A Comparison of Blood Amino Acid Concentrations Following Ingestion of Rice and Whey Protein Isolate: A Double-Blind Crossover Study

Abstract

Background: This study investigated comparative concentrations of individual amino acids, total amino acids (TAA), non-essential amino acids (NEA) and essential amino acids (EAA) in the blood after the administration of Rice Protein Isolate (RPI) compared to Whey Protein Isolate (WPI). Methods: After a 12 hour overnight fast, 10 trained male subjects were randomly assigned to receive either 48 grams of RPI or WPI in a double-blind, crossover design, separated by a washout period of 7 days. Blood draws were taken immediately prior to, and at 1, 2, 3, and 4 hours following consumption of WPI or RPI. Pharmacokinetic parameters of plasma concentrations of amino acids were analyzed by a repeated measures ANOVA. AUC0-t, and Cmax were analyzed by t-tests. Results: WPI and RPI showed a significant difference between Tmax for essential amino acids (EAA: RPI 87 ± 7 min, WPI 67 ± 4 min, p=0.03), non-essential amino acids (NEA: RPI 97 ± 4 min, WPI 71 ± 5 min, p<0.001), and total amino acids (TA: RPI 93 ± 4 min, WPI 69 ± 3 min, p<0.001), however no significant differences were detected for AUC (EAA: RPI 649.5 ± 140.9 nmol/ml, WPI 754.2 ± 170.0 nmol/ml, p=0.64; NEA: RPI 592.7 ± 118.2 nmol/ml, WPI 592.7 ± 121.2 nmol/ml, p=0.98; TAA: RPI 615.9 ± 88.6 nmol/ml, WPI 661.1 ± 98.7 nmol/ml, p=0.74), and neither for Cmax (EAA: RPI 176.1 ± 37.5 nmol/ml, WPI 229.5 ± 51.2 nmol/ml, p=0.41; NEA: RPI 160.0 ± 31.1 nmol/ml, WPI 178.4 ± 34.0 nmol/ml, p=0.69; TA: RPI 166.6 ± 23.4 nmol/ml, WPI 199.3 ± 28.8 nmol/ml, p=0.38). On an individual amino acid basis, WPI was faster or equal for all amino acids with the excpetion of leucine, which reached Cmax faster in the RPI group. Conclusion: While RPI elicited a 6.8% lower total amino acid concentration in the blood based on AUC compared to WPI, the difference was not statistically significant. Future research should investigate additional time points and stable isotope labels to study digestion and effect on whole body net protein synthesis in relation to the used protein.

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A Comparison of Blood Amino Acid Concentrations Following Ingestion of
Rice and Whey Protein Isolate: A Double-Blind Crossover Study
Purpura M*1, Lowery RP2, Joy JM2, De Souza EO2, Kalman DS3, Jäger R1 and Wilson JM2
1Increnovo LLC, 2138 E Lafayette Pl, Milwaukee, WI 53202, USA
2Department of Health Sciences and Human Performance, the University of Tampa, USA
3Department of Nutrition and Endocrinology, Miami Research Associates, Miami, FL, USA
*Corresponding author: Purpura M, Increnovo LLC, 2138 E Lafayette Pl, Milwaukee, USA
Research Article Open Access
Abstract
Introduction
Background: is study investigated comparative concentrations of individual amino acids, total amino acids (TAA), non-essential
amino acids (NEA) and essential amino acids (EAA) in the blood aer the administration of Rice Protein Isolate (RPI) compared to
Whey Protein Isolate (WPI).
