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Trends in research related to “Shinrin-yoku” (taking in the forest atmosphere or forest bathing) in Japan
Abstract
"Shinrin-yoku", which can be defined as "taking in the forest atmosphere or forest bathing", has been receiving increasing attention in Japan in recent years for its capacity to provide relaxation and reduce stress. Since 2004, the authors of this paper have been involved in an investigation designed to ascertain the physiological effects of "Shinrin-yoku" within the framework of the "Therapeutic Effects of Forests" project. We have conducted physiological experiments, both in actual forests and in the laboratory, to elucidate the physiological effects on individuals of exposure to the total environment of forests or to only certain elements of this environment, such as the odor of wood, the sound of running stream water, and the scenery of the forest. We have obtained physiological measurements of central nervous activity, autonomic nervous activity, and biomarkers reflecting stress response that can be applied in this line of approach. Using these measurements, we have summarized the separate elements of forests in terms of the five senses. We have also reviewed a selection of field studies and introduced a number of results from ongoing projects as well as those from early studies. Future perspectives are also discussed.
... Sound and light levels were also measured with an iPhone 12 using the LUX Light Meter FREE (Version 1.1.1 2 November 2016) and Sound Level Analyzer Lite (Version 6.0.2 9 January 2022) applications. Similar applications have been used in other studies by Tsunetsugu et al. [34], and they meet standards comparable to professional laboratory equipment for sound analysis. Sound and light were measured at each exposure point before, 2× during, and immediately after completing the psychological test questionnaire. ...
... Both passive exposure to the forest and moderate physical activity, such as walking or slow cycling, can contribute to a decrease in negative feelings and an increase in positive feelings. Previous research clearly showed that short walks in the forest are followed by a significant decrease in negative feelings [34]. In addition, Takayama et al. [40] showed that a decrease in negative feelings was accompanied by an increase in positive feelings. ...
... We conducted our research in early spring, when nature was just waking up. We previously pointed out in earlier works [34,51] that certain landscape features associated with time variability (e.g., autumn leaf discoloration, snow, or a certain light level in the forest) can impinge on perceived recovery. However, as Joung et al. [52] rightly pointed out, evidence for this is sparse. ...
Recently, many studies have been conducted on the impact of various elements of the natural environment, including forests, on human physical and mental health. However, little is known about the level of health benefits resulting from contact with forests depending on the type of physical activity undertaken. Therefore, in order to measure the impact of physical activity on the level of mental relaxation, a randomized experiment was conducted, which took into account three types of human physical activity: walking, cycling, and passive (without movement) observation of the forest. The study was carried out in the same forest and at the same time. Forty young people studying in Warsaw took part in the study. Four psychological questionnaires were used in the project before and after the experiment (Profile of Mood States, Schedule of Positive and Negative Affects, Recovery Scale, Subjective Vitality Scale). A pre-test was also performed in a university classroom. Research has shown that staying in the forest, regardless of the type of physical activity, brings positive health benefits in the form of an increase in positive feelings while reducing negative feelings. The results indicate that people who walk have the broadest range of benefits (cumulative benefits), in the form of less tension, reduced anger, fatigue, depression, increased concentration and greater vigor. Cyclists experienced significant benefits only in the form of reduced depression and greater vigor. The group passively observing the forest achieved statistically significant benefits only in terms of reducing fatigue and improving concentration. However, overall, the between-group results showed no statistically significant differences between the restorative effects of walking, cycling, and viewing the forest landscape. Each analyzed form of contact with the forest has a regenerating/regenerating effect (ROS scale) and contributes to the increase in vitality (SVS scale).
... The lockdown measures imposed during the pandemic led to heightened stress and feelings of isolation, disrupting daily routines and impacting individual and community well-being [41][42][43]. Prior research emphasizes that large natural areas, such as forests and urban woodlands, exert a significant positive influence on recovery and stress relief, making them ideal ecosystems for promoting mental well-being and aiding in stress recovery [44][45][46][47][48][49][50], which became especially crucial during the lockdowns. ...
