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Blaise Pascal, 1623-1662
Space and time are geometrical notions that Sophie Germain, a French mathematician, discusses on several occasions in her Pensées diverses, however not only in a geometrical way but also in terms of a philosophical and moral understanding: she speaks of a human’s lifespan, the space they occupy, their place in creation and the knowledge toward which they always aim. This mixture of mathematical and philosophical thinking brings out Germain’s dream: she wants to apply the language of numbers to moral and political issues. As such this chapter aims to examine Germain’s mathematical understanding of space and time in order to discover her moral theory. Furthermore, in a purely hypothetical context (because one does not know which authors she has read), I compare Germain’s moral thinking to Pascal’s moral and mathematical thoughts in Pensées. We underline the possible inspiration by Pascal by highlighting the similarities between these authors concerning space and time, which both treat mathematically and philosophically. These authors agree that time and space can be measured, and thus provide constant and mathematically uniform elements. At the same time, time and space provide the framework for moral thinking. The latter is not “capable” of enjoying the present moment; he is on a quest for the future. For Germain, this results into knowledge, but for Pascal, this is a sign of an unhappy life in which people do not find rest and are constantly looking for a diversion.
Pascal's law or Pascal's principle, enunciated almost 400 years ago, has been of utmost importance in a wide variety of scientific and engineering disciplines. Currently physics textbooks describe Pascal's law as follows: "A change in the pressure applied to an enclosed incompressible fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of its container." Such phenomenon can be explained based on the propagation of external forces at a molecular level via intermolecular repulsion (following Newton's third law of motion). In the case of gases, such propagation of forces does not take place directly, although external forces do influence the pressure of a gas by changing the momentum of the molecules hitting the walls. There is, therefore, a relationship not necessarily identical to that stated in Pascal's law. However, under certain conditions, Pascal's law remains as a fairly good approximation for gases. For example, the International Standard Atmosphere model has assumed that the atmosphere is an ideal gas following Pascal's law, with satisfactory results.
Auch Frankreich blieb im 16. Jahrhundert von religiösen Verwerfungen nicht verschont. Die katholische Hofpartei unter der
Familie Guise stand um 1560 unversöhnlich gegen die führenden Protestanten des Landes, um Einfluss auf den noch minderjährigen
König Franz II. zu erlangen. Die Mutter des jungen Königs war Katharina von Medici, die sich um den Ausgleich beider Parteien
bemühte und von dem 1560 berufenen Kanzler Michel de l’Hôpital unterstützt wurde, der bereits religiöse Toleranz einforderte.
Von außen mischte sich der spanische König Philipp II. ein, der sich Sorgen um die Ausbreitung der „Ketzerei“ in Frankreich
machte. Unterstützung erhielt er durch die Jesuiten. Am 17. Januar 1562 erließ Katharina gegen alle Widerstände das Edikt
von Saint-Germain, in dem den französischen Protestanten erstmals eine rechtliche Existenzsicherheit gegeben wurde. Leider
folgte dem Edikt eine mehr als 30jährige Phase der Religionsfehden und -kriege. Insgesamt zählt die Geschichtsschreibung acht
Religionskriege zwischen 1562 und 1598.
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