Citation: Purpura M, Lowery RP, Joy JM, De Souza EO, Kalman DS, et al. (2014) A Comparison of Blood
Amino Acid Concentrations Following Ingestion of Rice and Whey Protein Isolate: A Double-Blind
Crossover Study. J Nutr Health Sci 1(3): 306
Protein supplementation aer resistance exercise increases muscle protein synthesis (MPS) rates and reduces muscle protein
breakdown [1,2]. In this regard, competitive and recreational athletes habitually consume protein-containing supplements during
and/or aer exercise in order to augment gains in muscle mass accretion. In addition, athletes have the choice of a broad range of
animal derived protein sources like whey, casein, egg, beef, and sh, or plant derived protein sources like soy, rice, pea, hemp, chia
and axseed. e protein sources dier in numerous ways such as the presence of allergens (milk, soy), cholesterol, saturated fats,
digestion rate (fast, intermittent, slow absorption of amino acids), or the relative amount of individual amino acids. Compared to
animal protein sources, plant protein sources, with the exception of soy protein, are more oen decient in one or more essential
amino acids resulting in being qualied as an incomplete protein source. However, this decit can be overcome by blending
dierent plant protein sources, e.g. pea (low in methionine and cysteine) and rice (low in lysine), or by incorporating grains and
legumes in the athlete’s diet [3]. Dietary protein sources are broken down in the gastrointestinal tract by digestive enzymes into
the corresponding free amino acids and oligopeptides [4,5]. Nevertheless, the protein digestibility diers between protein sources
with animal proteins (whey protein concentrate 100% [6], casein 99% [6]) generally being better absorbed than plant proteins (soy
protein isolate 95% [6], pea 93.5% [7] or RPI 87% [8]).
Conclusion: While RPI elicited a 6.8% lower total amino acid concentration in the blood based on AUC compared to WPI, the
dierence was not statistically signicant. Future research should investigate additional time points and stable isotope labels to study
digestion and eect on whole body net protein synthesis in relation to the used protein.
Out of a total of twenty amino acids, eleven are classied as non-essential amino acids (NEAA) as they can be produced by the
human body. e remaining nine amino acids are classied as essential amino acids (EAA) as they must be provided exogenously
through the diet [9]. Protein quality is among the greatest concerns for today’s athletes and is generally dened as a proteins cap-
Methods: Aer a 12 hour overnight fast, 10 trained male subjects were randomly assigned to receive either 48 grams of RPI or WPI
in a double-blind, crossover design, separated by a washout period of 7 days. Blood draws were taken immediately prior to and at 1,
2, 3, and 4 hours following consumption of WPI or RPI. Pharmacokinetic parameters of plasma concentrations of amino acids were
analyzed by a repeated measure ANOVA. AUC0-t, and Cmax were analyzed by t-tests.
Results: WPI and RPI showed a signicant dierence between Tmax for essential amino acids (EAA: RPI 87 ± 7 min, WPI 67 ± 4 min,
p=0.03), non-essential amino acids (NEA: RPI 97 ± 4 min, WPI 71 ± 5 min, p<0.001), and total amino acids (TA: RPI 93 ± 4 min,
WPI 69 ± 3 min, p<0.001), however no signicant dierences were detected for AUC (EAA: RPI 649.5 ± 140.9 nmol/ml, WPI 754.2 ±
170.0 nmol/ml, p=0.64; NEA: RPI 592.7 ± 118.2 nmol/ml, WPI 592.7 ± 121.2 nmol/ml, p=0.98; TAA: RPI 615.9 ± 88.6 nmol/ml, WPI
661.1 ± 98.7 nmol/ml, p=0.74), and neither for Cmax (EAA: RPI 176.1 ± 37.5 nmol/ml, WPI 229.5 ± 51.2 nmol/ml, p=0.41; NEA: RPI
160.0 ± 31.1 nmol/ml, WPI 178.4 ± 34.0 nmol/ml, p=0.69; TA: RPI 166.6 ± 23.4 nmol/ml, WPI 199.3 ± 28.8 nmol/ml, p=0.38). On an
individual amino acid basis, WPI was faster or equal for all amino acids with the excpetion of leucine, which reached Cmax faster in the
RPI group.