The role of public urban green spaces (UGSs) in providing various ecosystem services, especially those related to the physical and mental health of city dwellers, has increased during the COVID-19 pandemic. While research has analyzed shifts in UGS visitation and changes in people’s attitudes, there remains a noticeable gap in our understanding of the necessary adaptations required within UGS environments. This paper presents the survey results of Vilnius city residents (Lithuania) conducted in the final days of the quarantine in 2021 and discusses the findings in the broader context of other studies. The survey is centered on preferences for UGS qualities clustered into four groups. The results provide empirical evidence that UGS users highly prioritize ergonomic and ecological characteristics related to comfort and naturalness. However, the preferences differ between those who live close to UGS and those who live further away. In contrast, aesthetic and social qualities are of relatively lesser significance for all. Similar preferences have been identified in international studies, underscoring the global nature of this phenomenon that urban planners must consider when designing or enhancing local UGS.
... Thus, from the very beginning, the practice had support among policy makers. This support is reflected in the large body of research on forest bathing produced by Japanese scholars, many of whom are affiliated with agricultural research institutions (for an overview, see Tsunetsugu et al. 2009). ...
The practice of shinrin-yoku, usually translated as forest bathing, originated in Japan in the 1980s. In the last decade, practices under this label have spread rapidly in Western countries, and since 2016, it is established in Sweden. Henrik Ohlsson has followed its development in Sweden through connections with leading practitioners, interviews, and participant observations. In Western and Nordic contexts, the practice finds itself as part of a wider movement on the junctions between wellbeing and green activism, and between medical science and holistic philosophy. Forest bathing, as it is practiced here, thus includes strong influences from many other sources besides Japanese shinrin-yoku, among which is at least one more source of arguably Eastern origin: that of mindfulness. One important development in the Swedish (or generally Western) context which distinguishes it from the Japanese context is its increasing politicisation and explicit association with radical green ideologies. This chapter has two main purposes. The first is to describe and discuss the establishment of shinrin-yoku in Sweden. The other is to understand why and how it becomes politicised in this context. A key appears to lie in how embodiment and sensory attention are construed as a break with what is seen as a Western paradigm of disconnection.
... Other research was devoted to studying the relationship of sensory channels other than vision, with nature. The sense of smell has been particularly deepened by the Japanese school of Shinrin-yoku, or forest bathing [54][55][56] . Japan has a long historical and spiritual tradition of connecting with the natural elements, and plants have very special meanings in that culture. ...
The biophilia hypothesis is critically approached in the context of evolutionary psychology, adaptation of the sensory systems and application to sustainable and urban planning, namely in the field of urban green spaces. From an evolutionary perspective, our biophilic tendencies are generally accepted and interpreted as an adaptation to natural environments, where the ability to connect with, and understand habitats and other living beings, was crucial to our survival. This statement is critically addressed by the paper, through a narrative review, namely by discussing biophilia and biphobia as general and specific adaptations, with different learning properties. Nevertheless, research on the health effects of the perceptive systems points to special selected mechanisms internal to the general biophilic adaptation. Criticism of the biophilia hypothesis is explored. The paper concludes by pointing to the importance of urban green spaces, both for the development of the biophilic predispositions and for sustainability and regenerative approaches in the cities.
... Open-air meditation and yoga in natural settings promote relaxation, stress reduction, and self-awareness. By incorporating these ecotherapy methods, individuals can experience the therapeutic benefits of nature, leading to a greater sense of harmony and well-being (Van den Berg & Custers, 2011;Fine, 2015;Annerstedt et al., 2013;Sobo et al., 2016;Soga et al., 2017;Tsunetsugu et al., 2017;Priest & Marsden, 2018;Laudenslager et al., 2018;Gonzalez et al., 2018;Bandoroff et al., 2019;Ochiai et al., 2019) The integration of ecotherapy into ecosystem service management represents a promising approach that recognizes the interdependent relationship between human well-being and the natural environment. Ecosystem services, which encompass the benefits that ecosystems provide to society, have gained increasing attention in environmental management and policy (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). ...
