must go beyond the
recovery potential of games in the workplace and address
whether playing games may facilitate recovery from stress
FIG. 1. Two structural equation models were estimated to test the five hypotheses. Model 1 (w
2
(489) ¼1055.20, p<0.001,
RMSEA ¼0.055) tested the relationship between recovery experience and the use of games at work (H1) and job-related
fatigue (H2). Recovery experience was measured only for participants who play computer games at work (n¼388); the
remaining participants (n¼445) were excluded from data analysis for this model. Model 2 (w
2
(227) ¼737.44, p<0.001,
RMSEA ¼0.052) tested the relationship between the use of games at work and job-related fatigue (H3), social support at work
(H4), and job control (H5). The model is based on the data of all 833 participants. All paths are significant at p<0.01.
464 REINECKE
and hassles in other contexts, such as leisure time and the
private domain.
Disclosure Statement
No competing financial interests exist.
References
1. Garrett RK, Danziger JN. On cyberslacking: workplace sta-
tus and personal Internet use at work. CyberPsychology &
Behavior 2008; 11:287–92.
2. Mastrangelo PM, Everton W, Jolton JA. Personal use of work
computers: distraction versus destruction. CyberPsychology
& Behavior 2006; 9:730–41.
3. Greenfield DN, Davis RA. Lost in cyberspace: the Web @
work. CyberPsychology & Behavior 2002; 5:347–53.
4. Garrett RK, Danziger JN. Disaffection or expected outcomes:
understanding personal Internet use during work. Journal of
Computer-Mediated Communication 2008; 13:937–58.
5. Eastin MS, Glynn CJ, Griffiths RP. Psychology of commu-
nication technology use in the workplace. CyberPsychology
& Behavior 2007; 10:436–43.
6. Oravec JA. Constructive approaches to Internet recreation in
the workplace. Communications of the ACM 2002; 45:60–3.
7. PopCap Games. (2007) Survey: tens of millions of ‘‘white
collar’’ workers play ‘‘casual’’ video games—one in four play
at work, and senior execs play even more. www.popcap.com=
press=release.php?gid ¼2007-09-04 (accessed June 1, 2009).
8. Reinecke L, Trepte S. In a working mood? The effects of
mood management processes on subsequent cognitive per-
formance. Journal of Media Psychology 2008; 20:3–14.
9. Sluiter JK, de Croon EM, Meijman TF, et al. Need for re-
covery from work related fatigue and its role in the devel-
opment and prediction of subjective health complaints.
Occupational & Environmental Medicine 2003; 60:i62–70.
10. Sonnentag S, Fritz C. The recovery experience questionnaire:
development and validation of a measure for assessing re-
cuperation and unwinding from work. Journal of Occupa-
tional Health Psychology 2007; 12:204–21.
11. Grodal T. (2000) Video games and the pleasures of control.
In Zillmann D, Vorderer P, eds. Media entertainment: the
psychology of its appeal. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 197–213.
12. Bryant J, Davies J. (2006) Selective exposure to video games.
In Vorderer P, Bryant J, eds. Playing video games: motives,
responses, and consequences. Mahwah: Erlbaum, pp. 181–94.
13. Zillmann D. (1991) Television viewing and physiological
arousal. In Bryant J, Zillmann D, eds. Responding to the screen:
reception and reaction processes. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, pp.
103–33.
14. Bessie
`re K, Seay F, Kiesler S. The ideal elf: identity explo-
ration in World of Warcraft. CyberPsychology & Behavior
2007; 10:530–5.
15. Klimmt C, Hartmann T. (2006) Effectance, self-efficacy, and
the motivation to play video games. In Vorderer P, Bryant J,
eds. Playing video games: motives, responses, and consequences.
Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 133–45.
16. van Veldhoven M, Broersen S. Measurement quality and
validity of the ‘‘need for recovery scale.’’ Occupational &
Environmental Medicine 2003; 60:i3–9.
17. Lazarus RS, Folkman S. (1984) Stress, appraisal and coping.
New York: Springer.
18. Schwarzer R, Knoll N. Functional roles of social support
within the stress and coping process: a theoretical and em-
pirical overview. International Journal of Psychology 2007;
42:243–52.
19. Jackson PR, Wall TD, Martin R, et al. New measures of job
control, cognitive demand and production responsibility.
Journal of Applied Psychology 1993; 78:753–62.
20. Pru
¨mper J, Hartmannsgruber K, Frese M. KFZA. Kurz-
fragebogen zur Arbeitsanalyse [KFZA. Short questionnaire
for job analysis]. Zeitschrift fu
¨r Arbeits-und Organisa-
tionspsychologie [Journal of Working and Organizational
Psychology] 1995; 39:125–32.
Address correspondence to:
Leonard Reinecke
Hamburg Media School
University of Hamburg
Finkenau 35
22081 Hamburg
Germany
E-mail: l.reinecke@hamburgmediaschool.com
GAMES AT WORK 465