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ISSN: 2393-9060

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Research on the physiological eects of rice protein has been limited due to the fact that the purication and enrichment of rice
protein, resulting in highly concentrated RPI, has been a technical challenge since the early 90’s [15]. RPI has been shown to display
anti-atherogenic potential, which was tested in comparison to soya-protein isolate and casein, in apolipoprotein E-decient mice
[16]. Phytochemicals bound to RPI have also been reported to show in vitro antitumor activities in rats [17]. In addition, RPI
has been demonstrated to improve lipid and glucose homeostasis in rats fed high fat/high cholesterol diets [18]. A recent study
compared the consumption of 48g of both WPI and RPI (isocaloric and isonitrogenous) aer 8 weeks of non-linear periodized
resistance training for the indices of body composition and exercise performance in resistance trained males [19]. e authors
demonstrated that high-dose RPI supplementation decreased fat-mass and increased lean body mass, skeletal muscle hypertrophy,
power and strength post resistance exercise comparable to WPI, indicating that potential dierences in protein quality become less
relevant if the protein is consumed in sucient amounts.
erefore, the current study investigated the eects of protein supplementation on concentrations of total amino acids (TAA),
non-essential amino acids (NEA) and essential amino acids (EAA) in the blood aer the administration of 48 grams of RPI in
comparison to WPI in a crossover, double-blind design.
Methods
Study Design
A double blind, two-period, two-sequence, crossover study was performed to assess the amino acid concentration in the blood
aer the administration of RPI and WPI from a fasted condition in trained male athletes. Participants were randomly assigned to
administer 48 grams of either RPI (Growing Naturals Rice Protein Isolate made with Oryzatein® rice protein, Axiom Foods, Oro
Valley, AZ, Lot #071612310) or WPI (Nutra Bio Whey Protein Isolate, Middlesex, NJ, Lot #219253D). Prior to the study, the amino
acid prole, crude protein content and moisture were analyzed by an independent third party lab (Eurons Analytical Laborato-
ries, Metairie, LA). On an as-is-basis, the test materials contained 6.64% (WPI) or 6.14% (RPI) moisture (air oven 130 0C method
AOAC 945.39) and 79.9% (WPI) or 69.3% (RPI) crude protein (combustion method AOAC 992.15). e amino acid prole of
each formulation is displayed in Table 1.
acity to provide essential amino acids (EAA) to an individual [10,11]. Branched-chain Amino Acids (BCAA), isoleucine, valine,
and leucine have been shown to stimulate muscle protein synthesis (MPS) at the same level as all nine EAA combined [12].
Leucine is the only BCAA that stimulates MPS alone [12,13]. Norton et al. suggest that leucine content is a direct indicator of
protein quality as it relates to acute stimulation of MPS [14]. erefore, leucine content of a protein should be emphasized when
evaluating the quality of protein for athletes. Specically whey protein is naturally rich in leucine (10-11%), whereas plant proteins
contain 6-8% of leucine.
Ten resistance trained male students currently enrolled at e University of Tampa volunteered for this study. e participants
were 22.2 ± 4.2 years of age, had an average bodyweight of 77.4 ± 0.6 kg, and an average height of 176.8 cm ± 8.6 cm. No subject
had any physical or medical health complications according to past health examinations and all subjects were non-smokers to be
included in this study. Participants were required to abstain from consuming any protein supplements for one month prior and
during the wash-out of seven days. e volunteers had to complete an overnight fast of 12 hours duration before the morning of
the study. is study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at e University of Tampa and each participant had signed
an informed consent before any study related procedures were performed.
e amino acids measured in the blood plasma consisted of the nine essential amino acids (histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine,
methionine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, threonine, and valine), as well as thirteen non-essential amino acids (alanine, arginine,
asparagine, aspartic acid, citrulline, cystine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, ornithine, proline, serine, and tyrosine). Amino
acid concentrations were measured in the blood plasma prior to the oral administration of RPI or WPI to establish baseline
measurements. All amino acid concentrations were then tested by taking blood plasma samples at 1 hour, 2 hours, 3 hours, and
4 hours following either consumption of RPI or WPI protein supplements. e second period began aer a seven day wash-out
period and initial blood test was completed once again to reassess the concentration of each amino acid in the blood plasma prior
to taking the protein supplement that the subject had not already consumed. Measurement of amino acid plasma concentrations
were then done consecutively in the same manner as the previous week in the pattern of 1 hour, 2 hours, 3 hours, and 4 hours.
e WPI and RPI supplements were matched to be isonitrogenous and isocaloric and were consumed as a liquid formulation by
mixing the individual protein powder with 500 ml of water. Aer a one-week washout period, the experiment was repeated with
the subjects consuming the other formulation. e identity of the study proteins that were given to the participants remained
unknown to both the participants and the researchers for the entirety of the study.