Ecotherapy is a therapeutic approach that aims to improve individuals' mental health through interaction with the natural environment. The tranquility, serenity, and stress-reducing potential provided by the natural environment make ecotherapy a significant tool in terms of health and well-being. The integration of ecotherapy into ecosystem service management has gained recognition as a valuable approach to enhance human well-being through nature-based therapeutic interventions. This study examines the effects of ecotherapy on health and the role of ecotherapy as part of ecosystem services. It highlights the significance of ecosystem services in the relationship between nature and human health, emphasizing the benefits derived from natural resources and ecosystems. The therapeutic potential of ecotherapy is explored, showcasing its effectiveness in promoting physical, mental, and emotional well-being. Various ecotherapy methods are discussed as effective ways to connect with nature and experience its healing effects. The study further highlights the importance of integrating ecotherapy into ecosystem service management, emphasizing the need for a holistic approach that considers the interdependence between ecological and human dimensions. The conclusion emphasizes the potential of this integration to support sustainable development, conservation, and a deeper appreciation for the benefits of nature.
... The edge effect is the increased population density and diversity of species where two adjacent ecosystems overlap [83]. The forest's restorative nature may be due to its greater plant variety and density [84]. More surrounding vegetation can create a visually stimulating environment, enhancing recovery [14]. ...
Previous research has consistently shown that exposure to natural environments provides a variety of health benefits. The purpose of this study is to investigate the restorative benefits of non-virtual environments in field experiments as well as the differences in physiological and psychological effects between different types of restorative sites for stressed young adults. This controlled study design used the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), electroencephalogram (EEG), and heart rate variability (HRV) as psychophysiological indicators of individual affect and stress. We used a "stress imposition-greenspace recovery" pre-and post-test mode to simulate the most realistic short-term recovery experience in the park (Grassplots, Square, Forest, and Lakeside) under relatively free conditions. The experimental results show that all four natural spaces in the park have some degree of recovery. However, there were discernible differences in the restorative effects of four selected natural sites. Lakeside and Forest demonstrated the most robust restorative properties in terms of both negative emotion reduction and positive emotion enhancement. In contrast, Square showed the weakest facilitation of recovery, while Grassplots promoted moderate resilience. Physiologically, we found that the EEG-α% of the Square was significantly lower than the EEG-α% of the Forest (t = −3.56, p = 0.015). This means that stressed young adults were much more relaxed in the forest than in the paved square. The study answers which types of natural spaces, when considered together, would provide greater restorative benefits to stressed young people participating in natural therapies in urban parks. The study's policy implications include the need to create more green natural spaces, especially forests with multiple plant levels, as well as to improve the restorative nature of urban parks through appropriate landscape space design.
The benefits of exposure to nature for human health and wellbeing have been evidenced throughout history and across global civilisations. However, research on nature and place-based interventions for human health often centres around a reactive healthcare model rather than fully considering the cultural and historical scope of holistic approaches to health. Adopting a context-setting approach, the article signposts readers to periods, places, and practices which have exemplified or advanced our collective global understanding of health and place. This narrative review demonstrates how different disciplines and cultural knowledges can provide a foundation to develop nature-based interventions and further curiosity to learn from other practices. The COVID-19 pandemic has changed how some people connect with their environments and consider global health. There is now an opportunity to reflect on and ethically engage with different practices and approaches to transition towards a more sustainable future which integrates landscape planning with health promotion.
In order to make the space design of a comfortable bathing in the forest atmosphere (BIFA), it is important to investigate the effect to a human body first and then the characters of many physical factors constituting the forest space. In this paper we research and analyze physical factors constituting the elements of BIFA, especially light intensity and thermal effect. To make clear the effect of BIFA, this experiment was done in the forest [Seiwa Residents' Woodland] and the city [Chiba City] respectively at the same time. The subjects of this experiment are twelve, and the results were recorded by rating to some evaluation scales, and data are compared from the viewpoint of comfortableness. From this result, we can clearly notice psychological and physiological effects at the case of forest. In the mountainside of a village in summer under the fine sky, the values of the light intensity were subjectively seemed to be the same as in the city though the real intensity was 1/22 of the city. Moreover, at the case of thermal effect, we surely understand that it is cooler and more comfortable in the forest than in the city from the resulting data through the whole day.