Subjects
Measurement of Amino Acids

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Blood draws throughout the study were obtained via venipuncture aer a 12-hour fast by a trained phlebotomist. Whole blood
was collected and transferred into Becton Dickinson (BD) 8.5 ml tubes (BD Vacutainer SST) for obtaining serum and plasma and
subsequently centrifuged at 1,500 g for 15 min at 4 °C. Resulting serum and plasma were then aliquoted and stored at -80 °C until
subsequent analyses.
Phenomenex EZ: fast amino acid analysis kits (Torrance, CA) were used for liquid chromatographic analysis of amino acids
using mass spectrometry (LC/MS). e procedure consisted of solid phase extraction of 25 µl of plasma by a sorbent tip attached
to a syringe with an eluting solvent (a 3:2 mixture of sodium hydroxide with 77% n-propanol, and 23% 3-picoline). e free
amino acids were then derivatized by adding a mixture of 17.4% propyl chloroformate, 11% isooctane, and 71.6% chloroform.
e resulting mixture was vortexed and allowed to sit at room temperature for 1 min, followed by liquid-liquid extraction with
isooctane. 50 µl of the organic layer was removed, dried under nitrogen gas, and suspended in the HPLC run solvent before being
injected into the LC/MS. Chromatographic separation of the derivatized amino acids was conducted on an EZ: fast amino acid
analysis-mass spectrometry column (250 × 2.0 mm i.d., 4 μm) using a Agilent 6460 triple quadrupole LC/MS system (Santa Clara,
CA). 10 mM ammonium formate in water (mobile phase A) and 10 mM ammonium formate in methanol (mobile phase B) were
used as solvent system with gradient conditions of 68% B (0 minutes) and 83% B (13 minutes) and a ow rate of 0.25 ml/min.
Amino acids and internal standard data were collected using the Dynamic MRM mode using Mass Hunter acquisition soware
(Agilent). Mass Hunter Quantitation soware (Agilent) was used to quantitate the unknown plasma samples based on linear
standard curves.
Data Analysis
A repeated measure ANOVA was performed to test dierences in the plasma concentrations for all 22 amino acids. e area under
the concentration vs. time curve (AUC) was calculated using the linear trapezoidal rule from time zero until the last time point of
sampling t (AUC0-t). Cmin and Cmax were dened as the minimum and maximum observed concentrations, respectively. tmax was
the time at which Cmax was reached. AUC of the ve conditions were compared and analyzed by paired-samples t-tests. A P-value
<0.05 was considered statistically signicant. Analyses were performed with the SPSS soware package version 16.0 for Windows.
Results are expressed as mean ± standard error (SE).
Results
ere were signicant dierences between WPI and RPI for Tmax for EAA, NEAA, and TAA, however, no signicant dierences
were detected for AUC and Cmax (Table 1) (Figure 1, 2 and 3).
RPIWPIAmino Acid [mg/g of Protein]
4047Alanine
5720Arginine
64100Aspartic Acid
1521Cystine
129163Glutamic Acid
3216Glycine
1615Histidine
3060Isoleucine
5998Leucine
2387Lysine
2120Methionine
3928Phenylalanine
3455Proline
3747Serine
2665reonine
1019Tryptophan
3527Tyrosine
4355Valine
Table 1: Amino acid prole of the study materials [19]

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Figure 1: EAA Time Curve and AUC
Figure 2: NEAA Time Curve and AUC.