We have developed a three-wavelength (759,797, and 833 nm) time-resolved
spectroscopy (TRS) system as a tissue oxygenation monitor employing a
time-correlated single photon counting method. This system achieved a
high data acquisition rate and system miniaturization maintaining a high
sensitivity and time resolution. Our system succeeded in accurately
measuring concentrations of oxy-(HbO2) and deoxyhemoglobin
(Hb) by means of TRS data observation through studies using a phantom
model and living tissue.
Research and teaching in environmental health have centered on the hazardous effects of various environmental exposures, such as toxic chemicals, radiation, and biological and physical agents. However, some kinds of environmental exposures may have positive health effects. According to E.O. Wilson’s “biophilia” hypothesis, humans are innately attracted to other living organisms. Later authors have expanded this concept to suggest that humans have an innate bond with nature more generally. This implies that certain kinds of contact with the natural world may benefit health. Evidence supporting this hypothesis is presented from four aspects of the natural world: animals, plants, landscapes, and wilderness. Finally, the implications of this hypothesis for a broader agenda for environmental health, encompassing not only toxic outcomes but also salutary ones, are discussed. This agenda implies research on a range of potentially healthful environmental exposures, collaboration among professionals in a range of disciplines from public health to landscape architecture to city planning, and interventions based on research outcomes.
A newly devised procedure of time series analysis, which is a linearized version of the nonlinear least squares method combined with the maximum entropy spectral analysis method, was proposed and applied to the annual sunspot number data from 1700 to 1991. Multiple periodicities of the temporal variation were elucidated in detail. The solar cycle of a 11.04-year period accompanied with the solar cycle multiplets, the periods of 50.41 years, the so-called ``Yoshimura cycle'', and 107.11 years corresponding to the cycle of century-scale minima, for example, were clearly observed. The optimum least squares fitting curve for the data was extended over the past two millennia and the next millennium. The past grand minima such as the Maunder minimum were confirmed in the past extrapolation curve, and the next centennial minimum was predicted to occur between 2000 and 2030.
The authors report further evidence bearing on the relations among restorative experiences, self-regulation, and place attachment. University students (n = 101) described their favorite places and experiences in them, and 98 other students described unpleasant places. Natural settings were overrepresented among favorite places and underrepresented among the unpleasant places. In open-ended accounts, frequent mention of being relaxed, being away from everyday life, forgetting worries, and reflecting on personal matters indicated a link between favorite places and restorative experience. Restoration was particularly typical of natural favorite places. Structured evaluations of being away, fascination, coherence, and compatibility indicated they were experienced to a high degree in the favorite places, although fascination to a lesser degree than compatibility. The favorite and unpleasant places differed substantially in all four restorative qualities but especially in being away and compatibility. Self-referencing appears to be more characteristic of favorite place experiences than engaging or interesting environmental properties.
Urban forest parks provide a wide range of experience outcomes to visitors. However, there is too little scientifically documented knowledge of the outcomes of the use. This study was conducted to identify visitors' psychosocial outcomes from urban forest park use, and to examine whether or not the visitors' psychosocial outcomes were related to some personal variables. Structured surveys were conducted with 2292 urban forest park visitors in six cities across South Korea during the summer and autumn of 2003. Examination of park experience outcomes revealed that there were three factors of outcomes: “learning and self/other relations”, “social and self-development” and “enjoying nature”. The results also indicated that older and more highly educated visitors were more likely to rate the outcomes as important than those who were younger and less educated. There were no significant differences in the outcomes between male and female visitors.
Windows have been found to be a particularly salient feature of the workplace, not only as a matter of preference but also for health and well-being. Depending on what is in the view, looking out of the window may provide numerous opportunities for restoration. This study investigated the effect of window views on job satisfaction and stress. The impact of two specific influencing mechanisms was examined: existence of forest views through windows in workplaces, and absence of forest views through windows in workplaces. The sample consisted of 931 office workers in Seoul, South Korea, 481 who could see forest views from their workplaces and 450 who could not see forest views. A set of self-administered questionnaires including job satisfaction and job stress measures was distributed to the sample from April to September 2004. The results showed a significant direct effect of forest views from windows on job satisfaction and stress. Respondents' personal information such as gender, age and job category did not influence on the window view effects. As expected, employees' job satisfaction and job stress were highly and negatively correlated.