Figure 3: TAA Time Curve and AUC

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On an individual amino acid basis, WPI and RPI showed bioequivalency (0.80-1.25 of the geometric mean ratio (GMR)) for AUC
and Cmax for all amino acids with the exception of cystine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, and threonine, in which WPI demonstrated
signicantly higher values than RPI. Tmax occurred rapidly for WPI, indicative of a fast absorption rate, while Tmax for RPI occurred
moderately fast, but slower than WPI for absorption rate for histidine, phenylalanine, threonine, asparagine, glutamic acid, glycine,
ornithine, proline, and serine, suggesting that RPI is an intermediate protein (Table 2, 3 and 4).
P- Va l u eWheyRice
EAA
0.64754.2 ± 169.9649.5 ± 140.9AUC [nmol/ml]
0.41229.5± 51.2176.1± 37.6Cmax [nmol/ml]
*0.0367± 487± 7Tmax [min]
NEAA
0.98596.6 ± 121.2592.7 ± 118.2AUC [nmol/ml]
0.69178.4± 34.0160.0± 31.1Cmax [nmol/ml]
*0.0069±397±4Tmax [min]
TAA
0.74661.1± 98.7615.9± 88.6AUC [nmol/ml]
0.39199.3± 28.8166.6± 23.4Cmax [nmol/ml]
*0.0069± 393± 4Tmax [min]
Table 2: Cumulative Bioavailability of Essential and Non-Essential
Amino Acids. Data expressed as Geometric Mean ± SEM. *Represents
signicance at an alpha of 0.05.
UCLLCLWPIRPIAmino Acid
Histidine
1.071.08683.9 ± 39.8738.1 ± 37.2AUC [nmol/ml]
1.01.98190.9 ± 7.2191.6 ± 10.0Cmax [nmol/ml]
2.502.8152 ± 7137 ± 10Tmax [min]
Isoleucine
.77.71424.4 ± 31.5317.5 ± 37.0AUC
.70.59144.0 ± 5.892.7 ± 11.7Cma x
1.08.8373 ± 171 ± 10Tmax
Leucine
.77.77769.9 ± 50.8597.9 ± 38.5AUC
.70.68240.7± 12.8167.2 ± 12.1Cmax
.71.8085 ± 467 ± 2Tmax
Lysine
.76.791,755.0 ± 101.51,367.4 ± 60.8AUC
.67.69533.6 ± 36.1364.8 ± 19.7Cmax
1.101.0064 ± 368 ± 7Tmax
Methionine
.81.84163.7 ± 17.1135.5 ± 11.9AUC
.68.7554.2 ± 6.838.8 ± 3.0Cmax
1.221.2263 ± 277 ± 3Tmax
Phenylalanine
1.161.18226.6 ± 12.7264.8 ± 11.9AUC
1.071.0666.8 ± 3.771.3 ± 4.0Cmax
1.741.7247 ± 682 ± 11Tmax

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UCLLCLWPIRPIAmino Acid
Tryptophan
.81.87659.8 ± 69.4556.5 ± 40.9AUC
.73.79199.1 ± 23.2152.0 ± 11.8Cmax
1.281.1277 ± 293 ± 4Tmax
reonine
.76.79778.7 ± 53.5609.7 ± 30.1AUC
.67.70236.9 ± 18.6163.6 ± 9.1Cmax
1.601.4264 ± 097 ± 6Tmax
Valine
.97.921,326.0 ± 69.81,257.7 ± 98.6AUC
.89.82399.2 ± 19.4343.4 ± 29.9Cmax
1.181.2477 ± 494 ± 2Tmax
Table 3: Pharmacokinetic Parameters of individual EAAs
UCLLCLWhey ProteinRice ProteinAmino Acid
Alanine
.98.96850.0 ± 62.4830.1 ± 68.5 AUC [nmol/ml]
.90.87250.5 ± 15.4223.8 ± 17.8 Cmax [nmol/ml]
1.261.1177 ± 492 ± 11 Tmax [min]
Arginine
1.191.23524.8 ± 43.2636.9 ± 40.7AUC
1.091.07168.4 ± 11.9183.6 ± 14.7Cmax
1.371.3656 ± 077 ± 0Tmax
Asparagine
.89.91669.0 ± 55.7606.5 ± 44.6AUC
.82.79199.7 ± 15.2161.9 ± 14.4Cmax
1.671.8864 ± 8113 ± 8Tmax
Aspartic Acid
.91.8524.6 ± 3.7 22.0 ± 4.1AUC
.70.698.9 ± 1.76.2 ± 1.2Cmax
1.261.0778 ± 892 ± 17Tmax
Citrulline
.89.9598.8 ± 16.191.0 ± 12.2AUC
.73.8932.4 ± 6.225.4 ± 2.5Cmax
.98.95116 ± 2113 ± 4Tmax
Cystine
.76.69122.7 ± 19.590.5 ± 18.6AU C
.66.5840.1 ± 6.125.4 ± 5.3Cmax
1.21.3368 ± 486 ± 0Tmax
Glutamic Acid
.81.86182.3 ± 56.6151.9 ± 19.4AUC
.69.6266.9 ± 6.644.2 ± 6.6Cmax
1.841.0953 ± 479 ± 26Tmax

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Main results
e primary ndings from this investigation were that RPI showed a non-statistically signicant 6.8% lower total amino acid
concentration in the blood compared to WPI in resistance trained athletes. Amino acids reached peak concentrations slower aer
RPI administration in comparison to the fast absorbed WPI, with the exception of leucine, a key amino acid for MPS.
e current study demonstrated that amino acids as found in RPI are bioavailable and positively impact circulating blood levels
of respective amino acids. e observed slow rise in the rate of appearance of amino acids with the RPI is consistent with other
non-meat, non-dairy proteins [20,21]. While research has indicated whey protein is fast absorbing and casein protein slower
absorbing, when examined by change or rise in circulating amino acids values, the data also indicates protein in general, especially
leucine-containing protein will stimulate MPS to occur. At this time there is no conclusive data if a “fast” or a “slower” absorbing
protein will dierently aect the translation of stimulated muscle protein synthesis to new actual muscle deposition. While some
studies indicate that the overall amount of MPS observed aer a bolus of protein is not drastically dierent if the protein is a fast
or a slow protein [22], some studies show that the digestion rate of proteins inuences protein turnover and how amino acids
support protein synthesis [23]. Recent evidence suggests that dierences in the rate of absorption of dierent proteins can aect
the amplitude and possibly duration of MPS and that this eect is possibly accentuated with resistance exercise [24]. e fast
absorbed whey protein increases mixed muscle protein fractional synthetic rate at rest and aer resistance exercise to a greater
extent when compared to the slow absorbed casein [24].
Table 4: Pharmacokinetic Parameters of individual NEAAs
UCLLCLWhey ProteinRice ProteinAmino Acid
Glutamine
.95.991,484.2 ± 82.71,439.9 ± 52.3AUC
.90.92406.9 ± 21.5373.2 ± 15.6Cmax
1.32.9661 ± 470 ± 15Tmax
Glycine
1.191.17703.9 ± 39.8833.3 ± 53.6AUC
1.101.06201.8 ± 13.8218.9 ± 11.4Cmax
2.542.5765 ± 29109 ± 14Tmax
Ornithine
1.031.04602.2 ± 49.7622.7 ± 49.6AUC
.99.88180.4 ± 9.7169.1 ± 18.5Cmax
2.002.1453 ± 2109 ± 1Tmax
Proline
.92.911,263.2 ± 70.11,159.5 ± 71.7AUC
.84.82374.8 ± 19.1313.7 ± 19.0Cmax
1.651.5465 ± 0104 ± 3Tmax
Serine
.931.00642.6 ± 68.1618.1 ± 43.4AU C
.79.79211.5 ± 19.3167.6 ± 15.70Cmax
2.102.2286 ± 31109 ± 7Tmax
Tyrosine
1.001.04588.1 ± 58.0603.2 ± 47.0AUC
.91.97176.9 ± 19.1167.1 ± 13.2Cmax
1.421.1781 ± 7104 ± 16Tmax
Discussion
Absorption Kinetics

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Slow absorbed casein showed a stronger satiating eect and subsequent reduced food intake compared to whey when consumed
as a preload to a meal [25]. erefore, the slower overall absorption kinetics makes RPI an interesting candidate for future satiety
studies.
Conclusion
Our data, would classify RPI as a medium to slow absorbing protein, which is in line with other non-meat/non-dairy proteins. In
fact, we recently found that when protein supplementation was combined with a structured resistance training program, that over
a 12-week period, study participants, whether randomized to receive the RPI or WPI in an isonitrogenous setting, experienced the
same amount of muscle growth, revealing that the RPI was just as good as the well-established WPI at positively impacting muscle
protein synthesis and overtime, actual muscle accretion [19]. While TAA for WPI reached its maximum concentration aer 69±
3 min, RPI was signicantly slower (93± 4 min). On an individual amino acid basis, WPI was faster or equal for all amino acids
with the excpetion of leucine, which reached Cmax faster in the RPI group. ese unique absorption kinetics might be an additional
explanation why 8 weeks of high-dose WPI or RPI supplementation in combination with resistance exercise training showed no
dierence between groups in improving body composition and exercise performance [19].
AUC
e digestibility (87%) and biological value (51%) of RPI [7] is inferior to WPI (100%, and 100% respectively). Considering
the 13% dierence in digestibility or 49% dierence biological value we expected to observe signicance dierences in TAA
levels. However, RPI showed a non-signicant 6.8% lower TAA concentration in the blood based on AUC in comparison to
WPI. e non-signicant dierences in AUC corroborate the recent ndings of Joy et al. that 8 weeks of high-dose WPI or RPI
supplementation in combination with resistance exercise did not result in signicant dierences in body composition and exercise
performance [19]. Using low-dose supplementation strategies, the amounts of RPI might need to be adjusted to reach optimal
MPS in combination with resistance exercise in comparison to WPI to adjust for the lower amount of leucine.
Strength of the study
e cross-over design is a robust study design since the same experimental units (e.g. subjects) are given both treatments therefore
eliminating inter-subject variability between subjects. In the present study there was no missing data from the attrition of
participants throughout the study as each participant completed the crossover for both treatments. e intra-subject coecient of
variation for Cmax were 2.3%-6.2% (mean=4.4%) for the essential amino acids and 2.0%-10.0% (mean=5.9%) for the non-essential
amino acids. e intra-subject coecient of variations for AUC were 3.5%-7.3% (mean=4.9%) for the essential amino acids and
1.9-12.7% (mean=6.6%) for the non-essential amino acids. e low coecient of variation concludes that there is greater than 90%
power of determining bioequivalence [26].
Limitations
As there is currently no information available on the protein absorption of RPI, we used a rather simplistic way to gather rst
data on the eects of RPI administration in comparison to WPI. A major limitation of this study in regards to MPS is that plasma
concentrations do not directly relate to protein synthesis and breakdown. If a protein induces a higher protein synthesis, then
the increase in plasma concentrations will be lower and if endogenous protein breakdown is inhibited more by a protein, the
increase will be lower. e processes of ingestion, gastric emptying, proteolytic cleavage, gut transport, and splanchnic metabolism
(primarily hepatic clearance) encompass ‘digestion’ but these processes are complex to measure with intact proteins and require
multiple tracers. At this point, we can only speculate as to whether concentrations are due to faster digestion, greater uptake, or
utilization. Future studies should include additional time points to reect the dierent speed of appearance in the blood (0.5 hours,
6 and 8 hours).
RPI showed a non-signicant 6.8% lower total amino acid concentration in the blood based on AUC when compared to WPI.
Time to reach peak concentrations was slower with RPI in comparison to WPI, with the exception of leucine, a key amino acid in
MPS. Future research should investigate the eects RPI on muscle protein synthesis and breakdown.
Acknowledgement
e authors would like to thank a dedicated group of subjects. e authors would like to thank Increnovo LLC, Milwaukee, WI,
for funding this research.
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